Global Humanities

and Social Change

Week 6
Today we will:
• Think about the meaning of “enlightenment” from text to text.
• Discuss Fukuzawa Yukichi’s passion for “civilization and
enlightenment.”
• Look at the world of Fukuzawa Yukichi and Kotoku Shusui
• Think about the relationship between empire and civilization.
Warm-up Question (1)
• What is “civilization”? What does it mean to you?
Warm-up Question (2)
• Agree or disagree:
Knowledge makes the world a better place.
 Part 1
“Enlightenment” and “Civilization” from text to text
True or False:
1. In Plato’s “allegory of the cave,” daylight reveals the “true forms” of
objects.
2. In the allegory of the cave, the light of the sun represents the
teacher who gives true knowledge to students.
The divine as source of knowledge;
Knowledge as divine.
From the Allegory of the Cave:
“Anyway, it’s my opinion that the last thing to be seen—and it isn’t easy
to see either—in the realm of knowledge is goodness… and that in the
visible realm it is the progenitor of light and of the source of light, and
in the intelligible realm it is the source and provider of truth and
knowledge.”
From the Great Learning:
“What the Great Learning teaches, is to illuminate luminous virtue;
to renovate the people; and to rest in the highest excellence.”
From the
Lotus Sutra:
“At that time, the Buddha
emitted a ray of light from
the tuft of white hair
between his eyebrows, one
of his characteristic features,
lighting up eighteen
thousand worlds in the
eastern direction.”
From Genesis:
“And God said, Let there be light: and there was light. And God
saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the
darkness.”
From John:
1:1 “In the beginning was the Word, and the
Word was with God, and the Word was God.”

14:6 “The true light that gives light to

everyone was coming into the world. 10 He
was in the world, and though the world was
made through him, the world did not recognize
him.”
A syllogism:
I. The ultimate knowledge is knowledge of the divine;
II. The ultimate knowledge comes from the divine;
III. Therefore, the ultimate knowledge is knowledge of the source of
the ultimate knowledge.
The ruler as source of knowledge;
The ruler as light.
Civilization as a state of knowledge;
Civilization as a state.
文
The state as light.
明
 Part 2
Fukuzawa Yukichi on “Western Civilization”
Fukuzawa
Yukichi,
1835-1901
 Who was Fukuzawa
Yukichi?
• Born in Kyushu in Bungo province, Kyushu island, Japan
• Born into a low-ranking samurai family
• Traveled to the United States in 1860, and to Europe and
the US after that.
• His skepticism of Confucius and the feudal system was
rewarded when rebels overthrew the shogunate in 1868
• Lived his later life as a wealthy commoner; founded an
influential newspaper, the Jiji Shinpo; founded Keio
University.
• Revered by many today, but also often (rightly or wrongly)
associated with Japanese imperialism.
The World of
Fukuzawa Yukichi
James G. Evans. U.S. Japan Fleet, Com. Perry Carrying the ""Gospel of God"" to the
Heathen, 1853. ca. 1853
© Massachusetts Institute of Technology (c)2005 Visualizing Cultures
Steam train between Tokyo and Yokohama" by Utagawa Hiroshige III, 1875
“Unwinding Strands from Cocoons by Means of a Silk Reeling Machine” by Toyohara Chikanobu, 1880
Warm-up Question
• Are there multiple civilizations, or are there simply different levels of
civilization?
• How do you think people living in 1800 thought about this question?
Warm-up Question
In our reading for today:
• Why does Fukuzawa Yukichi talk about “civilization and
enlightenment,” and not just “civilization”?
• What does “civilization and enlightenment” mean to him?
• What do you know about the modern history of Japan? How might
that history have influenced the thought of Fukuzawa?
Recap: Which of the following statements
would Fukuzawa agree with?
• Europe has reached the final stage of civilization, but China has not.
• Monarchy is compatible with civilization.
Breaking down the rhetoric
What kind of text is Outline of a Theory of Civilization? Is it:
a. Descriptive
b. Normative
c. Prescriptive
d. Fictive
e. Or something else?
Breaking down the rhetoric
How does Fukuzawa support his arguments? Is he making:
• Arguments from authority;
• Arguments by analogy;
• Arguments from history;
• Syllogistic arguments from basic premises?

What combination of these strategies does he use?

Historical Analogy
Fukuzawa points to particular people to make points about civilization
and enlightenment. How does he use the following examples?
• The Ainu (of northern Japan)
• Asian people
• Ancient Europe
• “Primitive” people?

(See pp. 47-48 of the PDF)

Metaphor
What does Fukuzawa mean by the following metaphors?
Are these metaphors compelling to you? Why or why not?
• Civilization is like an ocean
• Civilization is like a great stage
• The monarch is like an exotic fruit
• Confucius is like a scientist who thinks that the earth is the center of
the universe
Challenging received wisdom
What does Fukuzawa mean when he says:
“We have to admit, the Sages were badly mistaken.”
Analysis
What are the implications of Fukuzawa’s arguments about civilization
and enlightenment?
 The Ballad of East and
West,
by Rudyard Kipling (1889)

Oh, East is East, and West is West, and never

the twain shall meet,
Till Earth and Sky stand presently at God's
great Judgment Seat;
But there is neither East nor West, Border, nor
Breed, nor Birth,
When two strong men stand face to face,
though they come from the ends of the earth!
 The White Man’s Burden,
by Rudyard Kipling (1899)

Take up the White Man's burden—

Send forth the best ye breed—
Go bind your sons to exile
To serve your captives' need;
To wait in heavy harness
On fluttered folk and wild—
Your new-caught, sullen peoples,
Half devil and half child.
“On Leaving Asia” (Datsu-A Ron), 1885 (1)
International communication has become so convenient these days that once the wind of Western civilization
blows to the East, every blade of grass and every tree in the East follow what the Western wind brings. Ancient
Westerners and present-day Westerners are from the same stock and are not much different from one another.
The ancient ones moved slowly, but their contemporary counterparts move vivaciously at a fast pace. This is
possible because present-day Westerners take advantage of the means of transportation available to them. For
those of us who live in the Orient, unless we want to prevent the coming of Western civilization with a firm resolve,
it is best that we cast our lot with them. If one observes carefully what is going on in today’s world, one knows the
futility of trying to prevent the onslaught of Western civilization. Why not float with them in the same ocean of
civilization, sail the same waves, and enjoy the fruits and endeavors of civilization? The movement of a civilization is
like the spread of measles. Measles in Tokyo start in Nagasaki and come eastward with the spring thaw. We may
hate the spread of this communicable disease, but is there any effective way of preventing it? I can prove that it is
not possible. In a communicable disease, people receive only damages. In a civilization, damages may accompany
benefits, but benefits always far outweigh them, and their force cannot be stopped. This being the case, there is no
point in trying to prevent their spread. A wise man encourages the spread and allows our people to get used to its
ways.
“On Leaving Asia” (Datsu-A Ron), 1885 (2)
The opening to the modern civilization of the West began in the reign of Kaei (1848– 1858). Our people began to
discover its utility and gradually and yet actively moved toward its acceptance. However, there was an old-
fashioned and bloated government that stood in the way of progress. It was a problem impossible to solve. If the
government were allowed to continue, the new civilization could not enter. The modern civilization and Japan’s old
conventions were mutually exclusive. If we were to discard our old conventions, that government also had to be
abolished. We could have prevented the entry of this civilization, but it would have meant loss of our national
independence. The struggles taking place in the world civilization were such that they would not allow an Eastern
island nation to slumber in isolation.
“On Leaving Asia” (Datsu-A Ron), 1885 (3)
At that point, dedicated men recognized the principle of “the country is more important than the government,”
relied on the dignity of the Imperial Household, and toppled the old government to establish a new one. With this,
public and the private sectors alike, everyone in our country accepted the modern Western civilization. Not only
were we able to cast aside Japan’s old conventions, but we also succeeded in creating a new axle toward progress
in Asia. Our basic assumptions could be summarized in two words: “Good-bye Asia (Datsu-A).”
“On Leaving Asia” (Datsu-A Ron), 1885 (4)
Japan is located in the eastern extremities of Asia, but the spirit of her people have already moved away from the
old conventions of Asia to the Western civilization. Unfortunately for Japan, there are two neighboring countries.
One is called China and another Korea. These two peoples, like the Japanese people, have been nurtured by Asiatic
political thoughts and mores. It may be that we are different races of people, or it may be due to the differences in
our heredity or education; significant differences mark the three peoples. The Chinese and Koreans are more like
each other and together they do not show as much similarity to the Japanese. These two peoples do not know how
to progress either personally or as a nation. In this day and age with transportation becoming so convenient, they
cannot be blind to the manifestations of Western civilization. But they say that what is seen or heard cannot
influence the disposition of their minds. Their love affairs with ancient ways and old customs remain as strong as
they were centuries ago. In this new and vibrant theater of civilization when we speak of education, they only refer
back to Confucianism. As for school education, they can only cite [Mencius’s] precepts of humanity, righteousness,
decorum, and knowledge. While professing their abhorrence to ostentation, in reality they show their ignorance of
truth and principles. As for their morality, one only has to observe their unspeakable acts of cruelty and
shamelessness. Yet they remain arrogant and show no sign of self-examination.
“On Leaving Asia” (Datsu-A Ron), 1885 (5)
In my view, these two countries cannot survive as independent nations with the onslaught of Western civilization
to the East. Their concerned citizens might yet find a way to engage in a massive reform, on the scale of our Meiji
Restoration, and they could change their governments and bring about a renewal of spirit among their peoples. If
that could happen they would indeed be fortunate. However, it is more likely that would never happen, and within
a few short years they will be wiped out from the world with their lands divided among the civilized nations. Why is
this so? Simply at a time when the spread of civilization and enlightenment (bummei kaika) has a force akin to that
of measles, China and Korea violate the natural law of its spread. They forcibly try to avoid it by shutting off air
from their rooms. Without air, they suffocate to death. It is said that neighbors must extend helping hands to one
another because their relations are inseparable. Today’s China and Korea have not done a thing for Japan. In the
perspectives of civilized Westerners, they may see what is happening in China and Korea and judge Japan
accordingly, because of the three countries’ geographical proximity.
“On Leaving Asia” (Datsu-A Ron), 1885 (6)
For example, the governments of China and Korea still retain their autocratic manners and do not abide by the rule
of law. Westerners may consider Japan likewise a lawless society. Natives of China and Korea are deep in their
hocus pocus of nonscientific behavior. Western scholars may think that Japan still remains a country dedicated to
the yin and yang and five elements. Chinese are mean-spirited and shameless, and the chivalry of the Japanese
people is lost to the Westerners. Koreans punish their convicts in an atrocious manner, and that is imputed to the
Japanese as heartless people. There are many more examples I can cite. It is not different from the case of a
righteous man living in a neighborhood of a town known for foolishness, lawlessness, atrocity, and heartlessness.
His action is so rare that it is always buried under the ugliness of his neighbors’ activities. When this influence
become apparent, it will indirectly affect our normal conduct of diplomatic affairs. How unfortunate it is for Japan.
“On Leaving Asia” (Datsu-A Ron), 1885 (7)
What must we do today? We do not have time to wait for the enlightenment of our neighbors so that we can
work together toward the development of Asia. It is better for us to leave the ranks of Asian nations and cast our
lot with civilized nations of the West. As for the way of dealing with China and Korea, no special treatment is
necessary just because they happen to be our neighbors. We simply follow the manner of the Westerners in
knowing how to treat them. Any person who cherishes a bad friend cannot escape his bad notoriety. We simply
erase from our minds our bad friends in Asia.
The “carving up” of Asia
1842: The Treaty of Nanjing cedes Hong
Kong to Britain along with extraterritoriality
in ports.
1852: The British annex Burma and make it a
province of British India.
1854: US Commodore Perry arrives in Japan
to “open up” trade.
Hurrah, Hurrah for the Great Japanese Empire! Picture of the Assault on Songhwan, a Great Victory for Our Troops”
by Mizuno Toshikata, July 1894
Our Forces’ Great Victory and Occupation of Jiuliancheng”
by Watanabe Nobukazu, November 1894
Picture of the First Army Advancing on Fengtienfu [Mukden]”
by Ogata Gekkō, November 1894
Our Army’s Great Victory at the Night Battle of Pyongyang”
by Kobayashi Toshimitsu, September 1894
Observer Lafcadio Hearn
on Japan after the war:
“The real birthday of the new Japan … began with
the conquest of China. The war is ended; the future,
though clouded, seems big with promise; and,
however grim the obstacles to loftier and more
enduring achievements, Japan has neither fears nor
doubts.”
Part 3
Kotoku Shusui, Imperialism:
Monster of the Twenieth
Century
Warm-up
What does Kotoku Shusui call the
“monster of the twentieth century”?
What is the “monster”?
Warm-up
In your own words:
• What is an “empire”?
• Can you think of some examples of empires? Are they all the same, or
are there substantial differences?
Warm-up
In your own words:
• What is “imperialism”? How is it different from “empire”?
• What is the difference between “imperialism” and “nationalism”? Are
they ever the same thing?
Kotoku Shusui

• Became a socialist early in life, and later turned to anarchism

and direct action.
• Greatly admired the German Social Democratic Party
• Co-edited Japan’s first pacifist newspaper, the Heimin
(Commoners’) Newspaper during the Russo-Japanese War of
1905-1905.
• The Japanese government cracked down on Japan’s socialist
party in 1907, and accused Kotoku of participating in a plot to
assassinate the Meiji Emperor in 1910.
• Executed in 1911 on charges of High Treason.
Imperialism

• Kotoku published Imperialism: Monster of the Twentieth

Century in 1901, at age 30.
• This was 15 years before Lenin’s Imperialism: The Highest Stage
of Capitalism.
• Portions of the book were first published in various newspapers
and magazines.
• Imperialism was translated into Chinese in 1902, and into
Korean in 1906. Much later, it was translated into French and
English.
Recap
• What is imperialism, according to Kotoku?
• What are the causes of imperialism?
Recap
• What are some common justifications for empire, and
how does Kotoku respond to these arguments?
• Are you convinced by Kotoku’s counter-arguments?
 Analysis

• What did empires look like when

Imperialism was published (1901)? What
examples does Kotoku give?
• Have empires like these always existed?
Where did they come from?
• Are there still empires today? If so, what
do they look like? How do they look
different from the empires of Kotoku’s
time?