Shell-Model Applications in

nuclear physics and astrophysics

Gabriel Martı́nez Pinedo

Institut d’Estudis Espacials de Catalunya

• Introduction
• Shell-Model Basics
• Effective Interaction
• Lanczos Strength Function
• Astrophysical Applications

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 1
 Nucleus as a many body problem
• Nucleus is made of quarks interacting by exchange of
gluons. We need to solve Quantum Chromodinamics.

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 2
 Nucleus as a many body problem
• Nucleus is made of quarks interacting by exchange of
gluons. We need to solve Quantum Chromodinamics.
• Nucleus is made of nucleons (neutrons and protons) that
interact by meson exchange. Interaction could be
described by a non-relativistic potential.

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 2
 Nucleus as a many body problem
• Nucleus is made of quarks interacting by exchange of
gluons. We need to solve Quantum Chromodinamics.
• Nucleus is made of nucleons (neutrons and protons) that
interact by meson exchange. Interaction could be
described by a non-relativistic potential.
We need to solve the Schrödinger equation:

HΨ = EΨ
A A A
X pi X X
H= + Vij + Vijk
i=1
2m i<j=1 i<j<k=1

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 2
 Basic symmetries
• Invariance under translations. Potential depends only on
relative coordinates.

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 3
 Basic symmetries
• Invariance under translations. Potential depends only on
relative coordinates.
• Invariance under rotations (space, spin, isospin).
➢ States are eigenstates of total angular momentum
(J = L + S) and isospin.
➢ Tensor operators (multipole operators).
p
[J± , Tqk ] = ~ k(k + 1) − q(q ± 1)Tq+1
k

[J0 , Tqk ] = ~q

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 3
 Basic symmetries
• Invariance under translations. Potential depends only on
relative coordinates.
• Invariance under rotations (space, spin, isospin).
➢ States are eigenstates of total angular momentum
(J = L + S) and isospin.
➢ Tensor operators (multipole operators).
p
[J± , Tqk ] = ~ k(k + 1) − q(q ± 1)Tq+1
k

[J0 , Tqk ] = ~q

• invariance under parity and time reversal

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 3
 Example of Potential
Potential consistent with two-nucleon scattering data and
deuteron structure
Potential AV8’:

V (r) = Vc (r) + Vτ (r)(τ1 · τ2 ) + Vσ (r)(σ1 · σ2 )

+Vστ (r)(σ1 · σ2 )(τ1 · τ2 ) + Vt (r)S12 + Vtτ (r)S12 (τ1 · τ2 )
+Vb (L · S) + Vbτ (r)(L · S)(τ1 · τ2 )

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 4
 dependent on those considered in the expansion and there- basis functions ~see discussion of EIHH result for Fig. 1!. As

Solution only possible for light systems

fore it is unnecessary to include them. The contribution of Table I shows it is not necessary to use effective operators
(K) (H)
F m ~and F m ) to the binding energy with L>8 has been for long-range observables like the radius, while observables
estimated to be approximately 0.01 MeV. that contain short range information ~high momentum con-
The errors quoted for the GFMC results are just the tributions!, like ^ T & and ^ V & , should, in principle, be calcu-
Monte Carlo statistical errors. Various tests show that the lated with effective operators.
4 A more detailed test of the wave function is to evaluate
Benchmark test calculations for He
energy is converged to at least this accuracy for changes in
D t or the maximum t . There should be no other sources of the expectation values of the eight individual potential en-
systematic error in this simple test case. ergy operators in Eq. ~24!. The results are shown in Table II.
[H. Kamada, et al., Phys. Rev. C 64, 044001 (2001)]
The NCSM binding energy result is based on extrapola- The agreement is, in general, rather good and well within
tion from calculations using the three-body effective interac-
tion in model spaces up to N max516 in the HO frequency TABLE II. Expectation values of the eight potential operators in
range \V516 – 43 MeV. The mean values of different opera- Eq. ~24! in MeV.
Etors,
exp
H. KAMADA
= 28.296 MeV
evaluated for N max516 consisting of 2775 basis states
Method ^ V c& V t& ^ V s& C 64^ V
and \V528etMeV, al.
were computed using effective operators ^PHYSICAL REVIEW 044001
st&

as the use of bare operators is completely insufficient, in FY 16.54 25.038 29.217 257.55
TABLE I.for
particular Thethe
expectation
V c (r) andvalues T & andthat
T. ^Note ^ V & we
of kinetic
have and here CRCGV 16.54 25.035 29.215 257.51
potential
^ T eff& 1energies, the binding
^ V eff& close, but notenergies
exactlyE b in MeV,toand
equal ^ Hthe &radius
, due into
eff SVM 16.54 25.036 29.213 257.51
fm.
approximations used. Overall, the NCSM results are less ac- HH 16.57 25.034 29.255 257.59
curate than the other methods. The NCSM convergence2 rate GFMC 16.5~5! 25.03~6! 29.21~7! 257.3~5!
Method T& V& Eb A^ r &
is rather slow^ for the AV8 8^. However, the method is flexible NCSM 16.16 24.92 29.77 257.89
to handle also
FY nonlocal2128.33~10!
102.39~5! realistic potentials like the CD-Bonn
225.94~5! 1.485~3!
with a faster
CRCGV convergence
102.30 rate due to225.90
a softer repulsive 1.482core. Method
2128.20 ^ V t& ^ V tt& ^ V b& ^ V bt&
The
SVM advantage
102.35of the method
2128.27 is its applicability
225.92 to the p-shell
1.486
nuclei.
HH 102.44 2128.34 225.90~1! 1.483 FY 0.707 269.06 10.79 215.50
GFMCThe EIHH calculation
102.3~1.0! is carried out
2128.25~1.0! with K max520
225.93~2! ~about
1.490~5! CRCGV 0.708 268.99 10.60 215.30
3000
NCSM
HH states!.
103.35
The error
2129.45
estimate is based
225.80~20!
on the conver-
1.485 SVM 0.707 269.03 10.78 215.49
gence
EIHH
with respect
100.8~9!
to K max ,
2126.7~9!
i.e., difference of
225.944~10! 1.486
results for HH 0.702 269.03 10.76 215.46
K max518 and 20. An inspection of Table I shows that E b and GFMC 0.71~3! 268.8~5! 10.62~15! 215.40~15!
radius are converged to a very high precision (E b : 0.04%; NCSM 0.68 269.13 11.23 215.80
radius: 0.007%, not shown in Table I!. On the contrary ^ T &
very different techniques and the complexity of the nuclear
force chosen. Except for NCSM and EIHH, the expectation044001-6
FIG. 1. Correlation functions in the different calculational
values of T and V also agree within three digits. The NCSM schemes: EIHH ~dashed-dotted curves!, FY, CRCGV, SVM, HH,
results are, however, still within 1% and EIHH within 1.5% and NCSM ~overlapping curves!.
of the others, but note that the EIHH results for T and V are
obtained with bare operators. The uncertainty in the NCSM
results is of the same size, i.e., 1 MeV, as that for the GFMC. and ^ V & still change by about 1% from K max518 to K max
Finally, the given radii are also in very good agreement. 520. Of course, by construction of the EIHH method, also
The HH calculation includes about 4500 states with L ^ T & and ^ V & have to converge to the true result. In order to
10th Euro Summer School on Exotic
5l 1 1l 2 1l 3 <6. The states with L56 give a contribution to Beams have a higher precisionShell-Model
one canApplications
proceedinin twophysics
nuclear ways:and~i!
astrophysics – p. 5
 GFMC calculations for light nuclei
-20
1/2− 2+ 6He+2n
α+n 2+
0+ 3/2− α+2n 3+ 2+
-30 0+ α+d
4He 5He 5/2− 0+
6He 1+ 7/2−
6Li α+t
8He 3+
Energy (MeV)

-40 1/2− 1+
3/2−
7Li 4+
3+
-50 1+
α+α 2+ 6Li+α
0+
4+
-60 AV18 8Be 2+
AV6′ AV8′ 1+
IL2 Exp 3+
-70 10B

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 6
 Theoretical models
126
Limits of nuclear
existence
82
e ss
roc
r-p
protons
50 ss
o ce
r 82
-p y
eord
rp h
T l
28 o n al Fie
n
20 50 n cti Mea
u t
i t y Fisten
ns s
8 28 neutrons De lfcon
2 20 Se
2 8 =10 60
A 12 A~
A=

0Ñω Shell
Towards a unified
Ab initio Model description of the nucleus
few-body
calculations No-Core Shell Model
G-matrix

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 7
 Shell-Model basics
• Shell-Model assumes the existence of shells. Magic
numbers are obtained when a shell is completely fill.
• Shells results from the bunching (grouping) of levels
coming from a independent particle average potential.

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 8
 Independent-Particle Model
• Assume the existence of some single-particle wave
functions that are the solution of a Schrödinger equation

hφ(r) = {T + U }φa (r)} = εa φa (r)

The independent-particle motion hamiltonian is then:

A
X
H0 = T (k) + U (rk )
k=1

Eigenfunctions are the product of single-particle wave

functions:
A
Y
Φa1 a2 ...aA (1, 2, . . . , A) = φak (rk )
k=1

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 9
 System identical particles
Wave function should be antisymmetric. For two particles:
 
1 1  φa (1) φb (2) 
Φab (1, 2) = √ [φa (1)φb (2)−φa (2)φb (1)] = √ 

2  φa (2) φb (1)

2 

A-particle Wave function:

 
 φa (r(1)) φa (r(2)) · · · φa1 (r(A)) 
1 1
r 
1  φa2 (r(1)) φa2 (r(2)) · · · φa2 (r(A)) 

Φa1 a2 ...aA (1, 2, ..., A) = .. .. .. .. 
A!  . . . .


 
 φaA (r(1)) φaA (r(2)) · · · φaA (r(A)) 

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 10
 Simple single-particle potential
Empirical construction based in an harmonic oscillator
potential plus a spin-orbit term to reproduce the magic
numbers (M. Goeppert-Mayer and H. Jensen)

1
U (r) = mω 2 r2 + Dl2 + l · s
2
(
l + 1 j = l − 1/2
εnlj = ~ω[2(n−1)+l+3/2)]+Dl(l+1)+C
−l j = l + 1/2
41
~ω = 1/3 MeV
A

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 11
 Spherical mean-field
1i13/2 (14) (126) 126
3p1/2 (2)
3p (4)
2f5/2 3p3/2
(6)
2f 2f7/2
N=5 (8)
1h9/2 (10)

1h
1h11/2 (12) (82) 82
3s 3s1/2 (2)
2d3/2 (4)
2d
N=4 2d5/2 (6) (64)
1g7/2 (8)
1g
1g9/2 (12) (50) 50
2p1/2 (2) (40)
2p 1f5/2 (6) (38)
N=3 2p3/2 (4)
1f
1f7/2 (8) (28) 28

2s (4)
N=2 1d3/2 (2)
(20) 20
1d 2s
1d5/2 (6) (14)

1p1/2 (2) (8) 8

N=1 1p 1p3/2 (4) (6)

N=0 1s 1s (2) (2) 2

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 12
Solution to the many-nucleon problem
A A
" #
X X
HΨ(1, 2, . . . , A) = T (k) + W (k, l) Ψ(1, 2, . . . , A) = EΨ(1, 2, . . . , A)
k=1 k<l=1

Hamiltonian rewritted:

A A A
" #
X X X
H= [T (k) + U (k)] + W (k, l) − U (k) = H0 + Vres
k=1 k<l=1 k=1

Hartree-Fock theory provides method to derive single-particle potential. The criterium is

to search for the “best” A-particle slater determinant such us the value of H is
minimum. Next, one assumes that the resulting residual interaction is small and that:

Ψ(1, 2, . . . , A) = Φa1 a2 ...aA (1, 2, . . . , A)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 13
 Validity shell structure

V. R. Pandharipande, I. Sick and P. K.

A. deWitt Huberts, Rev. mod. Phys.
69, 981 (1997)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 14
 Limits of the IPM
Example 16 O
Π ν
1d3/2 +
1d5/2
2s1/2 0 ...

hω hω
− −
1p1/2 0 ...4
1p3/2
hω
1s1/2
+
0
hω 12 MeV

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 15
 Limits of the IPM
Example 16 O

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 15
 Limits of the IPM
Example 16 O

Π ν Π ν

1d3/2 1d3/2
2s1/2 2s1/2
1d5/2 1d5/2

1p1/2 1p1/2
1p3/2 1p3/2

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 15
 Two-particle wave function
Let’s consider the possible isospin values for two nucleons:

|T = 1, Tz = 1i = |ni|ni, |1, −1i = |pi|pi

|1, 0i = √12 [|ni|pi + |pi|ni] q
|0, 0i = √12 [|ni|pi − |pi|ni]

N-particle system: T = odd (symmetric), T = even

(antisymmetric).
We can also couple the angular momentum:
X
|JM i = hj1 m1 j2 m2 |JM i|j1 m1 i|j2 m2 i
m1 m2

In N = Z nuclei protons and neutrons occupy the same

orbits. Low lying states fulfill (J + T = odd number).

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 16
 6
Example Li
posible two-particle states (j1 j2 )JT

(p3/2 p3/2 )J=1,3,5;T =0 , (p3/2 p3/2 )J=2,4,6;T =1

(p3/2 p1/2 )J=1,2;T =0 (p3/2 p1/2 )J=1,2;T =1
(p1/2 p1/2 )J=1;T =0 (p1/2 p1/2 )J=0;T =1
1 + T=0 5.7
Π ν
2 + T=1 5.37

p1/2 p1/2

2 + T=0
 


 


p3/2 p3/2 4.31

0 + T=1 3.562

4
He
Π ν +
3 T=0 2.185

p1/2 p1/2




p3/2 p3/2

1 + T=0
4 6
0

He Li
10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 17
 Correlations (residual interaction)
In order to incorporate the correlations, one has to go beyond
mean-field
Spherical mean-field
mixing
breaking symmetries different mean-field
of the system configurations

• Hartree-Fock Bogoliubov
• Tamm-Dancoff
• Nilsson
• RPA
• Deformed Hartree-Fock
• Interacting shell-model

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 18
 Possible solution
• Take the basics formed by the A-particle Slater
determinants:

Φa = Φa1 a2 ...aA (1, 2, . . . , A)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 19
 Possible solution
• Take the basics formed by the A-particle Slater
determinants:

Φa = Φa1 a2 ...aA (1, 2, . . . , A)

• build the (infinite) matrix:

hΦb |H|Φa i

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 19
 Possible solution
• Take the basics formed by the A-particle Slater
determinants:

Φa = Φa1 a2 ...aA (1, 2, . . . , A)

• build the (infinite) matrix:

hΦb |H|Φa i

• diagonalize

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 19
 Shell-Model approximation
The space of orbits generated by the mean-field potential are
grouped in three blocks
• Inner core: orbits that are always
full.
• Valence space: orbits that
contain the physical degrees of
freedom relevant to a given
property. The distribution of the
valence particles among these
orbitals is governed by the CORE

interaction.
• External space: all the remaining
orbits that are always empty.

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 20
 Shell-Model approximation
The exact solution on the infinite Hilbert space spanned by
the mean field orbits is approximated in the large scale
shell-model calculation by the solution of the Schrödinger
equation in the valence space using an effective interaction.

HΨ = EΨ → Heff Ψeff = EΨeff

In general, effective operators have to be introduced to

account for the restrictions of the Hilbert space

hΨ|O|Ψi = hΨeff |Oeff |Ψeff i

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 20
 Shell-Model calculation
A shell model calculation needs the following ingredients:
• A valence space

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 21
 Shell-Model calculation
A shell model calculation needs the following ingredients:
• A valence space
• An effective interaction

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 21
 Shell-Model calculation
A shell model calculation needs the following ingredients:
• A valence space
• An effective interaction
• A code to build and diagonalize the hamiltonian matrix.

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 21
 Valence space
The choice of the valence space:

• In light nuclei the harmonic oscillator closures determine

the natural valence spaces.
4 16 40 80
He −→ O −→ Ca −→ Zr
p shell sd shell pf shell ↑
Cohen/ Brown/ Deformed
Kurath Wildenthal

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 22
 Valence space
• In heavier nuclei:
−→ jj closures due to the spin-orbit term show up
N=28, 50, 82, 126

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 23
 Valence space
• In heavier nuclei:
−→ jj closures due to the spin-orbit term show up
N=28, 50, 82, 126
• the transition HO −→ jj: occurs between 40 Ca and 100 Sn
where the protagonism shifts from the 1f7/2 to the 1g9/2

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 23
 Valence space
• In heavier nuclei:
−→ jj closures due to the spin-orbit term show up
N=28, 50, 82, 126
• the transition HO −→ jj: occurs between 40 Ca and 100 Sn
where the protagonism shifts from the 1f7/2 to the 1g9/2
• A valence space can be adequate to describe some
properties and completely wrong for others

48
Cr (f 7 )8 (f 7 p 3 )8 (f p)8
2 2 2
+ 2
Q(2 ) (e.fm ) 0.0 -23.3 -23.8
E(2+ ) (MeV ) 0.63 0.44 0.80
E(4+ )/E(2+ ) 1.94 2.52 2.26
BE2(2+ → 0+ ) (e2 .fm4 ) 77 150 216

B(GT) 0.90 0.95 3.88

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 23
 Second quantization
• Creation and destruction operators:

a†k |0i = |ki, ak |ki = |0i

vacuum |0i, such ak |0i ∀k.

For fermions antisymmetry given by anti-commutation
rules

{a†i , a†j } = {ai , aj } = 0, {a†i , aj } = δij

• Slater determinant:

Φα1 α2 ...αA (1, 2, . . . , A) = a†αA · · · a†α2 a†α1 |0i

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 24
 Second quantization
• One body operators:
A
X X
O= O(k) → O = hα|O|βia†α aβ
k=1 αβ

†
P P
number of particles N = α nα = α α aα
a
• Two-body operators:
A
X X
O= O(i, j) → O = hαβ|O|γδia†α a†β aδ aγ
i<j=1 αβγδ

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 25
The interaction in second quantization
X 1 X
H= εα a†α aα + hαβ|V |γδia†α a†β aδ aγ = H0 + Vres
α
4 αβγδ

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 26
The interaction in second quantization
In general it is convenient to work in a couple basis:
Defining ãjm = (−1)j+m aj−m , and the coupling:
X
[a†j1 a†j2 ]JM = hj1 m1 j2 m2 |JM ia†j1 m1 a†j2 m2
m1 m2

X 1 X
H = εα n α − hj1 j2 |V |j3 j4 iJT
α
4 j j j j JT
1 2 3 4
p
(2J + 1)(2T + 1)(1 + δ12 )(1 + δ23 )
h i00
[a†j1 a†j2 ]JT × [ãj3 ãj4 ]JT

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 27
 The shell-model interaction
All the information needed for a shell-model calculation are
the independent particle energies (εα ) and the two-body
matrix elements hj1 j2 ; JT |V |j3 j4 ; JT i
Example USD interaction (d5/2 , s1/2 , d3/2 )
USD
3 205 1001 203
-3.94780 -3.16354 1.64658
0 205 205 205 205 0 5
0.0000 -1.6321 0.0000 -1.5012 0.0000 -4.2256
-2.8197 0.0000 -1.0020 0.0000 -0.1641 0.0000
0 205 1001 205 1001 2 3
-1.4474 -3.8598
-0.8183 0.7626
0 205 203 205 203 1 4
-6.5058 -3.8253 -0.5377 -4.5062
1.0334 -0.3248 0.5894 -1.4497
0 1001 1001 1001 1001 0 1
0.0000 -3.2628
-2.1246 0.0000
0 1001 203 1001 203 1 2
-4.2930 -1.8194
0.6066 -0.4064
0 203 203 203 203 0 3
0.0000 -1.4151 0.0000 -2.8842
-2.1845 0.0000 -0.0665 0.0000
........................
10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 28
 Application
Spectrum of 0+ states in 18 O
we build a 3 × 3 matrix:

(d 5 )2 (d 3 )2 (s 1 )2 whose eigenvalues produce the spectrum:

2 2 2
−3.9478 × 2
 
−3.1856 −.13247
 +(−2.8197) 
0 +
14.1
3
 

 −3.1856 1.64658 × 2 −1.0835 

+(−2.1845)
 
 
 
 −1.3247 −1.0835 −3.1654 × 2 
+(−2.1246)

0+
2 4.3

0+
1 0.0

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 29
Large scale Shell-Model basis and codes
pf -shell valence space: 1f7/2 , 2p3/2 , 2p1/2 , 1f5/2

nucleus m-scheme jj-scheme

(ANTOINE) (NATHAN)
48
Cr 1,963,461 41,355
54
Fe 345,400,174 5,220,621
56
Fe 501,113,392 7,413,488
56
Ni 1,087,455,228 15,443,684

Impossible to store Hamiltonian matrix!

Still possible to compute HΨ.
Diagonalization using an iterative algorithm.

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 30
 Shell-Model code ANTOINE
http://sbgat194.in2p3.fr/~theory/antoine/

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 31
 Lanczos algorithm
Construction of a orthonormal basis:
Initial vector |1i.

E12 |2i = (H − E11 )|1i

E23 |3i = (H − E22 )|2i − E12 |1i
...
EN N +1 |N + 1i = (H − EN N )|Ni − EN −1N |N − 1i

where
EN N = hN|H|Ni, EN N +1 = EN +1N

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 32
 Lanczos algorithm
 
E11 E12 0 0 ... 0
E E E 0 . . . 0 
 12 22 23 
 0 E23 E33 E34 . . . 0
 
 
 

• Diagonalize and obtain an approximation to the energy

and wave function.
• Do a few more iterations
• Diagonalize again and check that ∆E = EN +k − EN < 

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 32
 Lanczos convergence
RANDOM STARTING VECTOR
3
-6.345165 11.335118 29.120687
6
-21.344259 -7.802025 4.637278 16.927858 29.308309
9
-30.092574 -19.653950 -9.343311 0.467972 10.265731
12
-32.722076 -24.462806 -17.104890 -9.353111 -1.628857
15
-32.930624 -26.709841 -22.335011 -15.957805 -9.401645
18
-32.952147 -28.028244 -24.233122 -19.625844 -14.772679
21
-32.953570 -28.413699 -25.350732 -22.676041 -18.180356
24
-32.953655 -28.537584 -26.244093 -23.883982 -20.534298
27
-32.953658 -28.559930 -26.542899 -24.362551 -22.197866
30
-32.953658 -28.563001 -26.646165 -24.887184 -23.559799
33
-32.953658 -28.564277 -26.912739 -26.199181 -24.299165
36
-32.953658 -28.564535 -27.102898 -26.382496 -24.409357
39
-32.953658 -28.564567 -27.148522 -26.416873 -24.529055
42
-32.953658 -28.564570 -27.156735 -26.425250 -24.724078
45
-32.953658 -28.564570 -27.158085 -26.427319 -24.910915
48
-32.953658 -28.564570 -27.158371 -26.428021 -25.107898

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 33
 Lanczos convergence
Π ν
f5/2 f5/2
48 p1/2 p1/2
Cr p3/2 p3/2
Dim (t=2) = 6 × 105 f7/2 f7/2

  


  





 
Dim (full space) = 2 × 106
40
Ca

STARTING VECTOR :EIGENVECTOR OF A SMALLER SPACE

ITER= 1 DIA= -31.105920 NONDIA= 4.642871
3
-32.578285 -21.260843 5.090417
6
-32.929531 -27.208522 -16.116780 -1.200061 14.816894
9
-32.952149 -28.024347 -22.702052 -13.782511 -3.514506
12
-32.953553 -28.345536 -25.965169 -20.636169 -12.806719
15
-32.953655 -28.528301 -26.951521 -22.532438 -18.004439

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 34
 Isospin symmetry
Nuclear spectra are almost unchanged under the exchange of
neutrons and protons.
12+ 7611
662
11+ 6994 11+ 6949
627 610
10+ 6367 10+ 6339

1581 1595

8+ 4786 8+ 4744

1627 1581

6+ 3159 6+ 3163
1308 1282

4+ 1852 4+ 1881
1087 1098

2+ 765 2+ 783
765 783
0+ 0 0+ 0

50
26
Fe24 50
24
Cr26

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 35
 Isospin representation
Neutron and proton are considered different states of the same particle:
the nucleon
! !
1 0
|ni = , |pi =
0 1

Isospin operators: 1
t= τ , t ± = t1 ± t2
2
! ! !
0 1 0 −i 1 0
τ1 = , τ2 = , τ3 =
1 0 i 0 0 −1
PA i
States are eigenstates of total isospin (T = i=1 )
t
T 2 = T (T + 1)|T, Tz i, Tz |T, Tz i

|N − Z|
T ≥ Tz =
2 ´

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 36
 Realistic interactions
Exp. KB KLS Bonn A Bonn B Bonn C
2+
1 excitation energy
44
Ca 1.16 1.45 1.43 1.31 1.25 1.26
46
Ca 1.35 1.45 1.42 1.26 1.22 1.23
48
Ca 3.83 1.80 1.60 1.23 1.30 1.41
50
Ca 1.03 1.41 1.35 1.27 1.10 1.17
h(f7/2 )8 |ΨGS i 0.468 0.381 0.214 0.345 0.437

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 37
 Realistic interactions
Exp. KB KLS Bonn A Bonn B Bonn C
2+
1 excitation energy
44
Ca 1.16 1.45 1.43 1.31 1.25 1.26
46
Ca 1.35 1.45 1.42 1.26 1.22 1.23
48
Ca 3.83 1.80 1.60 1.23 1.30 1.41
50
Ca 1.03 1.41 1.35 1.27 1.10 1.17
h(f7/2 )8 |ΨGS i 0.468 0.381 0.214 0.345 0.437
56
Ni model space (f 7 p 3 )16
2 2
56
Ni 2.70 0.39 0.31 0.43 0.42 0.42
h(f 7 )16 |ΨGS i 0.04 0.015 0.018 0.011 0.019
2
hnp3/2 i 4.5 5.2 5.7 5.2 5.0

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 37
 Realistic interactions
Exp. KB KLS Bonn A Bonn B Bonn C
2+
1 excitation energy
44
Ca 1.16 1.45 1.43 1.31 1.25 1.26
46
Ca 1.35 1.45 1.42 1.26 1.22 1.23
48
Ca 3.83 1.80 1.60 1.23 1.30 1.41
50
Ca 1.03 1.41 1.35 1.27 1.10 1.17
h(f7/2 )8 |ΨGS i 0.468 0.381 0.214 0.345 0.437
56
Ni model space (f 7 p 3 )16
2 2
56
Ni 2.70 0.39 0.31 0.43 0.42 0.42
h(f 7 )16 |ΨGS i 0.04 0.015 0.018 0.011 0.019
2
hnp3/2 i 4.5 5.2 5.7 5.2 5.0

The realistic interactions do not reproduce the shell closure

N or Z=28

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 37
 Realistic interactions
Exp. KB KLS Bonn A Bonn B Bonn C
2+
1 excitation energy
44
Ca 1.16 1.45 1.43 1.31 1.25 1.26
46
Ca 1.35 1.45 1.42 1.26 1.22 1.23
48
Ca 3.83 1.80 1.60 1.23 1.30 1.41
50
Ca 1.03 1.41 1.35 1.27 1.10 1.17
h(f7/2 )8 |ΨGS i 0.468 0.381 0.214 0.345 0.437
56
Ni model space (f 7 p 3 )16
2 2
56
Ni 2.70 0.39 0.31 0.43 0.42 0.42
h(f 7 )16 |ΨGS i 0.04 0.015 0.018 0.011 0.019
2
hnp3/2 i 4.5 5.2 5.7 5.2 5.0

The realistic interactions do not reproduce the shell closure

N or Z=28

Why?

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 37
 The structure of the Hamiltonian
From the work of M. Dufour and A. Zuker (PRC 54 1996 1641)
Separation theorem:
Any effective interaction can be split in two parts:

H = Hm (monopole) + HM (multipole)

Hm contains all the terms that are affected by a spherical

Hartree-Fock variatition, hence reponsible of the global
saturation properties and of the evolution of the spherical
single particle field.
Important property:

hCS ± 1|H|CS ± 1i = hCS ± 1|Hm |CS ± 1i

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 38
 The structure of the Hamiltonian
For all the realistic G-matrices,
• Hm is not accurate enough.
• HM is almost the same.

The monopole part has to be empirically corrected to

reproduce the structure of the “simple” nuclei |CS ± 1i

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 39
 Multipole Hamiltonian
Can be characterized as the sum of simple terms:
• L = 0 isovector and isoscalar pairing
• Elliot’s quadrupole-quadrupole force.
• (σ1 · σ2 )(τ1 · τ2 )
• Octupole and hexadecapole terms r λ Yλ · rλ Yλ
All the interactions contains similar terms:

Interaction JT = 01 JT = 10 λτ = 20 λτ = 40 λτ = 11
KB3 -4.75 -4.46 -2.79 -1.39 +2.46
FPD6 -5.06 -5.08 -3.11 -1.67 +3.17
GOGNY -4.07 -5.74 -3.23 -1.77 +2.46

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 40
 The Monopole Hamiltonian
Hm contains terms that depend in n and T . Assume that we
have a constant potential and single particle energy:

n(n − 1)
E = nε + V
2

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 41
 The Monopole Hamiltonian
If we consider also isospin:

n(n − 1)
E = nε + V + bT (T + 1)
2

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 41
 The Monopole Hamiltonian
In general we have different orbits each with different average
interactions:
X X ni (ni − 1) X
E= n i εi + Vii + ni nj Vij
i i
2 i6=j

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 41
 The Monopole Hamiltonian
If we consider also the fact that we have isospin:
X X 1 1

3ni

Hm = εi n i + aij ni (nj − δij ) + bij Ti · Tj − δij
i ij
1 + δij 1 + δij 4

Where a and b are defined from the centroids (average

interaction):
JT
P
J (2J + 1)W ijij
VijT = P
J (2J + 1)

3Vij1 + Vij0
aij = , bij = Vij1 − Vij0
4

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 41
 Influence of monopole hamiltonian
The evolution of effective spherical single particle energies with
the number of particles in the valence space can be extracted
from Hm . In the case of identical particles the expresion is:
X
εj (n) = εj (n = 1) + Vij ni
i

The monopole hamiltonian Hm also governs the relative

position of the various T-values in the same nucleus, via the
terms:

bij Ti · Tj
Even small defects in the centroids can produce large changes
in the relative position of the different configurations due to
the appearance of quadratic terms involving the number of
particles in the different orbits

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 42
 Effect of monopole corrections
9/2−
7/2−− 3/2−−
4 5/2−−
3/2
5/2−−
5/2 7/2+
(1/2−,3/2−)
4
5/2
9/2 5/2−
7/2−− 9/2+
3/2−
3 5/2 7/2−
3
∆E (MeV)

9/2−− 7/2−
2 5/2
7/2−− 1/2− 1/2−
1/2− 2
1/2−
5/2
3/2−
1 7/2−
1

0 3/2− 3/2− 3/2− 3/2− 0

KB KB’ KB3 Expt.
10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 43
 Evolution SPE

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 44
 Limits of IPM
Example 16 O
Π ν
1d3/2 +
1d5/2
2s1/2 0 ...

hω hω
− −
1p1/2 0 ...4
1p3/2
hω
1s1/2
+
0
hω 12 MeV

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 45
 Limits of IPM
Example 16 O

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 45
 Limits of IPM
Example 16 O

Π ν Π ν

1d3/2 1d3/2
2s1/2 2s1/2
1d5/2 1d5/2

1p1/2 1p1/2
1p3/2 1p3/2

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 45
 Monopole explanation
Π ν Π ν

1d3/2 1d3/2
2s1/2 2s1/2
1d5/2 1d5/2

1p1/2 1p1/2
1p3/2 1p3/2

12 · 11
E0ph = 12εp + Vpp
2
E1ph = 11εp + εr + 55Vpp + 11Vpr
E2ph = 10εp + 2εr + 45Vpp + 20Vpr + Vrr
E4ph = 8εp + 4εr + 28Vpp + 32Vpr + 6Vrr

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 46
 Monopole explanation
Π ν Π ν

1d3/2 1d3/2
2s1/2 2s1/2
1d5/2 1d5/2

1p1/2 1p1/2
1p3/2 1p3/2

∆1ph = εr − εp + 11(Vpr − Vpp )

∆2ph = 2(εr − εp ) + Vpp + 20(Vpr − Vpp ) + (Vrr − Vpp )
∆4ph = 4(εr − εp ) + 32(Vpr − Vpp ) + 6(Vrr − Vpp )

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 46
 Evolution SPE far off stability
Given Hm , the effective single particle energies [from Otsuka
et al, Phys. Rev. Lett. 87, 82502 (2001)],

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 47
 Evolution SPE far off stability
N=20

0
effective SPE (MeV)

1p3/2

0f7/2

−10
1s1/2 0d3/2

0d5/2
−20

8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Proton number
10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 47
 Vanishing of shell closure at N=20
7

3
E0p0h−E2p2h

2
O
1 F
Ne
Na
0 Mg
Al
−1 Si

−2
17 18 19 20 21 22 23
N
10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 48
 Computation of transition operators
Given a one-body transition operator O, how do we compute

hΨf |O|Ψi i

here Ψi and Ψf are many-body wave functions obtained from

shell-model diagonalization
• One body operators:
PA
O = i=1 o(r(i)) −→ O = i,j hi|O|jia†i aj
P

• We need to know
➢ the value of our one body operator between single
particle wave functions hi|O|ji
➢ the one body density matrix elements hΨf |a†i aj |Ψi i

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 49
 Computation of transition operators
• for hi|O|ji, one needs (eventually) to know the radial part
of the wave function: usually harmonic oscillator,
sometimes wood-saxon.
Z
hi|O|ji = d3 r φ∗i (r)O(r)φj (r)

• for the one body density matrix elements (same

procedure as for the hamiltonian):

a†5 a2 |001011i = |011001i

now we know the procedure to compute:

• EL transitions: r L YL0
• β decay :
➢ Fermi decay : τ±
➢ Gamow-Teller decay: στ±
10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 50
 Example calculation
β decay half-life calculation
• Determine initial state |Ψi i.
• Determine all posible final states |Ψf i.
• Compute matrix elements hΨf |O|Ψi i

ln 2
λf = f (Z, W0f )[Bf (F ) + Bf (GT )]
K
• Determine total decay rate:

ln 2 X
λ= = λf
T1/2 f

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 51
 Lanczos Strength Functions
• |Ψi ground state given nucleus.
• Sum rule state (or doorway): |Ωi = Ω|Ψi.
• Total sum rule (sum over all final states of the matrix
element squared) is the norm of state |Ωi:
X
†
hΩ|Ωi = hΨ|Ω Ω|Ψi = |hi|Ω|Ψi|2
i

• We can think of the state |Ωi as a (probability)

distribution over the eigenvalues |ii of H with values
|hi|Ωi|2 = |hi|Ω|Ψi|2

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 52
 Lanczos Strength Functions
Any distribution can be characterized by the moments of the
distribution.

X
Ē = hΩ|H|Ωi = Ei |hi|Ω|Ψi|2
i
X
n
mn = hΩ|(H − Ē) |Ωi = (Ei − Ē)n |hi|Ω|Ψi|2
i

Gaussian distribution characterized by two

moments (Ē, σ 2 = m2 )

g(E)
2σ

(E−Ē)2
g(E) = √1 exp(− 2σ2 )
σ 2π
E

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 52
 Lanczos Strength Functions
In general we only need a finite number of momenta. We can
define a basis of |αi states.

N
X
mn = hΩ|(H − Ē)n |Ωi = (Eα − Ē)n |hα|Ω|Ψi|2 (∀n ≤ M )
α

Eα ≈ hα|H|αi
With N states we can reproduce 2N moments of the
distribution.

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 52
 Lanczos Strength Functions
Example: Beta half-life
X
λ∼ f (Z, W0i )|hi|Ω|Ψi|2
i

W0i i 5
(W 0)
Z
f (Z, W0i ) ≈ 2 i 2
W (W0 − 1) dW ≈
1 30

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 52
 Lanczos Strength Functions
Lanczos method provides a natural way of determining the
basis |αi.
Initial vector |1i = √ |Ωi . Each Lanczos iteration gives information
hΩ|Ωi
about two new moments of the distribu-
tion.
E12 |2i = (H − E11 )|1i
E23 |3i = (H − E22 )|2i − E12 |1i E11 = h1|H|1i = Ē
... 2
E12 = hΩ|(H − E11 )2 |Ωi = m2
EN N +1 |N + 1i = (H − EN N )|Ni m3
E22 = + Ē
−EN −1N |N − 1i m2
2 m4 m23
E23 = − 2 − m2
m2 m2
where
EN N = hN|H|Ni, EN N +1 = EN +1N

Diagonalizing Lanczos matrix after N iterations gives an approximation to the

distribution with the same lowest 2N moments.

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 52
 Evolution Strength Distribution
M1 Strength on 56 Fe
12

1 Iteration

8
B(M1) (µ2N)

0
0 5 10 15 20
E (MeV)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 53
 Evolution Strength Distribution
M1 Strength on 56 Fe
12

2 Iterations

8
B(M1) (µ2N)

0
0 5 10 15 20
E (MeV)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 53
 Evolution Strength Distribution
M1 Strength on 56 Fe
12

5 Iterations

8
B(M1) (µ2N)

0
0 5 10 15 20
E (MeV)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 53
 Evolution Strength Distribution
M1 Strength on 56 Fe
8

10 Iterations
6
B(M1) (µ2N)

0
0 5 10 15 20
E (MeV)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 53
 Evolution Strength Distribution
M1 Strength on 56 Fe
8

20 Iterations
6
B(M1) (µ2N)

0
0 5 10 15 20
E (MeV)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 53
 Evolution Strength Distribution
M1 Strength on 56 Fe
8

50 Iterations
6
B(M1) (µ2N)

0
0 5 10 15 20
E (MeV)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 53
 Evolution Strength Distribution
M1 Strength on 56 Fe
2.0

100 Iterations
B(M1) (µ2N) 1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 5 10 15 20
E (MeV)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 53
 Evolution Strength Distribution
M1 Strength on 56 Fe
2.0

250 Iterations
B(M1) (µ2N) 1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 5 10 15 20
E (MeV)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 53
 Evolution Strength Distribution
M1 Strength on 56 Fe
2.0

400 Iterations
B(M1) (µ2N) 1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 5 10 15 20
E (MeV)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 53
 Evolution of Strength Distribution
GT Strength on 48 Sc

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 54
 Evolution of Strength Distribution
GT Strength on 48 Sc

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 54
 Fermi matrix elements
A
1 X X
B(F ) = |hJf Mf ; Tf Tzf | tk± |Ji Mi ; Ti Tzi i|2
2Ji + 1 M ,M k=1
i f

B(F ) = [Ti (Ti + 1) − Tzi (Tzi ± 1)]δJi ,Jf δTi ,Tf δTzf ,Tzi ±1

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 55
 Fermi matrix elements
A
1 X X
B(F ) = |hJf Mf ; Tf Tzf | tk± |Ji Mi ; Ti Tzi i|2
2Ji + 1 M ,M k=1
i f

B(F ) = [Ti (Ti + 1) − Tzi (Tzi ± 1)]δJi ,Jf δTi ,Tf δTzf ,Tzi ±1
Energetics:
EIAS = Qβ + sign(Tzi )[EC (Z + 1) − EC (Z) − (mn − mH )]

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 55
 Fermi matrix elements
A
1 X X
B(F ) = |hJf Mf ; Tf Tzf | tk± |Ji Mi ; Ti Tzi i|2
2Ji + 1 M ,M k=1
i f

B(F ) = [Ti (Ti + 1) − Tzi (Tzi ± 1)]δJi ,Jf δTi ,Tf δTzf ,Tzi ±1
Energetics:
EIAS = Qβ + sign(Tzi )[EC (Z + 1) − EC (Z) − (mn − mH )]
Selection rule:
∆J = 0 ∆T = 0 π i = πf

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 55
 Fermi matrix elements
A
1 X X
B(F ) = |hJf Mf ; Tf Tzf | tk± |Ji Mi ; Ti Tzi i|2
2Ji + 1 M ,M k=1
i f

B(F ) = [Ti (Ti + 1) − Tzi (Tzi ± 1)]δJi ,Jf δTi ,Tf δTzf ,Tzi ±1
Energetics:
EIAS = Qβ + sign(Tzi )[EC (Z + 1) − EC (Z) − (mn − mH )]
Selection rule:
∆J = 0 ∆T = 0 π i = πf
Sum rule (sum over all the final states):
S(F ) = S− (F ) − S+ (F ) = 2Tzi = (N − Z)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 55
 Gamow-Teller matrix elements
back

A
gA2 X
B(GT ) = |hJf ; Tf Tzf || σ k tk± ||Ji ; Ti Tzi i|2
2Ji + 1 k=1

gA = −1.2720 ± 0.0018
Selection rule:

∆J = 0, 1 (no Ji = 0 → Jf = 0) ∆T = 0, 1 π i = πf

Ikeda sum rule:

S(GT ) = S− (GT ) − S+ (GT ) = 3(N − Z)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 56
 SN1987A
Type II supernova in LMC (∼ 55 kpc)
neutrinos from SN1987A
50.0

Kamiokande II
40.0 IMB

Energy (MeV)
30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
Time (seconds)
• Egrav ≈ 1053 erg
• Erad ≈ 8 × 1049 erg Eν ≈ 2.7 × 1053 erg
• Ekin ≈ 1051 erg = 1 foe

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 57
 Evolution Massive Stars
Evolution 20 solar mass star

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 58
 Late stages core evolution
νe νe
Fe
Si, S PRE-SUPERNOVA
νe νe NEUTRINO
O, Ne
C, O shock core ν-sphere BREAKOUT
He
H
νe νe

νe νe
νe
νe
νe
COLLAPSE
Fe core
νe νe

ν ν
shock EXPLOSION
ν

νe ν ν
νe
ν
ν
ν
νe

envelope

ν NEUTRINO
ν
TRAPPING νν νν
ν ν ν

νν
νν
proto n-star COOLING
neutrinosphere
νν νν

shock CORE BOUNCE

νν νν
core

outlying matter

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 59
 Semileptonic Weak Processes in Stars
kλ kλ
νλ νλ
νλ kλ ν′λ
e− − e+
νe νe l− ν′l
νe





   
   
   

   
   
   

'& '& &' &

'& '& '& &
'& '& '& &

  
  
  

***
+* +* +*
+* +* +*
+* +* +*
e− νl νl
kλ e− e−
νλ νλ
− +
orbital e− capture β decay β decay
qλ = νλ − kλ qλ = νλ + kλ qλ = νλ + kλ kλ ν′λ
−
ν′l
νλ l+

,
,
,
,
νλ νλ

,,,
-, -, -,
-, -, -,
-, -, -,
(((
)( )( )(
)( )( )(
)( )( )(
− kλ −
νl −
νl
νe νl −
νl
e− νλ νλ
%$ %$ $%
%$ %$ %$
%$ %$ %$

#" #" "#

#" #" #"
#" #" #"
!!!
!!!
!!!

− +
l l
(anti)neutrino capture (anti)neutrino scattering
kλ kλ qλ = kλ − νλ qλ = ν′λ − νλ
−
bound-state β decay continuum charged (anti)lepton capture
qλ = νλ + kλ qλ = νλ − kλ

OF ∼ eiqr τ OGT ∼ eiqr στ

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 60
 Presupernova evolution
• T = 0.1–0.8 MeV, ρ = 107 –1010 g cm−3 .
Composition of iron group nuclei
(A = 45–65)
• Important processes:
â electron capture:
e− + (N, Z) → (N + 1, Z − 1) + νe
â β − decay:
(N, Z) → (N − 1, Z + 1) + e− + ν̄e
• Dominated by allowed transitions (Fermi and
Gamow-Teller)
• Evolution decreases number of elec-
trons (Ye ) and Chandrasekar mass
(MCh ≈ 1.4(2Ye )2 M )

• Fenomenological model
15
(Fuller, Fowler, Newman, 1985)
/./.
/./.
/./.

15
1010 0101 1010 232 1010 232 1010 232 1010 232 1010 232 1010 232 1010 232 1010 232 1010 232 1010 232
10 10 10 2323 10 3223 10 3223 10 3223 10 3223 10 3223 10 3223 10 3223 10 3223 10 3223
23 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1010 0101 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010
1010 0101 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010
/./. ././
/./. ././
/./. ././

Laboratory 15
Supernova
/./. ././
/./. ././
/./. ././

10

• Charge exchange reactions (n, p),

/./. ././
/./. ././
/./. ././

10 10 5
/./. ././
/./. ././
/./. ././

Low−lying
Strength (d, 2 He)
/./. ././
/./. ././
/./. ././

0
Gamow−Teller
5 5 Resonance
/./. ././
/./. ././
/./. ././

σ τ+
• Microscopic model (Shell-Model)
1010 0101
1010 0101
1010 0101
10 01
/./. ././
/./. ././
/./. ././

electron
distribution
1010 0101
1010 0101
1010 0101
10 01
/./. ././
/./. ././
/./. ././

(Z,A) 0
0
(Z−1,A)
(Langanke & Martínez-Pinedo, 2001)
(Z−1,A) (Z,A)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 61
 GT in charge exchange reactions
GT strength could be measured in CE reactions:

• GT− proved in (p, n), (3 He, t).

• GT+ proved in (n, p), (t, 3 He), (d, 2 He).

Mathematical relationship (Ep ≥ 100 MeV/nucleon):

dσ
(0◦ ) ≈ S(Ex )B(GT )
dΩdE
 2
hf || k σ t± ||ii2
P k k
gA
B(GT ) =
gV 2Ji + 1
Ikeda sum rule:

S− − S+ = 3(N − Z)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 62
 Independent Particle Model
Independent particle model (FFN).
GT+ strength in 58 Ni measured in (n, p).
1.5 f5/2
58
Ni (El-Kateb et al, 1994) p1/2
p3/2
FFN
f7/2
1.0 στ + ν π
GT Strength

f5/2
p1/2
0.5
p3/2 f5/2
f7/2 p1/2
ν π p3/2

0.0 58
Ni f7/2
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 ν π
E (MeV)
58
Co

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 63
 Gamow-Teller strength
GT+ strength measured in charge-exchange (n, p) experiments (TRIUMF).
1.0 0.5
54
Fe FFN 51
V
0.8 Exp 0.4

0.6
SM 0.3

0.4 0.2

0.2 0.1

0.0 0.0
56 55
GT Strength Fe Mn
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2

0.0 0.0
58 59
Ni Co
0.6
1.0
0.4
0.5
0.2

0.0 0.0
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
E (MeV) E (MeV)
10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 64
 GT+ strength measured in (d, He) 2

Ex [MeV] High resolution Gamow-Teller

distributions on 51 V,58 Ni (64 Ni,. . . )
dσ/dΩ[mb/(sr 50 keV)]
51V(d,2He)51Ti

4.88 MeV
Elab=171 MeV measured at KVI (Groningen) by

3.62 MeV
Θcm<1˚

2.14 MeV
EuroSupernova Collaboration.

0.5
51
V(n,p) Alford et al. (1993)
0.4
B(GT+)

0.3

B(GT+)
0.2

Shell-Model Calculation
G. Martinez-Pinedo 0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Ex [MeV]

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 65
 Shell-model (LMP) vs FFN rates
0
56
10 56
10
-3 Fe Ni
-6 -1
10 10
-9
10 LMP
-2
-12
FFN 10
10
ρ7=10.7 ρ7=4.32
-15
10 -3
55
10 59
Co -1 Co
0
10 10
-2

λec (s )
−1 -1 10
10
-3
10
-2
10 -4
10
-3
10 ρ7=4.32 10
-5
ρ7=33
-4 -6
10 54
10 60
Mn Co
-1 0
10 10

-2 -2
10 10

-3 -4
10 10
ρ7=10.7 ρ7=33
-4 -6
10 10
1 4 7 10 1 4 7 10
T9 T9

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 66
 Most important nuclei
Most important nuclei to determine the electron capture rate
0.50 0.50
54
Fe
55 WW 55
Co WW
Fe
57
Co LMP LMP
0.48 0.48 56
Fe
57
Fe 55
Fe
61
Ni
0.46 0.46
Ye

Ye
57
Fe 1
56 H
57
Fe Fe 53
53 Cr
Cr 57
Fe
0.44 53
Cr 0.44
15 M 25 M
0.42 0.42
106 105 104 103 102 101 100 105 104 103 102 101 100
Time till core collapse (s) Time till core collapse (s)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 67
 Collapse phase
Important processes:
• Neutrino transport (Boltzman
equation):
ν + A  ν + A (trapping)
ν + e−  ν + e− (thermalization)

cross sections ∼ Eν2

• electron capture on protons:
e− + p  n + ν e

What is the role of electron capture on nuclei?

e− + (N, Z)  (N + 1, Z − 1) + νe

What is the role of inelastic neutrino-nucleus scattering?

ν + A  ν + A∗

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 68
 Collapse abundances
T= 17.84 GK, ρ= 3.39e+11 g/cm3, Y =.0.379
e
40
Z (Proton Number)

30

20

10 Log (Mass Fraction)

−5 −4 −3 −2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
N (Neutron Number)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 69
(Un)blocking electron capture at N=40
Independent particle treatment g9/2
(Bruenn) Unblocked
Correlations
g9/2 Finite T
f5/2
N=40
p1/2 GT
Blocked
f5/2 p3/2
p1/2 GT
f7/2
p3/2 neutrons protons
f7/2
neutrons protons Core

Weak Rates for nuclei with A=65–

Core 112 computed using the Shell Model
Monte Carlo plus RPA approach

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 70
 Electron capture: nuclei vs protons
Electron capture rates Energetics
106 40

105
104
30
103
102 µe
λec (s−1)

(MeV)
101 1 20
H
68
100 Ni
69
10-1 Ni
76
Ga 10 〈Q〉 = µn−µp
10-2 79
Ge
10-3 89
Br Qp
-4
10 0
1010 1011 1012 1010 1011 1012
ρ (g cm−3) ρ (g cm−3)

0
Abundances
10

10−1 Yn
Yh
Abundance

10−2 P
Yα Rh = i Yi λi = Yh hλh i
−3
10

Yp Rp = Y p λ p
10−4

10−5
1010 1011 1012
ρ (g cm−3)
10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 71
 Reaction rates
104

103

30
102

101

〈Eνe〉 (MeV)
Rec (s−1)

100 20

10−1

10−2 10

protons protons
10−3 nuclei
nuclei

10−4 0
1010 1011 1012 1010 1011 1012
ρ (g cm−3) ρ (g cm−3)

Electron capture on nuclei dominates over capture on protons

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 72
 Consequences
With Rampp & Janka (General Relativic model)
15 M presupernova model from A. Heger & S. Woosley
0.45 3.0 106

Bruenn
T 105 LMS
2.5
0.40

104

Eν−emission (MeV s−1)

Ylep 2.0

sc (kB), Tc (MeV)
0.35
103
Ye,c, Ylep,c

s
1.5 50
2
10 40
0.30

〈Eν〉 (MeV)
1.0 30
1
10 20
0.25 10
0.5 0
Bruenn Y Bruenn 10
0
e 1010 1012 1014
LMS LMS
ρc (g cm−3)
0.20 10 0.0 10 10−1 10
10 1011 1012 1013 1014 10 1011 1012 1013 1014 10 1011 1012 1013 1014
−3 −3 −3
ρc (g cm ) ρc (g cm ) ρc (g cm )

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 73
 Consequences
With Hix, Liebendörfer, Mezzacappa, Messer
(Newtonian Gravity)
0.5 1014

ρ (g cm−3)
0.4 1012
Ye

1010 Bruenn
0.3 LMS
108
velocity (104 km s−1)

0 5
−1 4

T (MeV)
3
−2
2
−3
1
−4 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Enclosed Mass (M) Enclosed Mass (M)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 73
 Shock evolution
With Rampp & Janka (General Relativic model)
200

150
Rshock (km)

100

50
Bruenn
LMS
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
t (s)
10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 74
 Neutrino interactions in the collapse
Bruenn and Haxton (1991)
Based on results for 56 Fe
• Elastic scattering:
ν + A  ν + A (trapping)
• Absorption:
νe + (N, Z)  e− + (N − 1, Z + 1)

• ν-e scattering:
ν + e−  ν + e−
• Inelastic ν-nuclei
scattering:
ν + A  ν + A∗

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 75
 56
νe absorption cross section on Fe
56
Fe(νe , e− )56 Co measured by KARMEN collaboration:
σexp = 2.56 ± 1.08(stat) ± 0.43(syst) × 10−40 cm2
σth = 2.38 × 10−40 cm2
120
20
100 1−
15 2−

σ (10-42 cm2)
80
σ (10-42 cm2)

10

60 5

40 0
5 10 15 20 25 30
Energy (MeV)
20

0
0 5 10 15 20
Energy (MeV)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 76
 Neutrino nucleosynthesis
νx (E ~ 25 MeV)
−

6 6 6
76 76 6
76 76 6
76 76 6
76 76 6
76 76 6
76 76 6
76 76 6
76 76 6
76 76 6
76 76 6
76 76 6
76 76 6
76 76 6
76 76 6
Neutrinos interact with abundant νe (E ~ 16 MeV)

6 6 6
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
nuclear species νe (E ~ 11 MeV)
ν− ν

6 6 6
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
• Neutral current (ν, ν 0 ): Nucleus
excited to particle unbound

6 6 6
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
54 76 76 76
Neutron−rich matter

54
54
54
states that decay by particle

6 6 6
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 76
76 76 54 76
54
54
54
emission. νe + n p + e−
R ~ 1/T
−
νe + p n + e+
• Charged current (νe , e− ) and
(ν̄e , e+ ).

11
B/10 B traces galactic evolution:
Product Parent Reaction
11
B 12
C (ν, ν 0 n), (ν, ν 0 p) • Big ratio ( 100) predicted by ν-process.
15 16
N O (ν, ν 0 n), (ν, ν 0 p) • Cosmic rays spallation reactions on C
19 20 give a ratio of 2.
F Ne (ν, ν 0 n), (ν, ν 0 p)
138 138
La Ba (ν, e− ) • Solar system ratio is 4.
139
La (ν, ν 0 n) 138
La, 180 Ta production is sensitive to neutrino
180 180
Ta Hf (ν, e− ) oscillations.
181
Ta (ν, ν 0 n)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 77
 Nucleosynthesis with and without ν
With Heger (Los Alamos)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 78
 138
The production of La
Produced by 139 La(γ, n), 138 Ba(νe , e− )

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 79
 180
The production of Ta
Produced by 181 Ta(γ, n), 180 Hf(νe , e− )

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 80
 Presupernova abundances
3
T= 9.01 GK, ρ= 6.80e+09 g/cm , Ye=.0.433

40
Z (Proton Number)

30

20 A=65 (LMP)

10 Log (Mass Fraction)

−5 −4 −3 −2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
N (Neutron Number)

10th Euro Summer School on Exotic Beams Shell-Model Applications in nuclear physics and astrophysics – p. 81