energies
Article
Computational Analysis of Tube Wall Temperature of
Superheater in 1000 MW Ultra-Supercritical Boiler Based on the
Inlet Thermal Deviation
Pei Li 1 , Ting Bao 2, *, Jian Guan 3 , Zifu Shi 4 , Zengxiao Xie 5 , Yonggang Zhou 4 and Wei Zhong 1
Citation: Li, P.; Bao, T.; Guan, J.; Shi,
Z.; Xie, Z.; Zhou, Y.; Zhong, W.
Computational Analysis of Tube Wall
Temperature of Superheater in 1000
MW Ultra-Supercritical Boiler Based
on the Inlet Thermal Deviation.
Energies 2023, 16, 1539. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en16031539
Academic Editors: Mohd Tariq,
Shafiq Ahmad and Adil Sarwar
Received: 12 January 2023
Revised: 30 January 2023
Accepted: 1 February 2023
Published: 3 February 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2023, 16, 1539. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031539
1 Institute of Thermal Science and Power Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
2 Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Energy Conservation & Pollutant Control Technology for Thermal
Power, Zhejiang Zheneng Technology Research Institute Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 311121, China
3 Zhejiang Province Energy Group Co., Ltd., Hangzhou 310007, China
4 State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Institute of Thermal Power Engineering,
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
5 Zhejiang Zheneng Zhongmei Zhoushan Coal & Electricity Co., Ltd., Zhoushan 316131, China
* Correspondence: samz@163.com; Tel.: +86-0571-8660-5484
Abstract: Local over-temperature is one of the main reasons for boiler tube failures (BTF). By accu-
rately monitoring and controlling tube wall temperature, local over-temperature can be avoided.
Based on the measured flue gas parameters and numerical simulation, a method of thermal deviation
calculation is proposed in this study for the on-line calculation of the tube wall temperature of boiler
superheaters. The full-size three-dimensional numerical simulation was presented on the combustion
in a pulverized coal-fired boiler of 1000 MW ultra-supercritical (USC) unit. A difference in the
thermal deviation of the vertical direction was innovatively introduced into a segmented discrete
model, and the thermal deviation condition conforming to reality was introduced into the calculation.
An on-line calculation system developed based on the current calculation method was applied in
a 1000 MW USC unit. The calculated local high-temperature zone was consistent with the actual
over-temperature position and conformed to the law of the allowable metal temperature of the final
superheater (FSH) serpentines segment. The comparison results showed that the calculated data
by this method were more reflective of tube wall temperature change with boiler loads than the
measured data. According to the calculated local over-temperature zone, the immediate warning
response can effectively reduce the possibility of over-temperature BTF.
Keywords: ultra-supercritical boiler; final superheater; numerical simulation; tube wall temperature
calculation; thermal deviation condition
1. Introduction
Even with new and clean energy technologies developing rapidly in recent years,
coal-fired power generation is still the main source of electric power [1]. By the first
quarter of 2022, coal-fired power generation accounted for 46.1% of the total installed
capacity in China [2]. Due to their higher efficiency and less harmful emissions compared
with traditional coal-fired power generation, ultra-supercritical (USC) units have become
increasingly popular in the coal-fired power industry, especially for 1000 MW USC units
with ultra-low emissions, deep peak regulation and other technologies. By the first quarter
of 2022, 75 1000 MW USC units had been under operation in China, and another 10 units
were under construction. In a 1000 MW USC unit, the width of the boiler is generally more
than 30 m. Its large span leads to combustion inhomogeneities along the width of the boiler.
Thus, both the temperature and velocity distributions of flue gas show large deviations
along the horizontal direction [3]. According to measured data, the thermal load deviation
of the superheater and reheater are between 1.15 and 1.25 [4]. The large deviation may
result in the locally excessive temperature being higher than the allowable temperature of
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2023, 16, 1539 2 of 15

the metal material. Long service under over-temperature conditions causes the exfoliation
of steam-side oxide scales, reducing the stress rupture life, and even overheating and boiler
tube failures (BTF) [5]. About 40% of the emergency shutdowns of units are caused by
BTF [6], which is a loss of approximately USD 5 billion per year for the power industry [7].
Adjusting the boiler combustion operation is the most rapid, convenient and efficient
way to solve the problem of local over-temperatures on high-temperature heating surfaces.
However, the problem usually occurs in the area with high temperature and high ash, so
the exact locations of over-temperature local areas are difficult to obtain in real-time during
the daily operation of the boiler. Many temperature measurement points are arranged in
the USC units to detect over-temperature circumstances during the daily operation of the
boiler. Considering the service life, the measurement points are not arranged on the high-
temperature heating surfaces inside the boiler, but on the wall of serpentine outlet steam
pipes outside the boiler. Combined with the calculation based on the flow and heat transfer
mechanism model of flue gas and working fluid, the over-temperature circumstance of
a whole tube can be well understood. However, the results mainly reflect the overall
over-temperature of the serpentines. For the situation where the overall heating surface
tube is not overheated, while the local tube segments are overheated, effective information
obtained from the measured temperature data is limited. Thus, the combustion operation
cannot be adjusted in a timely manner, according to the real-time situation, and eliminate
persistent over-temperature of local areas. Finding a means to obtain accurate temperatures
of the high-temperature heating surface in real-time is the key to solve the problem of
over-temperature BTFs.
Many studies use theoretical calculation methods to obtain the real temperature on
high-temperature heating surfaces that are mainly based on the method described in the
Thermal Calculations of Steam Boilers [8] and ASME IAPWS-IF97 [9]. Based on the premise
of the mass and energy balance, considering the inhomogeneity of heat absorption along
the cross section and perimeter of the pipe, the thermal characteristic along the tube wall,
hydraulic inhomogeneity, and structural differences in the serpentine pipe, the tube wall
temperature can be calculated. In recent years, many improvements have been proposed.
Wang et al. [10,11] introduced the thermal deviation theory of the same platen and the same
piece to distinguish the difference and the flow deviation between different serpentine tubes
in the same tube platen. Xu et al. [4] proposed a thermal load model based on the power
plant thermodynamic parameters, thermal deviation theory, and flow rate deviation theory.
The BTF positions predicted by this model are the same as those in the reheater of a 300 MW
utility boiler. Prieto et al. [12] described a three-dimensional numerical model, and the
continuity, momentum, and energy equations were solved in a coupled way, calculating the
temperature of the tube surfaces along the reheater. Madejski et al. [13] presented a model
based on the combination of the CVFEM and finite difference method. The steam and tube
wall temperature were computed in the superheater using this model and compared with
the results obtained by CFD simulation. Taler et al. [14,15] used a finite difference model
with distributed parameters to solve energy conservation equations for steam, tube wall,
and flue gas. Trojan et al. [16,17] developed distributed parameter mathematical models
of the steam superheater’s individual stages. Using the iterative calculations of the steam,
flue gas, and air temperatures, the developed mathematical models make it possible to
determine temperatures of the tube outer and inner surfaces. Xu et al. [18] proposed a single
tube model based on the finite volume method and measured temperature. Considering
the temperature distributions, both of the steam side and the flue gas side, the tube wall
temperature with a variety of combinations, including different steam flow rates and
heat transfer coefficients, were determined, and the tube wall temperature profiles of the
superheater and reheater tubes in the power plant were evaluated. Based on thermal
deviation theory and local energy and mass balance of the superheater tube, Sun et al. [19]
proposed a method of calculating tube wall temperature, adding the thermodynamic
constraint condition to the calculation of the steam temperature of the cross section. The
calculated maximum wall temperature position coincided with the position of the actual
Energies 2023, 16, 1539 3 of 15

overheating tube. In order to simplify the calculation model, many assumptions were made
when calculating the temperature of the heated surface wall in the mentioned research; for
example, circumferential heat conduction in the tube wall was assumed to be negligible,
pressure along the steam flow was constant, the temperature and flue gas velocity were
constant over the channel cross section before the superheater, and the load of the boiler
was constant. The calculated results were too idealized to quickly and accurately obtain
the heating surface wall temperature under varying boiler loads.
In addition to the above theoretical calculation methods, computational fluid dy-
namics (CFD) simulation is also used to evaluate the tube wall temperature [20–22]. The
combustion process of the boiler and the heat transfer process of the high-temperature
heating surface are always modeled in different computational domains. Heating surfaces
are modeled as porous regions, while direct radiation is set as a complement of a heat
source term. In this way, CFD simulation is useful for obtaining the temperature field
and velocity field of flue gas of the heating surface, but not the tube wall temperature.
Moreover, the operating state of a boiler in an actual power plant deviates greatly from
design values or theoretical conditions. Especially for opposite firing boilers, the primary
air flow (the air used for drying pulverized coal and carrying the dried pulverized coal into
the furnace) and fuel flow are different between different burners, and the secondary air
flow (the air enters the furnace directly through the secondary bellow after being heated
by the air preheater) in the air box has different distribution characteristics due to the
violent combustion in the furnace [23]. The calculated temperature field and velocity field
model show the characteristics of left–right symmetry because of the boundary condition
settings for different burners in a fully symmetrical and equal way, which are far from
actual conditions.
In order to obtain accurate tube wall temperature distribution and the local over-
temperature zone of FSH in a 1000 MW opposite firing boiler during actual operation,
operators must adjust the operation parameters in time to avoid the local over-temperature
state of the heating surface for long periods of time. In this study, by measuring the excess
air coefficient at the inlet of the air preheater under hot operation of the boiler, the horizontal
air distribution coefficient of the boiler was obtained. The secondary air flow of different
burners was determined according to the actual opening of the secondary air baffle of the
burners. The horizontal air distribution coefficient and secondary air flow were set as the
input boundary conditions. Via the full-size numerical simulation for a boiler, the flue
gas temperature distribution at the inlet cross section of the FSH was obtained, and it was
further amended by arranging gas temperature measuring results at the same cross section.
The amended temperature distribution was then set as the thermal deviation condition
for the calculation of tube wall temperature of the FSH. With the segmented finite element
method, the tube wall temperature distribution on the FSH of the boiler under different
loads was obtained. Compared with previous methods, the method reported in this study
is a better fit with the actual operation of the boiler, and more accurately reflects the local
over-temperature of the FSH. Due to its good performance in over-temperature warning,
the on-line calculation system of wall temperature based on the new method has been
successfully applied to an opposite firing boiler in a 1000 MW USC unit. It has been verified
that the calculated results are more consistent with the local temperature change than the
data obtained from measured points.

2. Case Study Boiler

2.1. Opposed Firing Utility Boiler Specifications
The numerical simulations were performed for a π type pulverized coal-fired boiler
in a 1000 MW USC unit. The layout of burners and high-temperature heating surfaces
of the boiler are shown in Figure 1. The length, width, and height of the furnace were
16,308.7 mm, 33,128.7 mm and 64,500 mm, respectively. There were 48 swirling burners
arranged in an opposed firing way on the front and rear walls. The 24 swirling burners
on each wall were averagely divided into three layers. Burners in the same layers were
 2. Case Study Boiler
2.1. Opposed Firing Utility Boiler Specifications
The numerical simulations were performed for a π type pulverized coal-fired boiler
in a 1000 MW USC unit. The layout of burners and high-temperature heating surfaces of
Energies 2023, 16, 1539 the boiler are shown in Figure 1. The length, width, and height of the furnace were 16,308.7 4 of 15
mm, 33,128.7 mm and 64,500 mm, respectively. There were 48 swirling burners arranged
in an opposed firing way on the front and rear walls. The 24 swirling burners on each wall
were averagely
staggered in thedivided
verticalinto three layers.
direction, and theBurners
swirl in the sameof
directions layers wereadjacent
any two staggered in the
burners
vertical direction, and the swirl directions of any two adjacent burners
were the opposite. Along the flue gas flow, the front platen superheater (FPSH), rear were the opposite.
Along superheater
platen the flue gas(RPSH),
flow, the front
final platen superheater
superheater (FSH), final (FPSH),
reheater rear
(FRH), platen superheater
low temperature
(RPSH), (LRH),
reheater final superheater (FSH),superheater
low temperature final reheater (FRH),
(LSH), andlow temperature
economizer (ECON) reheater
were (LRH),
heated
low temperature
successively. Thesuperheater
FSH consisted (LSH), of and economizer
110 tube platens(ECON)
along the were heated
width successively.
direction of the
The FSHwith
furnace, consisted of 110 tube
a transverse platens
intercept along
of 300 mm. theFrom
width direction
right to left of the tube
were furnace, with
platen 1 toa
transverse intercept of 300 mm. From right to left were tube platen 1
tube platen 110 in sequence. For each tube platen of the FSH, as shown in Figure 2, theto tube platen 110 in
sequence. For
serpentine waseach tube platen
arranged with five of kinds
the FSH, as shown
of steel tubes. in Figure 2,tothe
According theserpentine was the
thickness and ar-
ranged with
allowable five kinds (AT)
temperature of steel tubes.
of the According
material for eachto the thickness
steel tube, theand the allowableoftem-
thermostability the
perature
three tube(AT) of the material
segments below thefor each steel
furnace rooftube,
tube the thermostability
increased gradually,offromthe three tube seg-
inlet header to
ments header.
outlet below the furnace roof tube increased gradually, from inlet header to outlet header.

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Layout
Layoutofofburners
burnersand high-temperature
and heating
high-temperature surfaces
heating of the
surfaces of 1000 MWMW
the 1000 5 of
USC USC 16
coal-fired
coal-
boiler.
fired boiler.

Figure
Figure 2. The metal
2. The metal material,
material, pipe
pipe specifications,
specifications, and
and allowable
allowable temperatures
temperatures of
of the
the FSH.
FSH.

A total of 21 S-type thermocouples were installed at the inlet of the FSH under the
cold state of the boiler beforehand. These thermocouples were equably distributed on the
three layers of the flue cross section (Figure 3). Signals from these thermocouples are in-
troduced into the distributed control system (DCS) of the power plant to obtain the inlet
Energies 2023, 16, 1539 5 of 15

A total of 21 S-type thermocouples were installed at the inlet of the FSH under the
cold state of the boiler beforehand. These thermocouples were equably distributed on
the three layersFigure 2. The
of the fluemetal
crossmaterial,
sectionpipe specifications,
(Figure 3). Signalsand allowable
from these temperatures of the FSH.
thermocouples
are introduced into the distributed control system (DCS) of the power plant to obtain
A totaldistribution
the inlet gas temperature of 21 S-type of thermocouples
the FSH under were theinstalled
hot stateatofthethe
inlet of theThe
boiler. FSH under
cold state of the boiler beforehand. These thermocouples
thermocouples were supposed to be unacted on the heat radiation from burning, because were equably distributed on
three layers of the flue cross section (Figure 3). Signals
the thermocouples were installed above the furnace arch and used RPSH as a shield. Since from these thermocouples are
the thermocouplestroduced into the distributed
were installed at the samecontrol systemthe
cross section, (DCS) of the on
radiation power plant to obtain the i
thermocouples
from the furnace and the wall is mainly related to gas dimensionless coefficientboiler.
gas temperature distribution of the FSH under the hot state of the numbers The thermo
ples were supposed to be unacted on the heat radiation
(e.g., Nusselt number and Reynolds number), gas temperature and blackness, tube wall from burning, because the t
mocouples were installed above the furnace arch and
temperature, and the Boltzmann constant [24]. These parameters are approximately equal used RPSH as a shield. Since
under the samethermocouples
load and the same were flue
installed at the
surface; same
thus, theycross
have section,
limitedtheinfluence
radiationon onthe
thermocou
from the furnace and the wall is mainly related to gas dimensionless coefficient num
relative value of flue gas temperature between different measuring points. The mass flow
(e.g., Nusselt number and Reynolds number), gas temperature and blackness, tube
rate of flue gas under the rated load was Qs = 3568 t/h, the density was ρg = 1.323 kg/Nm3 ,
temperature, and the Boltzmann constant [24]. These parameters are approximately eq
and the inlet temperature was Tg,in = 990 ◦ C; the width of the flue cross section was
under the same load and the same flue surface; thus, they have limited influence on
W = 33,128.7 mm, the height was H = 12,784 mm, the pressure was Pg,in ≈ −100 Pa, and
relative value of flue gas temperature between different measuring points. The mass f
the velocity of flue gas was V g,in ≈ 8.19146 m/s, calculated according to the following
rate of flue gas under the rated load was Qs = 3568 t/h, the density was ρg = 1.323 kg/N
Equation (1). At low gas flow rate, the accuracy of the thermocouple measurement results
and the inlet temperature was Tg,in = 990 °C; the width of the flue cross section was
can be guaranteed.
33,128.7 mm, the height was H = 12,784 mm, the pressure was Pg,in ≈ −100 Pa, and
velocity of flue gas was Vg,in ≈ 8.19146 Qs m/s, calculated according to the following Equa
(1).VAt = gas flow rate, the accuracy of the thermocouple measurement(1)results ca
g,inlow
273 (101,325 − Pg,in )
guaranteed. ρg × × 101,325 × (W × H )
(273+Tg,in )

Figure 3. LayoutFigure
of flue 3.
gas temperature
Layout measuring
of flue gas points
temperature on the inlet
measuring flueon
points section of the
the inlet flueFSH.
section of the FSH.

2.2. Measurement of Transverse Distribution of Excess Air Coefficient of Boiler

As described in the previous section, during hot operation of the boiler, intense
combustion occurs in the center of the furnace, which consumes a large amount of air and
makes an under-pressure environment in the central area of the furnace, resulting in a
difference of under-pressure levels on the horizontal section of the furnace. For a 1000 MW
opposed firing boiler with large air boxes on both sides, the secondary air (including SOFA
air) flow of each burner is different under the same secondary air baffle opening; specifically,
the secondary air flow in the middle of the furnace is relatively large, and the secondary air
flow on both sides is relatively small. Two factors are related to this phenomenon; one is
the horizontal width of the boiler, the other is the differential pressure between static wind
boxes (about 0.3 and 0.5 kPa) and the furnace. Due to the horizontal width of the boiler
being more than 30 m and with eight installed burners, the difference of under-pressure
levels caused by intense combustion in the furnace tends to cause different secondary air
flows in burners. As the pressure of primary air is as high as 1.2 kPa, flow imbalance is not
obvious for the primary air.
Due to the burner structure, it is very difficult to measure the difference in secondary
air flow of different burners in the hot state of a boiler, and it is impossible to simulate the
Energies 2023, 16, 1539 6 of 15

combustion pressure in the cold state. According to the method described by Zhou [23],
40 measuring points were set horizontally in the outlet section of the economizer at the end
of the boiler. After 5 h of stable running of the boiler, the average excess air coefficient of the
40 points was measured. The section was divided into eight regions. Since the horizontal
flow rate of the flue gas is much lower than the vertical flow rate in the furnace [25,26], the
difference in excess air coefficient in the eight regions can be considered as the difference in
secondary air volume of the burner. Thus, the deviation coefficient of secondary air volume
of the eight burners on the same layer of the burner can be settled.

3. Mathematical Model and Calculation Method

3.1. Mesh System and Boundary Conditions
A full-size calculation was employed in the model. The computational domain ranged
from dry bottom hopper to horizontal flue outlets, including a furnace, DRB-4ZTM swirling
burners, SOFA air burners, a superheater, and a reheater of the horizontal flue. After the
verification of mesh independence, a polyhedral structure mesh comprising 1,767,143 poly-
hedral cells was established with Gambit, under the consideration of computational accu-
racy and workload, to simulate the combustion process of pulverized coal in the furnace (in
Figure 4). To determine the main parameters of the boundary condition of the CFD model,
measurements were taken from the DCS for a 5-h period, during which the unit load was
kept stable at 100 and 75% rated load (most common loads of this unit). More details about
the parameters are shown in Table 1. The primary air flow rate of eight burners on the
same layer was set equally according to the total primary air flow rate of each coal mill.
The secondary air flow rate of each burner under ideal conditions was obtained from the
total secondary air flow rate, according to the relationship between the opening of the
secondary air baffle and the secondary air flow rate, and then the actual flow deviation of
Energies 2023, 16,the
x FOR PEER REVIEW
secondary air of each burner could be set according to the above-mentioned deviation 7
coefficient of the secondary air flow of the burners.

Figure
Figure 4. Grid system of4.the
Grid system
1000 of theboiler.
MW USC 1000 MW USC boiler.

3.2. Coal Combustion

Tableand Heat Transfer
1. Operating Models
conditions of the boiler for 100% and 75% load cases.
Fluent 15.0 software was used to simulate the temperature of the pulverized coal
Design Conditions Actual Operating Condition
combustion, gas flow, and Parameter
heat exchange between heating
(BMCR) surfaces.100% Combustion
Load and75% Load
heat transfer in the furnace is a complex
Mills in service physical and chemical
ABCDE process. It is
ABCDEF necessary to ABCDE
select an appropriateTotal
mathematical model
coal flow rate (kg/s) and parameters
106.39 to obtain accurate
95.07 results. A 71.30
realizable k-epsilon model
Primarymodified by rotational
air flow rate (kg/s) flow was employed in modeling
189.72 179.12 gas flow. 141.74
Primary air inlet temperature (°C) 70.0 73.8 77.2
Secondary air flow rate (kg/s) 392 401 327
Secondary air inlet temperature (°C) 354 342 328
Inner secondary air rate (%) 30 30 30
Energies 2023, 16, 1539 7 of 15

The Lagrange stochastic particle model was employed in modeling particle movement
of pulverized coal. The eddy dissipation model was employed in modeling gas burning.
The DO model was employed in modeling radiative transfer. The two-competing-rates
model was employed in the devolatilization model. The diffusion dynamic model was
employed in modeling coke combustion. The design parameters of the boiler under BMCR
conditions were taken as boundary conditions for numerical simulation initially, in order
to test the accuracy of the model by comparing the calculated flue gas temperatures on the
same typical cross sections with the design data.

Table 1. Operating conditions of the boiler for 100% and 75% load cases.

Design Conditions Actual Operating Condition

Parameter
(BMCR) 100% Load 75% Load
Mills in service ABCDE ABCDEF ABCDE
Total coal flow rate (kg/s) 106.39 95.07 71.30
Primary air flow rate (kg/s) 189.72 179.12 141.74
Primary air inlet temperature (◦ C) 70.0 73.8 77.2
Secondary air flow rate (kg/s) 392 401 327
Secondary air inlet temperature (◦ C) 354 342 328
Inner secondary air rate (%) 30 30 30
Outer secondary air rate (%) 70 70 70
Sofa air flow rate (kg/s) 142.6 136.1 76.3
Sofa air inlet temperature (◦ C) 354 342 328

3.3. Method for On-Line Calculation of Tube Wall Temperature

Reference [27] described the on-line calculation method of tube wall temperature of a
high-temperature heating surface based on the sliced and segmented model in detail. Firstly,
the flue gas area of the whole superheater was dispersed into A × B × C heat transfer spaces
through three-dimensional slicing and segmenting, in a direction perpendicular to the
height of the furnace, in a direction perpendicular to the flue gas flow direction, and along
the flue gas flow direction. Secondly, the serpentines were divided into several tube sections
along the flow direction of the working fluid. Thirdly, based on the continuity and energy
balance of gas flow and working fluid flow, the heat transfer quantity was determined.
Fourthly, the tube wall temperature was calculated by the three-dimensional discrete model,
by setting the thermal deviation condition and the hydraulic deviation condition satisfying
the node mass flow continuity equation and the loop energy conservation equation. The
similar method was also described in [14], the thermal deviation condition was estimated
based on the tube wall temperature measured by thermocouples installed on the outlet of
serpentines, reflecting the overall temperature condition of the serpentine. Obviously, the
outlet tube wall temperature was not equal to the flue gas temperature and can only be
divided by along the width of the boiler.
The calculation method for the thermal deviation coefficient was improved in this
study. The real-time operation data and the measured excess air co-efficient deviation were
used to conduct CFD full-size simulation. The calculation conditions were more consistent
with the actual operation states of the boiler, so that the temperature distribution of the
inlet section of the FSH calculated by numerical simulation was very consistent with the
measured value. According to the flue gas temperature distribution at the inlet of the FSH,
the thermal deviation co-efficient was divided in more detail along the width and height
direction of the boiler, which previous researchers only considered the difference from
the width direction. According to the different metal materials characteristics of different
tube sections as shown in Figure 2, different thermal conductivity was used for different
tube sections in the tube wall temperature on-line calculation. It should be noted that the
tube wall temperature calculated by this method is not the highest temperature, but the
arithmetic mean value of the inner and outer wall temperatures. The maximum tube wall
Energies 2023, 16, 1539 8 of 15

temperature was located on the outer wall surface, which was about 10 ◦ C higher than the
arithmetic mean value of the inner and outer wall temperatures.

3.4. Thermal Deviation Model at the Inlet of the FSH

Relevant scholars [4,28,29] usually only paid attention to the transverse distribution of
thermal deviation of the whole heating surface when calculating the tube wall temperature
of the high-temperature heating surface. However, according to the flue gas temperature
distribution of the FSH inlet section obtained in this study, there were obvious temperature
differences in the vertical direction of the section. Only thermal deviation in the horizontal
direction obviously brought great error to the subsequent tube wall temperature calculation.
In this study, the inlet section of the FSH was divided into five regions in the vertical
direction, and the thermal deviation of each region was calculated separately. By extension,
thermal deviations under different loads and working conditions were obtained. Compared
with previous studies which only took the transverse distribution of thermal deviation into
account, the calculation of tube wall temperature in this study was much more accurate.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Distribution of the Thermal Deviation

Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW

The simulated flue gas temperatures at the inlet and outlet sections of the main 9heating of 16
surfaces under BMCR conditions are shown in Figure 5. All of the relative deviations
between the calculated values and designed values were less than 5%. It indicates that
the chosen models and the parameters setting were appropriate. Based on the excess air
coefficient distribution
coefficient distribution along
along the the width
width direction
directionof ofthe
theburner
burner(Figure
(Figure6),6),the
thefull-size
full-size
three-dimensional numerical simulation was conducted for the
three-dimensional numerical simulation was conducted for the temperature distribution intemperature distribution
in the
the furnace
furnace under
under thethe conditionsofofaa100%
conditions 100%load loadcase
case and
and a a 75%
75% loadloadcase.
case.TheThesimulated
simulated
temperature distribution in the furnace is shown in Figure 7. The results showthat
temperature distribution in the furnace is shown in Figure 7. The results show thatthe
the
calculated flue gas temperature distribution (Figure 8a,b) at the inlet section of theFSH
calculated flue gas temperature distribution (Figure 8a,b) at the inlet section of the FSHisis
very similar
very similar to
to the
the measured
measured flue flue gas
gas temperature
temperaturedistribution
distribution(Figure
(Figure8c,d).
8c,d).ItItcan
canbebeseen
seen
that the numerical simulation results have a strong similarity with the measuredresults.
that the numerical simulation results have a strong similarity with the measured results.
The locations
The locations ofof the
the local
local high-temperature
high-temperaturezone zoneandandlocal
locallow-temperature
low-temperaturezone zoneobtained
obtained
by the two methods were in good agreement. The insufficient number of measuringpoints
by the two methods were in good agreement. The insufficient number of measuring points
led to
led to the
the low
low accuracy
accuracy of of the
the measured
measured temperature
temperature distribution;
distribution;thus, thus,thethenumerical
numerical
simulation results
simulation results differed
differed slightly
slightly from
from the
the measured
measuredresults.
results.The Theresults
resultsofofthe
thenumerical
numerical
simulation for the 100% load case and 75% load case show that
simulation for the 100% load case and 75% load case show that the thermal deviation the thermal deviation co-
efficient distribution changed significantly along the vertical direction.
coefficient distribution changed significantly along the vertical direction. Figure 9 shows Figure 9 shows the
distribution
the distributionof the thermal
of the thermal deviation
deviationcoefficient
coefficient of of
thethe
five
fivevertical
verticalzones.
zones.The Thedifferent
different
thermal deviation coefficients indicate the nonuniformity of the
thermal deviation coefficients indicate the nonuniformity of the flue gas temperature flue gas temperature dis-
distribution. The simulation results confirm the necessity of zone divisions to improvethe
tribution. The simulation results confirm the necessity of zone divisions to improve the
accuracy of
accuracy of the
the tube
tube wall
wall temperature
temperature calculation.
calculation.
Mean flue gas temperature at the flow section (℃)

1400 25
Boiler design values
Absolute value of relative deviation (%)

1300 Numerical simulation results

Absolute value of relative deviation 20
1200

1100
15
1000

10
900

800
5
700

600 0
H

H
H

SH

RH

SH
PS

LR
PS

SS

fS

L
H
fF

fR

of

of
of
of
to
o

to

t
t
le

le

le
le
et

le
le

In

ut

In
In
l

ut
In

ut

O
O

Flue gas flow cross section

Figure 5. Numerical
Figure Numericalsimulation results
simulation andand
results design values
design of flue
values of gas
fluetemperatures in different
gas temperatures cross
in different
sections.
cross sections.

1.25
Zone 8 Zone 7 Zone 6 Zone 5 Zone 4 Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1

1.20
ient
 Ab
Mean fl
600 0

H
SH

SH

RH

SH
PS

LR
SS
RP

fS

L
H
fF

of

of
of
of
to
of
o

t
t
le

le

le
le
et

le
t
le

In

ut

In
In
l

ut
In

ut

O
O
Flue gas flow cross section

Energies 2023, 16, 1539 9 of 15

Figure 5. Numerical simulation results and design values of flue gas temperatures in different cross
sections.

1.25
Zone 8 Zone 7 Zone 6 Zone 5 Zone 4 Zone 3 Zone 2 Zone 1

1.20

Excess air coefficient

1.15

1.10

1.05
B19 B17 B15 B13 B11 B9 B7 B5 B3 B1 A20 A18 A16 A14 A12 A10 A8 A6 A4 A2
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW Measuring points along the transverse of the boiler 10 of 16

6. Excess
Figure 6.
Figure Excessair
aircoefficient
coefficientdistribution along
distribution the width
along direction
the width of the boiler.
direction of the boiler.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Numerical simulation
Numerical simulation results
results of flue
of flue gasgas temperature
temperature contours;
contours; (a)load
(a) 100% 100% load
case; (b)case;
75% (b) 75%
load case.
load case.

4.2. Calculation of Tube Wall Temperature

Based on the calculation method proposed in this study, an on-line monitoring system
for boiler superheater tube wall temperature was developed. The system was applied to a
1000 MW USC unit. Using the operation parameters in real-time and the corresponding
thermal deviation coefficient under current load, the calculated real-time tube wall tem-
perature of FSH is displayed graphically on a web page in the form of a structure chart
of the heating surface. The system records the allowable material temperatures of each
tube section of the FSH, so it can automatically give alarms in case of over-temperatures
in certain tube sections. The calculation results of tube wall temperatures under different
boiler operation conditions are stored in a database.

(a) (b)
 (a) (b)
Energies 2023, 16, 1539 10 of 15
Figure 7. Numerical simulation results of flue gas temperature contours; (a) 100% load case; (b) 75%
load case.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Flue
Fluegasgastemperature
temperaturecontours at at
contours thethe
inlet of the
inlet of FSH fromfrom
the FSH numerical simulation
numerical and meas-
simulation and
uring points; (a) numerical simulation results for the 100% load case; (b) numerical simulation
measuring points; (a) numerical simulation results for the 100% load case; (b) numerical simulation re-
sults for the 75% load case; (c) measured results for the 100% load case; (d) measured results for the
results for the 75% load case; (c) measured results for the 100% load case; (d) measured results11forofthe
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16
75% load case.
75% load case.

1.2 100% load case Part V

1.1 75% load case
1.0
0.9
0.8
1.2
Part IV
1.1
1.0
Thermal deviation coefficient

0.9
0.8
1.2
Part III
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
1.2
1.1 Part II
1.0
0.9
0.8
1.2
1.1 Part I
1.0
0.9
0.8
-16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Lateral position (m)
Figure 9. Thermal deviation coefficient
coefficient of
of 55 vertical
vertical regions.
regions.

4.2. Calculation of Tube Wall Temperature

Based on the calculation method proposed in this study, an on-line monitoring sys-
tem for boiler superheater tube wall temperature was developed. The system was applied
to a 1000 MW USC unit. Using the operation parameters in real-time and the correspond-
ing thermal deviation coefficient under current load, the calculated real-time tube wall
Energies 2023, 16, 1539 11 of 15

Figure 10 shows the calculated results of tube wall temperature distribution in FSH
under the 100 and 75% load cases. The calculated tube wall temperature distribution
basically corresponded to the inlet section flue gas temperature distribution along the boiler
width direction. Especially for the 75% load case, the temperature distribution on the tube
wall surface and at the FSH outlet showed an obvious “M” type distribution along the
furnace width, which was consistent with the flue gas temperature distribution. For a single
tube platen, the tube wall temperature gradually increased from the working fluid inlet to
the working fluid outlet, and the tube wall temperature at the working fluid outlet was
generally the highest. These temperature distribution results are basically similar to those in
reference [22]; however, the local high-temperature zone in reference [20] and reference [29]
were at the bottom of the FSH. The main reason for the difference may have been due to
the different position of the FSH in the boiler. The FSH in this study and in reference [22]
were behind the FPSH and the RPSH, and received less radiation from the furnace, while in
reference [20] and reference [29], the FSH position was closer to the furnace, and received
more radiation from the furnace. This phenomenon of the temperature distribution in
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16
this study fully conforms to the law of the allowable metal temperature of the FSH metal
material, and the calculated local high-temperature position was consistent with the actual
over-temperature position; this had been confirmed via metal detection when the unit
when the The
stopped. unit tube
stopped.
wall The tube wallof
temperature temperature
the FSH forofthethe75%
FSHloadfor the
case75%
wasload casethan
higher was
higher
that for than that for
the 100% loadthe 100%
case, whichloadiscase, which with
consistent is consistent
the resultswithof the results[29].
reference of reference
In other
[29]. Inthe
words, other
tubewords, the tube wall
wall temperature temperature
more more the
easily exceeds easily exceedsmetal
allowable the allowable
temperature metal
at
temperature
lower loads. Theat lower
mainloads.
reason Theformain
this isreason forworking
that the this is that theflow
fluid working
rate isfluid
moreflow rate is
sensitive
to a reduction
more sensitiveintoload than the in
a reduction flue gasthan
load temperature, resulting
the flue gas in a reduction
temperature, resultingof the
in acooling
reduc-
effect
tion ofofthe
thecooling
working fluidofon
effect thethe tube wall.
working fluid on the tube wall.

(a) (b)
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Calculated
Calculated results
results of
of tube
tube wall
wall temperature
temperature distribution
distribution of
of the
the FSH;
FSH; (a)
(a) 100%
100% load
load case;
case;
(b) 75% load case.
(b) 75% load case.

Figure 11a
Figure 11ashows
showsthe theon-line
on-line calculated
calculated tube
tube wallwall temperature
temperature distribution
distribution of theof50th
the
50th platen
tube tube platen
in theinFSH
the at
FSH at a certain
a certain operating
operating condition,
condition, and theandposition
the position
of theof50th
the tube
50th
tube platen
platen is marked
is marked in Figure
in Figure 3. Six are
3. Six points points are marked
marked along thealong
flow the flow direction
direction of the
of the working
working
fluid in thefluid in the serpentine
serpentine pipe, from pipe, from
P1 to P6, in P1 to as
turn, P6,shown
in turn,
in as shown
Figure 11b.inAccording
Figure 11b. to Ac-
the
cording to the DCS system, the inlet steam temperature (Ts-in) of the ◦
FSH
DCS system, the inlet steam temperature (Ts-in) of the FSH was about 550 C, and the outlet was about 550
°C, and
steam the outlet steam
temperature temperature
(Ts-out) was about(Ts-out)
600~605was ◦ C. about 600~605 °C.
The calculated tube The calculated
wall temperaturetube
wall
of thetemperature
FSH increased of the FSH increased
gradually along thegradually
workingalongfluidthe
flowworking fluidthe
path. Since flow path.
heat Since
transfer
the heat transfer between the tube and working fluid was much better than that between
the tube and flow gas, the tube wall temperature was closer to that of the working fluid.
The temperature at P1 was approximately equal to the inlet working fluid temperature.
The temperature at P4 was equal to that of the outlet working fluid temperature. At P6,
the tube wall temperature reached its maximum value, which was about 80 °C higher than
Energies 2023, 16, 1539 12 of 15

between the tube and working fluid was much better than that between the tube and flow
gas, the tube wall temperature was closer to that of the working fluid. The temperature at
P1 was approximately equal to the inlet working fluid temperature. The temperature at P4
was equal to that of the outlet working fluid temperature. At P6, the tube wall temperature
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of
reached its maximum value, which was about 80 ◦ C higher than that of P1. Meanwhile, the
working fluid temperature increased only by 54 ◦ C along the flow path.

(a) (b)
Figure 11. Calculation
Figure 11. Calculation results of results of the temperature
the temperature distribution
distribution of serpentine
of serpentine and feature
and feature points points lo
tions; (a) tube wall temperature distribution of serpentine; (b) locations of
locations; (a) tube wall temperature distribution of serpentine; (b) locations of P1 to P6. P1 to P6.

The wall temperatures

The wall temperatures of the six
of the six feature feature
points points
(Ttw-P1 to (Ttw-P1
Ttw-P6) to onTtw-P6)
the 50thon the 50th tu
tube
platen of theplaten
FSHofoperating
the FSH operating
at 100 and at 75%
100 and
load75% load
cases arecases
shownare shown
in Figurein Figure
12. The 12. The tem
temperature variation
perature trends trends
variation under the
undertwotheload
twocases
loadwerecasesdifferent. For the
were different. 100%
For load load ca
the 100%
case, the tube
thewall
tubetemperature
wall temperaturerose inrose
a zigzag mannermanner
in a zigzag from P1fromto P6.
P1The phase
to P6. Thein which
phase in which t
the tube walltubetemperature rose was
wall temperature rosemost
waspronounced
most pronounced between P3 andP3P4.
between and This
P4. isThis
notis not on
only related to the to
related long
thetube
longdistance here, but
tube distance also
here, butrelated to the to
also related local
thethermal deviation
local thermal deviation co
condition, i.e., the high local flue gas temperature. For the 75% load case, the
dition, i.e., the high local flue gas temperature. For the 75% load case, the local high te local high
temperature zone atzone
perature the inlet
at theofinlet
the of
FSHthemoved
FSH movedup, andup, the
andwall temperature
the wall temperature increased
increased almo
almost linearly from P1 to P6. Compared to the 100% load case, the
linearly from P1 to P6. Compared to the 100% load case, the wall temperaturewall temperature rose rose fro
from P3 to P3P4 todecreased for thefor
P4 decreased 75%
theload
75%case,
loadwhile
case, from
whileP2 fromto P3
P2andto P3from
andP4fromto P5,
P4itto P5, it
increased. The tubeThe
creased. walltube
temperature after P3 for
wall temperature the
after P375% load75%
for the case wascase
load higher
wasthan
higher that
than that f
for the 100% load case, and the difference between them was about 8 ◦ C at P6, where the
the 100% load case, and the difference between them was about 8 °C at P6, where the tu
tube wall temperature
wall temperature reached its highest
reached value.value.
its highest
The continuous 24-h on-line calculation results of the maximum tube wall temperature
(at the position 650of working fluid outlet) of the first serpentine on the 50th tube platen of
the FSH are shown640
100% 13.
in Figure load As
casea peak regulation unit, the unit load changed within
75% load case
the range of about
630 550 MW to 1035 MW. At this time, the outlet steam temperature of the
FSH, i.e., the main steam temperature, was basically kept stable within the rated parameter
Tube wall temperature (℃)

620
range of 600~605 ◦ C. The inlet steam temperature frequently changed between 530 and
610
◦
565 C. It fluctuated greatly, mainly due to the influence of spray desuperheating before
600
the FSH inlet. Many units are designed with many tube wall temperature measuring
590
points installed on the outlets of serpentines. These measuring points are located at the
580
furnace top chamber above the furnace roof tube. There is no high-temperature flue gas,
and the ambient 570
temperature is only about 500 ◦ C. Due to the influence of heat dissipation
560
of the working fluid in the tubes, the variation trend of the temperature by measuring
points is almost 550consistent with the outlet temperature of the working fluid. Therefore, the

540
Ts-in Ttw-P1 Ttw-P2 Ttw-P3 Ttw-P4 Ttw-P5 Ttw-P6 Ts-out
Position

Figure 12. Tube wall temperature variation along the steam flow under two different load cases.
 Figure 11. Calculation results of the temperature distribution of serpentine and feature points loca-
tions; (a) tube wall temperature distribution of serpentine; (b) locations of P1 to P6.

The wall temperatures of the six feature points (Ttw-P1 to Ttw-P6) on the 50th tube
Energies 2023, 16, 1539 platen of the FSH operating at 100 and 75% load cases are shown in Figure 12. The13tem- of 15
perature variation trends under the two load cases were different. For the 100% load case,
the tube wall temperature rose in a zigzag manner from P1 to P6. The phase in which the
tube wall temperature
measured rose was most
tube wall temperature does pronounced
not representbetween
the actual P3tube
and wall
P4. This is not only
temperature of
related
the to the
heating long tube
surface in thedistance here,should
boiler, and but alsonotrelated
be used toas
thethelocal
basisthermal deviation
for judging con-
the local
dition, i.e., the high
over-temperature of local flue gassurface.
the heating temperature. For the 75%
The maximum tubeload
wallcase, the localcalculated
temperature high tem-
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
perature
in this studyzonecan
at the inlet
better of thethe
reflect FSH movedinup,
change realand thewall
tube walltemperature
temperaturewith boiler14
increased of 16
almost
loads.
linearly
On the onefrom P1 to
hand, theP6. Compared
calculated to the 100%
maximum tube load
wall case, the wallwas
temperature temperature
significantly rose from
higher
P3 tothe
than P4 outlet
decreased
steamfor the 75% load
temperature andcase, while from
the measured P2 wall
tube to P3temperature.
and from P4On to the
P5, other
it in-
hand,
creased. theThe
the range variation
tube wall
of about in the
550 MW calculated
temperature maximum
to 1035 after
MW. P3
At for tube
thisthe 75%
time, wall
load
the temperature
casesteam
outlet with than
was higher boilerthat
temperature loads
of for
the
was
the
FSH, significantly
100%
i.e., load
the main higher
case, and the
steam than that of the
difference
temperature, outlet
between
was steam temperature
them was
basically keptabout and
stable8within
°C at the
themeasured
P6, where the tube
rated parame-tube
wall
wall temperature.
temperature
ter range of 600~605reached
°C. The itsinlet
highest
steamvalue.
temperature frequently changed between 530 and
565 °C. It fluctuated greatly, mainly due to the influence of spray desuperheating before
650
the FSH inlet. Many
100% load units
case are designed with many tube wall temperature measuring
640
points installed 75%onloadthe outlets of serpentines. These measuring points are located at the
case
630
furnace top chamber above the furnace roof tube. There is no high-temperature flue gas,
Tube wall temperature (℃)

620
and the ambient temperature is only about 500 °C. Due to the influence of heat dissipation
of 610
the working fluid in the tubes, the variation trend of the temperature by measuring
points
600 is almost consistent with the outlet temperature of the working fluid. Therefore,

the590
measured tube wall temperature does not represent the actual tube wall temperature
of the heating surface in the boiler, and should not be used as the basis for judging the
580

local
570 over-temperature of the heating surface. The maximum tube wall temperature cal-

culated
560 in this study can better reflect the change in real tube wall temperature with boiler
loads.
550 On the one hand, the calculated maximum tube wall temperature was significantly
higher
540 than the outlet steam temperature and the measured tube wall temperature. On
Ts-in Ttw-P1 Ttw-P2 Ttw-P3 Ttw-P4 Ttw-P5 Ttw-P6 Ts-out
the other hand, the variation in the calculated maximum tube wall temperature with
Position
boiler loads was significantly higher than that of the outlet steam temperature and the
measured
Figure
Figure 12. tubewall
12. Tube
Tube wall
wall temperature.
temperature
temperature variation
variationalong
alongthe
thesteam
steamflow
flowunder
undertwo
twodifferent
differentload
loadcases.
cases.

1200 700
The continuous
Load 24-h on-line
Ts-in Ts-out calculation results of the maximum tube wall tempera-
680
ture (at the position
1100 of working
Ttw of calculation value fluid outlet)
Ttw of ofpoint
measuring the first serpentine on the 50th tube platen
660
of the FSH are shown in Figure 13. As a peak regulation unit, the unit load changed within
1000 640
Temperature (℃)

620
Load (MWe)

900
600
800
580

700 560

540
600
520

500 500
00:00 03:00 06:00 09:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 00:00
Time

Figure 13.Tube
Figure13. Tubewall
walltemperature
temperaturecalculation
calculationresults
resultsover
over24
24h.h.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
A calculation method of thermal deviation based on the combination of excess air
A calculation method of thermal deviation based on the combination of excess air
coefficient measurement and three-dimensional full-scale numerical simulation of boiler
coefficient measurement and three-dimensional full-scale numerical simulation of boiler
combustion was proposed in this study. Based on the actual operating conditions of a
combustion was proposed in this study. Based on the actual operating conditions of a 1000
1000 MW coal-fired boiler, the deviation coefficient of secondary air flow of different burners
MW coal-fired boiler, the deviation coefficient of secondary air flow of different burners
was set as the boundary condition of the boiler three-dimensional full-size numerical
was set as the boundary condition of the boiler three-dimensional full-size numerical sim-
simulation. The calculation conditions were more consistent with the actual operation states
ulation. The calculation conditions were more consistent with the actual operation states
of the boiler, so that the temperature distribution of the inlet section of the FSH calculated
of the boiler, so that the temperature distribution of the inlet section of the FSH calculated
by numerical simulation was very consistent with the measured value. Actual thermal
by numerical simulation was very consistent with the measured value. Actual thermal
deviation conditions along the width and vertical directions were introduced into the
deviation
on-line conditions
calculation alongwall
of tube the temperature
width and vertical directions
of the boiler of thewere
FSH.introduced into the on-
The wall temperature
line calculation of tube wall temperature of the boiler of the FSH. The wall temperature
distributions of tube platens of the FSH and the serpentines in those tube platens under
distributions of tube
boiler-continuous platensconditions
operation of the FSHwere
and calculated.
the serpentines
Withinthe
those tube
boiler platens
load under
decreasing
boiler-continuous operation conditions were calculated. With the boiler load
from 100% load to 75% load, the tube wall temperature of the FSH generally increased. decreasing
from 100% load to 75% load, the tube wall temperature of the FSH generally increased.
Compared with previous calculation methods, the improved method has a higher level of
accuracy. The calculated local high-temperature zone conformed to the law of the allow-
able metal temperature of the FSH serpentines segment, and was consistent with the ac-
tual over-temperature position. An on-line calculation system developed based on the
Energies 2023, 16, 1539 14 of 15

Compared with previous calculation methods, the improved method has a higher level of
accuracy. The calculated local high-temperature zone conformed to the law of the allowable
metal temperature of the FSH serpentines segment, and was consistent with the actual
over-temperature position. An on-line calculation system developed based on the current
calculation method was applied to a 1000 MW USC unit. Compared with measuring
temperature with thermocouples installed on the outlet of serpentines, the calculation
method in this study reflects a change in real tube wall temperature more accurately.
Moreover, an on-line monitoring system for boiler superheater tube wall temperature
was developed based on the calculation method proposed in this study. According to
the calculated local over-temperature zone, an immediate warning response from the
on-line computing system can effectively help operators find the local over-temperature
zone and make timely adjustments in operating parameters, thereby preventing over-
temperature BTF.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.B. and Y.Z.; methodology, P.L.; validation, Z.S.; formal
analysis, W.Z.; investigation, P.L.; resources, J.G.; data curation, Z.S.; writing—original draft, P.L.;
writing—review and editing, T.B. and W.Z.; visualization, Z.S. and Y.Z.; supervision, J.G.; project
administration, T.B. and Z.X.; funding acquisition, Z.X. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study was supported by the Science and Technology Program of “System Development
of Safety State Assessment System for High-temperature Heating Surface of Ultra-supercritical Boilers
Based on Inner Wall Temperature Monitoring” of Zhejiang Province Energy Group Co., Ltd.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to the confidentiality of the data.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge Zhejiang Energy Group Co., Ltd., Zhejiang
Zheneng Zhongmei Zhoushan Coal & Electricity Co., Ltd. and Zhejiang Zheneng Technology
Research Institute Co., Ltd. for utilization of all the facilities and resources.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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