aN atptpmeieiatmis teaeatin® c= ‘ g é 5 i i é & REIS Experiment No, 6 SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT Title SAME: DATE PERFORMED: SCUEDULE: INSTRUCTOR'S INITIAL: 2 OBJECTIVES: ‘To prove by experiment that the resonant frequency f, of the series RLC is equal to 1 f=—_ 2n{LC)'* To prove by experiment that Z at resonance equals R. THEORY: RLC IMPEDANCE ‘The reactance of inductors and capacitors are 180° out of phase (opposites). So what happens when Xc and X;, both exist in the same circuit? If Xc and X_ are equal, they cancel since they are opposite in effect, leaving only the circuit resistance as opposition to current flow. We can prove this by formula or by vector as seen in Figure A. RESONANCE ‘The frequency responses of these components are also opposite as seen in Figure B. As frequency increases, Xc decreases, while X, increases. Because of this there is a frequency at which both have the same reactance, and so there is a cancellation of reactance. This point is called resonance. With X¢ = X, the circuit opposition is minimum (resistance only) und circuit current is maximum. Atany frequency, either X; or X, will increase. When the two reactance are not equal, there will be a reactance and resistance remaining in the circuit, impedance increases and current decreases. So, the series-resonant circuit has a low impedance at resonance and higher impedance at all other frequencies.R= 100.0, y xX, Xi = 628.0. L=100 mit Iiiz e oO R= 1000 Xe= 628.0 ——|} Xe C= 0.2533nr FIGURE A A low impedance at resonant frequency can make the series LC circuit quite useful (‘he R component is so smal! that it is not al:vays mentioned). It is ideal for passing only wanted frequencies while opposing others (Figure C). Or it is offen used to “trap” unwanted signals while allowing all others to pass (Figure D). ‘The resonant circuit, is even more useful in the oscilletor circuit, where it determines the frequency of the oscillator output signal. An oscillator is a circuit which tums on and off or changes output levels at a regular rate determined by fesonant circuit or RC time constant. [t is used (o control the computer; in horizontal, vertical, tuner and color circuits uf TVs, in all radio receivers, and all throughout the world of communications. The resonant frequency of an LC circuit can be determined by f= anc) where f, is the resonant frequency, 2x3.1416 is 6.28, L is inductance in Henrys, and C is capacitance in Farads. i Xe x i | RESOMANT FREQUENCY Or’ frapio | | FIGURE C FREQUENCY FIGUREDFIGURED A resonant circuit is often called a tuncd circuit bocause of the characteristic which allows it to select, or “tune in”, to a specific frequency. Tuned circuits may be sharply or broadly tuned. A sharply tuned circuit passes only a nasrow band of frequencies (Figure E). ‘The curves in Figure E ure called Tecponse curves because they indicate the frequency-response characteristic of a particular circuit, For sharp tuning the circuit will have a high X\/R ratio. For broad tuning the circuit will have more resistance and thus low X./It ratio, When EH fy fr (1) @ a coil has s high X/R ratio because of low winding resistance and high inductance value, it is said to have a high Q (for quality). A high Q coil in a circuit with little other resistance will cause the circuit to have a sharp tuning Tesponse curve. Figure © (Ideal Waveforms)* * Take note that actual waveforms may differ a little from the ideal waveformsMATERIALS REQUIRED: Oscilloscope Inductor; 1 =2.5mtt Signal Generator Capacitor: 1 -0.COLuF mylar Breadboard Resistors: 1 Longa Connecting wires CIRCULE DIAGRAM: Ln 25 mH C=001uF we YI} - ——yy LoismH | *@ C= Ula Gp we = Men Yop mt = i0va “%o Ro== 1000 L, [ee i! FIGURE6-1 FIGURE 6-2 *~ PROCEDURE: 1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 6-1. NOTE: Be sure to maintain the same Vs throughout this experiment, Record in Table 1. 2. Calculate the circuit resonant frequency, fr (cake) = Hz 3. Connect the scope across Ro. Observe Vo while adjusting the signal input frequency about the frequency calculated in step 2. You have found the actual circuit ft when Vo is maximum. Record in Table I.4. Set the generator above and below fr as specified in Table 1 (Frequencics are added or subtracted from fr. Disregard when the result is a neyative frequency). At cach step measure Vo and record it in Table I in the column headed Vo without 27¢Q. NOT: Be sure your signal generator maintains a constant Vs vollage for cach setting. It may be necessary to set the output amplitude with cach frequency adjustment, 5. Place a 270Q resistor in scrics with L and C as in Figure 6-2. This will increuse the total circuit resistance. Repeat steps 3,4, and 5 but this time, record in Table I under “Vo with 270Q” column. ™ DATA: Signal Generator | Frequency (112) Vo wio 2702 Vo wi 27002 Frequency Setting | Caleulated | (Yep) (Yee) T+ 180 Ktiz f+ 120 Kilz f+ 60 Kir. f+ 30 Kitz ft 25 Kuz | . f+ 20 Kz { f+ 15 Kilz + 10 Kflz f&+ SKilz- R- 5 Kile, 7 | f,— 10 KHz f-_15Kilz f= 20 Kitz f,- 25 Kila f.— 30KHz G— OKI _|_ f= 120 Kitz f= 180 Kz | Table I Serics Resonant Circuit Measurementsmh QUESTION: 1, Using the data in Table |, plot the two frequency respanse curves one labeled * without 2700” and the other “ with 2709”. If the reactance cancel al Xe = Xz, why is Vo maximuin at resonance? Ww 3. What was the effect of adding inore resistance to the series resonant circuit? 4, What is resonance? 5. Wonli the voltage drop across Ro (step 6) he maximum or minimum ot resonance? Explain 6. Circuit bandwidth (CB) is calculated by BW = fr/Q. Coil Q is calculated by Q=%,/ R. Determine the coil Q and then the circuit bandwiddh, How do your calculations compared with the experimental data?Wh 15, Experiment No. 7 PARALLEL RESONANCE ‘Title DATH PERFORMI OBJECTIVES ‘© determine by experiment the resonant frequency of perullct LLC circuit ‘To mcesure the effect of frequency on impedunce of purallcl LC circuit THEORY CHARACTERISTICS OF PARALLEL-RI INANT CIRCUIT: We found that Q=XI/R indicates the quality of a coil. The higher the Q, the more the coil will act as a pure inductor. Rernember that the resistance is an inductive circuit decreases the phase angle, adds to the circuit impedance, and causes a wider bandwidth in a tuned circuit, Consider the circuit in Figure A. Consider the Q of the circuit to be high, There will be a particular frequency where XiXe. ‘This feqriency may be defined as the condition for parallel resonance in a high Q-circuit and is similar to the condition for the series resonance. ‘There are other definitions for parallel resonance. Parallel resonance can be considered as the frequency at which the impedance of the parallel circuit is maximum, It may also be considered as the frequency at which the parallel impedence of the circuit has unity power factor, ‘These three definitions may lead (o three different frequencies, each may be considered as the resonant frequency. In citcuits where © is greater than 10, however, the three conditions lead to the same resonant frequency. In a high Q-cireuit the formula for the resonant Hequency f, is the same as in series resonant circuit and is piven by: =—__. 2x(1.C)"”LINE CURRENT In the series resonant circuit, impedance is minimum and current fiom the Source is maximum at resonance, This is due to the fact that the vollage drops across I, and C are 180 degrees out of phase and therefore cancelled. The feactance also canccls, leaving only the resistance of the circuit to impede the Current flow. In parallel LC circuit, things are a little different, there are two paths for current flow instead of one. Thus, even when the renctance of the two paths equal, there is a reactive Opposition. Since at ressnonce X= Xe, the current throuyh each is the same, However, since this currents How 180° aut of phase, it is in thei difference, not their sum, which is the total line or source current. quivulently, the line current is the Dhasor sum of the individual branch currents, Since they are equal but opposite at resonance, their phasor sum is zero. Thus, we can say (hot ia the parallel resonant circuit, the current of fF is minimum and the impedance is aaximum. Cireu impedance is defined rs: Z=V/I ‘The X, and Xe emves shown in Figure B clarify the concept of maximum % at resonauce. Hote that the frequencies abuve ff, the capacitive branch circuit is a low reactance path. At frequencies below fr, the inductur is a low reactance path, At only frequency fr there is a signitieant teectance in both legs of the cireuil, and s0 at resonance, Z is maximum IMPEDANCE Figure C is a graph of impedance versus frequency i parallel resonant circuit. This graph resembles the frequency response characteristics of the series resonant circuit. It shows that circuit impedance is maximum at resonance and falls off on their side of resonance. ‘The impedance of a parallel LC Impedance is calculated fiom: rcuit cai be determined mathematically. “Z=Vs/t where Z is the impedance in ohms, Vs is the signal in volls measwed across the parallel circuit, and I is the line current in amperes. This formula is another application of ohm’s law for AC citcuits. Another formula i: Z> (P+ (XL = Key)! Line cusrent can be measured experimentally by inserting an AC ammeter into the line, as in Figure D, However, anytime alternating current is measured with a mullitester, be accurate with the fiequency being tested. Line current can>me eaten be calculated by measuring the voltage across a series resistance and using Ohm's Law. This is illustrated in Figure E. For frequencies below resonance, X;, is lower than Xe. So the inductive current is higher than the capacitive current. Line current, which equals fy, - Io in this case, is inductive and higher than the resonance. The opposite is true when a frequency higher fr is applied, ‘That is, the current through the capacitor is greater than it was at ff, so Z is again lower than fr. The greater the deviation from fr, the greater the line current and the smaller the circuit Z. ‘ L HGUREA Xe Xr, t cy - RESONANT . ~~ FREQUENCY © » © © f, ee FREQUENCY FicnREn ome c —(A)— vy L Li ay f FIGWUEE |ML Iv, MATERIALS REQUIRED Oscilloscope Signal Generator Breadboard Inductor: 1-2.5mi Capacitor: 1 —0.01nF mylar Resistor: 1-10KQ Connecting wires CIRCUIT DIAGRAM bet ») 25m fooler FIGURET-1 PROCEDURE 2. Connect the circuit as shown in Vigure 7-1, Connect the oscilloscope across R. Calculate the resonant frequency, fr (ese) = Kilz Adjust the signal generator about the frequency calculated in step2, until VR is minimum as secn on the oscilloscupe screen. This is the circuit fr. Record in ‘Vable 1. NOTE: Check the signal generator output voltage, Maintain this level for the remainder of the experiment. You may have s¢-adjust the source output for cach different frequency selected. Record tluse Vs in Table I. Using the data in Table [ plot a frequency response curve for tie experimental circuit, Measure VR at frequencies of 500 Hz intervals above and below fF up to fr ~ 300014. Complete Table 1. Compute the line current und cirentit impedance far cach frequency and record in Table LVI. DATA Signal Gene F(z) | Ve(Vpp) [Eline (wApp) Z(KQ) Frequency Setting | Calculated | Measured VR ippy/ R Vs (pp) / f—_ 8illz f— Tz G— 6KIlz f— 5KUz f= 4KIlz L f— _3Kllz f= 2KUz f— LSKiz f-_IKilz a f— 5001Iz LL f= f+ 500lkz [ f+ 1KIlz f+ LSKUz Fe Kitz (+ OEM. | |__ - fe aKilz - t ft SKiz | _ ____| _ _ ft 6K iz _| — ft 7KNiz ft 8Kilz _ —Ys= Ver. Table I Measurement of a Parallel Resonant Circuit1. QUESTIONS Using the data in Table 1, plot the three frequency response curves (F vs VR, F vs I, F vs Z). What docs cach geaph show? Why ts Va minimum at resonance? Mow did the measured and calculated values of fr compare? Explain any differences. Calculate the Q of your circuit at 10KHz. Would this circuit have a wide or narrow bandwidth? Why are there losses in a parallel LC circuit? What would happen to the graph T vs Z if a low value of R were placed parallel with the LC circuit? If the voltage across the LLC cirouit were measured and a graph drawn of VLC versus frequency. What would it look like?SAME: DATH PERFORMED: SCHEDULE: INSTRUCTOR'S INITIAL: is LE 1S periment No. 8 THE NIGH PASS FILTER Title OBJECTIVE ‘To determine experimentally the frequency response of a high — pass filter, THEORY FREQUENCY FILTERS Frequently, electronic signals consist of more than one frequency component. A good example is the AM radio broadcast signal. The AM broadcast signal begins as high frequency (between 540 and. 1620 KI lz) radio frequency signal called a carrier wave. It is then made to change amplitude at an audio rate by “modulating” it with a voice, music, etc. This modulating process is called amplitude modulation because the carrier wave is made to change amplitule at an audio rate. As a result of modulation, the broadcast signal is composed of a bigh frequency carrier and many audio frequencies. In the receiver, there comes the time when the high frequency carrier has served its purpose. It has “carried” the low-frequency intelligence from the station {o the home receiver-low frequencies do not “iravel” as well as the high frequencies, so cartier is used. At this point the carer is removed to allow the receiver circuits to put all their energy into amplifying only the audio. There are other numerous examples of complex frequency mixes in electronic communications. In all cases, frequency selective fillers. ore used to separate the unwanted and wanted signals. Once they are separated, the wanted signals are passed on to their processing circuits. ‘There are different types of filters, Some are active using transistors and IC's. Others are passive, using coils and capacitor. In cach type there are two other categories. The narrow band filter allows a single fiequency or a very narrow band of frequencies to pass. The wide band or broaribnnd filter allows a wideband of signals to pass. Now within these two others: the high pass and the low pass filters. ‘The high pass filter allows high frequencies to pass while the low pass allows the lower frequencies w pass,MIGU-PASS FILTERS In the characteristics of circuits containing coils, capacitors and resistors. Both series and parallel LC circuits are used as fillers. The resistive element determines the bandwidth. Theoretically, a capacitor offers an infinite reactance to a zero frequency (dc) signal. So, if a capacitor is placed: in series with the signal containing both the DC and AC component, the DC component will not pass, it will be blocked Figure A illustrates this characteristics of capacitors to. produce filters which pass some frequencies but not others, _ An example is shown in the circuit of Figure B, The amount of AC “signal” voltage coupled from the source to the resistive load RL is: Vr = Vicus0=(VixR)/Z where; @= arctan Xc/R Naturally, the angle depends on the values of R and C and the applied frequency. If we assume three fiequencies thal are being applied from the source at 200, 2000, and 20,000 Iv, we can sce that the values of Xc at the respective frequencies are 7957.7, 795.77 and 79.577 ohms. If we look at the XC as being an opposition in series with RL is about | percent of the applied signal. At 2000 Hz the signal across RL is about 50 percent of the applied signal. And at 20 KHz the signal across Ri through C increases as the source frequency increases. This is a very simple high pass filter. The circuit of Figure B can be made into a better filter hy adding an inductor in parallel with Rv as in Figure C. The inductor has a low XL at low frequencies, So it reduces the signal outpnt voltage across RL al frequencies for which X1. is less than 0.1 x RL. This is an approximate figure, which uses a rulo of thumb of one-tenth (0.1). When one parallel component has an opposition less than one-tenth that of the larger, the circuit Z, is so close to that of the smaller opposition that the higher value opposition is considered infinite. This rule is used in many places in electronic circuits. At higher frequencies where XL is greater than 0.1RL, the Z of the parallel circuit consisting of RL and L has a very low Z. With a low Z, there is little signal voltage drop across the Ri. ~ [. circuit. The output of the filter is very low. The result of the added coil is more efficient high- pass filter, Figure D illustrates the response curve of a high-pass lilter. The filter cut- off point is the frequency where V out is less than 70.7 percent of the maximum output. Note that this is the frequency, which causes Xc to equal R (wlo L). You might think this as a little strange-equal opposition, yet approximately 70 percentof the input signal are dropped across the resistor. But remember the phase relationship between the capacitor and the resistor, When Xc = R, 6 = tan Xc/R and Vr = V cosO, actually 70.7 percent of the input signal also appears across C. When vectorically summed Ve and Vr equal 100 percent of the input signal. Van ‘ry Ven Vn S= R 1 Vgc a INPUT a OUTPUT a @ @ FIGMRE A c ve L 3 R Ve FIGURED FIGURE c Vert 100% ‘78.1% [7 C_1____ rrr Fo 8 RESPONSE CURVE FIGURED.JL MATERIALS REQUIRED Oscilloscope Inductor: = 1 —-2.5mH Signal Generator Capacitor, 1 —0.01ul mylar Breadboard Resistor: 1-10KQ Connecting wires CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FIGURE 0-4 PROCEDURE 2. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 8-1. Measure the source voltage, record in Table 1. Measure the output voltage Vo across Ru and record Vo at cach frequency listed in ‘Table I. NOTE: Recause the filter circuit changes impedance with the change in input frequencies, the generator will see a varying load. This causes its voltage to vary. Ateach Vo measurement, check Vs and, if necessary, adjust it to maintain a constant 10 Vpp output. . Connect an inductor across Rt. (see Figure 8-2) and repeat steps 2 & 3.Vi DATA Frequency (Hz Vo wo L, - Freque! ney (Hz) | vs vpp 250 stu 750. is 15K _ TIONS 1. In filters we consider the fiequency at which the output falls to 70.7 percent of the maximum output, to be the cutoff point, What was the cutoff of both the experiinental circuits? Without hs With Ls 2. What was Xe al the cutoff ficquency? 3. Explain the effect of adding the inductor to the filler circuits.EE 15 Experiment No. 9 LOW —PASS FILTER Title NAME: DATE PERFORMED: SCHEDULE: INSTRUCTOR'S INITIAL: OBJECTIVE To determine experimentally the frequency response of a low-pass filter, THEORY The low-pass filter has opposite characteristics from the high-pass filter. Because XC and XL are opposite in nature, you will recognize the low-pass filter as having series inductor and perhaps an additional parallel capacitor. Examples of these circuits are seen in Figure A é& Figure B. The inductor in Figure A is used to pass low frequencies, but its reactance causes it to have a high Z to high frequencies, thus blocking them. As in the case of Rc high-pass circuit, the RL low-pass circuit is an AC voltage divider. The amplitude of signal voltage across R decreases. As f decrease, XL. decreases and voltage across R increases. This is the desired behavior of a low-pass filter. With the additional of C as illustrated in Figure B, the sharpness of response roll off, is enhanced. Xc decreases as f increases and the Z of the parallel combination f, C, and RL decreases. The result is an even lower high- frequency output than before, because of the lowered circuit output Z. FIGURE A FIGUREDTee\, TFN, FIGURE C FIGURED TL MATEWUALS REQUIRED Oscilloscope Inductor = 1 -2.5mH Signal Generator Capacitor: 1 -0.0022uP mylar Breadboard Resistor. 1 -2KQ Multimeter IV. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM aver aver 20K ‘2a O<—-F—>h FIGURES4 FIGURES2, Vv. PROCEDURE 1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 9-1, 2, Measure the source voltage. Record in Table I. 3. Measure the output voltage Vo across RL and record Vo at cach frequency listed in Table J. NOTE: Because the filter circuit changes impedance with the change in input frequencies, the generator will sec a varying load. This causes its output voltage to vary. At each Vo measurement, Check Vs and, if necessary, adjust it to maintain a constant 4 Vp input. . Connect the 0.0022uF capacitor across RL ( see Figure 9-2) and repeat steps 2 &3.VL. DATA Frequency (Uz) Vo without C Vowith C1 ve= Vpp__|_Vs = yy 500 ~Pp_} IK 2.5K, 3K 735K LOK 20K 30K. 40K 30K 60K TOK 80K 90K 7 ~ 100K. 110K 120K, 130K "| 140K 150K 160K. 170K ‘Table [ VIL QUESTIONS 1. What was the cutoff frequency for both circuits? \ 2, What was XL at cutoff frequency? 3. Explain the effect of adding C in parallel with the load resistor.EE 15 Experiment No. 10 AC POWER MEASUREMENT AND CALCULATIONS Title SAMI: DATE PERFORMET: SOIEDULE: INSTRUCTOR'S INIT! = OBJECTIVES To leam to differentiate between true and apparent power in AC circuits. To measure and calculate pawer in AC circuit. i THEORY CONSUMPTION OF AC POWER Power in resistive DC circuits is defined as P = V x I, Power consumption in AC circuits is more complex. One reason is the continuously ghanging amplitude of current and voltage in the AC circuit. Also these voltages and currents may be out of phase. If the AC circuit is a pure resistive, the power consumption behavior is the same as in the DC circuit. Reactive components, however, do not dissipate energy. Instead, they absorb energy during one-half cycle of the AC input and release it during the next half-cycle. The net results are that the total energy dissipated in the AC circuit is the energy dissipated by the resistive element. APPARENT POWER Apparent power, WA is the input power to the AC circuit. It is defined as Wa= V x, just like power in the DC circuit. For this reason Wa is often referred to as volt-amperes (abbreviated VA). Some electrical appliances, especially those with motors, are rated in volt-amperes, Note that the power consumed by an electric appliance is really not WA but a quantity called true power Wr. TRUE POWER and POWER FACTOR ‘The power consumed by an electric device with both resistive and reactive components is defined as true power. In a circuit containing both resistive and reactive components, true power is a fractional part of apparent power. That fraction is called the power factor (PF) of the circuit. Actually, it is the ratio of Wr to WA. Thus PF=Wr/ Waand Wr= WAx PF=VxIx PF where V and I are in rms units. In can be shown that PF is cos 0 , where 0 is the phase angle between the circuit vollage and current. So PF is a number between 0 and 1, depending on the resistance and reactance. Now, the definition for the true power is WTt=VxIxcos0 From this equation clearly when @ = 0, then cos @= | andso Wr=VxL This condition occurs in a resistive circuit where V and I arc in phase. From this we conclude that Wr = Wa in iesistive circuit. In a reactive circuit, however true power is always less than the apparent power because @ is an angle greater than 0. For such angles, cos 0 the PF, is less than 1, Power companies strive for a PF of 1 on their transmission lines for the most efficient use of their power generating facil Angle has been defined as the angle by which current leads or lags voltage in a reactive circuit. And cos 6 has been defined as the PP. In series circuit we can also employ AC theory to calculate the power factor: PF=cos0=R/Z=Va/V where R is the circuit resistance in ohms, Z is the circuit impedance in ohms, VR is the voltage across R, and V is the voltage applied to the circuit Likewise, to calculate true power, Wr=PxR=Va/R L Xp=2KO 2509S R lo0v FIGURE A ‘Two methods used in calculating AC circuit power are illustrated in thefollowing examples. Assume the coil in Figure A has zero resistance XL = 2000 ohms; R = 250 ohms; V = 100V. We calculate Wr, WA , PF and phase difference angie. . Method I Method IL Zax) Z= 2015: rSe 00 z =a ohms (as method 1) = 2015.56 ohms = 100/ 2015.56 [W/Z = 0.04696 (as method 1) = 100/ 2015.56 WA=VxL = 0.0496 A = 100 (0.0496) WA=Vxl =496W = 100 (0.0496) PF =cos@ = 4.96 W =RIZ Wr=IxR = 250/2015.56 =0.615 W = 0.1240 PF =cos 0 WT = WAx PF =Wr/ WA = 4.96 (0.1240) =0.615/4.96 =0615 W = 0.1239 © = are cos 0 0.1240 @ =arc cos 0. = 82.87 degrees = 82.88 degrees MEASURING AC POWER — VOLTMETER METHOD The AC circuit power is easily determined by taking routine voltage and + current measurements and then plugging these measurements into the formulas already given. Phase angles can be determined directly by using the scope as in previous experiments. Wrattmeter Now Wr can be measured directly by the wattmeter. By using the wattmeter, all calculations are eliminated. The wattmeter consists of two sets of coils, One coil is in series with the test circuit to measure current, The other is in parallel to measure voltage. The interaction of the magnetic ficlds causes a pointer to rotate. The face of the instrument is calibrated in watts, reflecting the use of both current and voltage to actuate the meter movement. The power read is Proportional to the product of the voltage, current and PF of the circuit The wattmeter produces a reading of true power. Compensating WattmeterIn low — power circuits the wattmeter may be guilty of something like voltmeter loading. As a result of this londing of the circuit, an error may be introduced. To compensate for this error, another coil is used in the compensating wattmeter to offset the loading effects of the meter. The range of such a meter is usually 0 to 10 or 20 W..In high — power circuits the loading effect of the . uncompensated wattmieter is usually not enough to be concern. . MATERIALS REQUIRED Oscilloscope Capacitor: 1 —0.1uF mylar Signal Generator Resistor. 1-10KQ. Breadboard Connecting wires Multimeter CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FIGURE 10-41 PROCEDURE 1. Measure R then connect the circuit as shown in Figure 10-1, using the maultitester, measure VR and Vs. Record in Table 1. Calculate 1, WA, WT and the phase angle 0. - : vp / 4 — T] VR | Vs | =Va/R] Wa=IV [WFR | Besos @oec | PFox= | PPewe= SE WryWa COS Bose | COS Beale L'] I 2. Using the oscilloscope and procedures outlined in previous exercises, determine the phase angle between V & Lin the circuit. Record in Table L From the measured 9 , calculate PF. 7 QUESTIONS 1. How do the angles in Table I found and by measurement compare? Explain any differences. 2, How do the WT and Wa figures compare? Is WT equal to PF x WA7 Explain any differences, What is the significance of the PF in an AC circuit?EE 15 Experiment No. 11 TRANSFORMER CHARACTERISTICS Title NAME: DATE PERFORMED: SCHEDULE: ___ INSTRUCTOR'S INITIAL: L OBJECTIVE To investigate the characteristics of a transformer. 1. INTRODUCTION A transformer is device, which transfers AC electrical energy from one Circuit to another. It does this by means of electromagnetic mutual inductance, Generally, the transformer consists of two coils placed closed together so that the magnetic field of one coil cuts the other coil. In this way the energy is transferred from one coil to the other. : Transformers have many applications. They are used to step up or step down voltage. Also, they are used to step up or step down current, or they can be to make one value of impedance appear to be another value. In each case, we are concem with a ratio. In the first case, the ratio is that of an input voltage to an output voltage. In the second case, the ratio is that of a primary current to a secondary current. In the third case, the ratio is that of an input impedance to an output impedance. As you can see, each of these ratios is determined by the tumn’s tatio of the transformer. . ‘Transformers are frequently ‘used to step up or down voltages. Most electronic devices are powered by 220V AC at 60Hz Some devices require voltage higher than this while others can get much lower voltages. The transformer is used to transform the 220V AC to whatever value is required. When the output (secondary) voltage is higher than the input (primary) voltage, the transformer is called a step up transformer. The amount of step up is determined by the turns ratio of the transformer. Tums ratio = Ns / Np When the secondary has more tums, the voltage is “stepped up” in proportion to the turns ratio. Thus, the voltage ratio is equal to the tums ratio. Expressed as an equation: . Es/Ep=Ns/NeIf we ignore the josses in the wansformer, ihe’ power in ihe sevonuary is the same as the power in the primary. Thus , the ideal ganstormer power rano is 1. Although the transformer can step up the voltage. it cannot step up power. We can never take more power from the secondary than we put at the primary. Thus when the transformer steps up a voltage, it steps down the current so that the output power is the same as the output power is the same as the input power. Expressed as an equation: Pe/Ps where Pris the power in the primary and Ps is the power in the secondary. A transformer, which steps up voltage at the same time steps down current. Otherwise, it would deliver more power in the secondary than is required at the primary. We can prove this by delivering an equation for the current ratio. Remember, that ignoring losses: Pp=Ps Recall the formula for power is P= EL Thus, the power in the primary is equal to Ep x Ip while the power in the secondary is equal to Es x Is. Therefore, IPPP = Ps then: : Ep x Ip= Es x Is Ee/Es=Ne/Ns Ip/Is = Ns/NP ‘This states that current ratio is inversely proportional to turns ratio. In electronics, one of the most important applications of a transformer is impedance matching. Maximum power is transferred from a generator to a load where impedance of the generator matches that of the load. There are many cases in electronics in which the impedance of the signal source, simply does not much that of the load which it must’ drive. For example, a transistor amplifier stage might be most efficient when driving a. 100 ohm load. Nevertheless, the amplifier maybe required to drive a 4 ohm speaker, this kind of mismatch that result in wasted power and in efficient operation. A transformer can be. used to solve this impedance matching problem. By choosing proper turns ratio, the transformer can make 4 obm speaker as a 100 ohm load to the transistor amplifier. The impedance matching capability of a transformer also depends on the tums ratio. However, the impedance ratio is equal to the tums ratio squared. That is: Zp/Zs= (Np / Ns? Impedance matching is one of the most important applications of a transformer. By choosing the proper tums ratio, transformer can match a wide range of impedances.Ti. Iv. MATERIALS REQUTRED Trainer Transformer Analog Multimeter Digital Multimeter Resistors: 1-15 1wW 1-330, 1W Connecting wires CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 1 3 R, 0 a Wi 7 : ac 2 “ \ FIGURE IH FIGURE 11-2 PROCEDURE 1. Find a transformer and examine its construction. Notice that it has a laminated core made up of E and I lamination. The primary and secondary are wound on a nylon number of tums of every fine copper wire. They are covered by layer of tape for protection. 2. Refer to Figure 11-1, compare this schematic diagram of transformer with the actual transformer. 3. Refer to Figure 11-2, using an ohmmeter measure the DC resistance of the winding between pins I and 2, Let’s call this resistance R12, Ra= ohms 4, Measure the resistance between pins 3 and 4 as shown in Figure | 1-2. Let’s call this resistance R14. Ru= ohms 5. Using the panel board, connect pins | and 2 to a 12V AC line frequency. 2 Place your voltmeter on an AC voltage setting greater than 12V AC and measure the voltage applied between pins | and 2. En= Vac7. Move your voltmeter to pins 3 and 4 Ex= vac 8. Compare the primary voltage with the secondary voltage. 1s the applied voltage stepped up or stepped down? 9. Determine the primary to secondary tums ratio of the transformer by using the formula: Ep/ Es =Ne/Ns Tums Ratio = rl 10. Disconnect the transformer from the panel board. Connect pins 3 and 4 across 12 V AC line frequency terminals, 11. Measure the applied voltage, Eus VAC ‘The winding between 3 and 4 is the (Primary/Secondary) 12. Measure the voltage between pins 1 and 2. En= Vac The winding between | and 2 is the (Primary/Secondary) 13, Compare the primary voltage with the secondary voltage. Is the applied voltage being stepped up or stepped down? 14. Determine the secondary to primary tums ratio of the transformer by using this formula: . Es/Ep=Ns/NP Tums Ratio = il 15. Do the turns ratio agrees with that computed caries in step 97 Which winding has more tums, the one between pins 1 and 2 or the one between pins 3 and 47 16. Using the transformer and a 15 ohm resistor (Rs), connect the circuit as shown in Figure 13 J-, 17, Be sure that you observe polarity and measure the voltage across Ri Eri= vFind the curcent in the primary using chm’s law. P=ERi/Ri= Amps Because the secondary has no load, this current is called current. 18. Load the secondary by connecting a 33 ohm resistor (R2) between pins 3 and 4. Now what is the voltage drop across Ri? Eri= Vv Find the current in the primary using ohm’s law. [p= Eri /Ri= Amps 19. Measure the voltage between pins | and 2 of the transformer. Ei2=. v 20. Measure the voltage between pins 3 and 4 of the transformer. Exu= v 21. Using the values measure in steps 19 and 20, determine the tums ratio. Tums ratio: = Does this agree with the value computed in step 67 ‘Does the tums ratio formula work when the transformer is loaded? Why? 22, Using ohm’s law, determine the current in the secondary. Is= Amps 23. Is the voltage stepped up or down? 24, Is the current stepped up or down?