Research: Science and Education
Modified Stereographic Projections of Point Groups
and Diagrams of Their Irreducible Representations
Sidney F. A. Kettle
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School of Chemical Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, England
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Introduction: Nodes
Fundamental to a student’s understanding of quantum
chemistry is the concept of nodes. It is in large measure their
nodal patterns that distinguish s orbitals from p, p from d,
and bonding orbitals from antibonding. A point seldom made
sufficiently strongly is that the subject of group theory in
chemistry is also concerned with nodal patterns. In particular,
the different irreducible representations of a character table
are distinguished by the different nodal patterns associated
with them. The reason why there are sometimes irreducible
representations that do not have basis functions listed for
them at the right-hand side of a character table is that they
require functions with so many nodal surfaces that no simple
algebraic function describes them. This absence of basis func-
tions can easily lead to the impression that there are irreduc-
ible representations which are more difficult than their more
familiar counterparts.
Fortunately, there is a way in which all irreducible rep-
resentations can be treated equally in this respect, and as a
bonus, the physical significance of each irreducible represen-
tation can be made more evident. This can be done by giving
diagrammatic representations of each irreducible representation.
Their nodal pattern differences are thus highlighted, all irre-
ducible representations are treated equally, and it is a good
exercise for the student to show that functions represented in
the diagrams do, indeed, transform correctly. Although such
diagrams can be drawn for the cubic groups, the presence of
symmetry elements at inclined angles to each other makes
them somewhat cumbersome; and it is doubtful if this,
complicated by the triple degeneracies which have to be
represented, makes them helpful to students. I shall there-
fore confine my discussion to the axial groups, for which
the diagrams conform to a common pattern (a feature which
makes them more readily understood), although I give the
tetrahedral group as an example of the cubic.
Stereographic Projections
Stereographic projections of the crystallographic points are
to be found in some books (1), but they seem currently to have
gone out of fashion even in texts on group theory (although
they are still to be found in crystallographic texts). Perhaps
JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu • Vol. 76 No. 5 May 1999 • Journal of Chemical Education
this is because they indicate symmetry elements and symmetry-
equivalent points, whereas it is the symmetry operations which
make the points equivalent that are the focus in contemporary
chemical applications of group theory (2). The first step in the
present discussion is to reintroduce stereographic projections,
but in a slightly modified form. As an example of this approach,
in Figure 1 I give a modified stereographic projection for the
C2v point group alongside its traditional counterpart. The new
form differs from the traditional in several ways. Most im-
portant is that, in the new, beside each point is indicated the
unique operation that transforms the origin point (denoted
by the identity element E) into it. Next, the new is based on
a solid circle, whereas the traditional is based on a broken
circle. In the traditional, a solid circle indicates a mirror plane
perpendicular to the direction of observation. Unfortunately,
this meant that symmetry-related points commonly eclipsed
in the projection, necessitating a convention to cover this
point. To make each point unique so that a unique symmetry
operation may be associated with it, I will use a different con-
vention to describe quantities such as a horizontal mirror
plane reflection operation. Thus the use of a broken circle in
the C2v projection to indicate the absence of such a mirror
plane may be discarded; solid circles are easier to draw!
Figure 1. The (a) modified and
(b) conventional stereographic
projections of the C 2v group.
The modified projection shows
the effects of the operations of
the C 2v group on the general
point denoted by E. To remove
any ambiguities (although
these do not really exist be-
cause the labels in the figure
remove them), the choice of
orientations of the symmetry
elements σv and σv ′ is shown.
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 Research: Science and Education

Finally, not every symmetry element is diagrammatically C2v E C2 σv σ v′

represented (no C2 rotation axis is drawn in Figure 1). Again, A1 1 1 1 1
in keeping with contemporary group theory, the primary A2 1 1 {1 {1
concern is with the consequences of symmetry operations, B1 1 {1 1 {1
not with the existence of symmetry elements. There is already B2 1 {1 {1 1
an adequate supply of labels in the figure, sufficient to
uniquely identify the omitted features, and so such labels will
be introduced only when needed—or just helpful—to remove
ambiguities. There is always enough information in the diagram
to determine uniquely all symmetry elements and, more
important, any additional labels such as (1), (2) which have
been placed on them. For axial groups, the axis of highest
symmetry will invariably be placed at the center of the dia-
gram and will be made evident by the caption that always
accompanies such figures.

Pictures of Irreducible Representations

Using the stereographic projection in Figure 1 we can now
give diagrams of the irreducible representations of the C2v
point group. These are shown in Figure 2, where the pattern of
Figure 1 is to be regarded as implicit. For convenience, the C2v
character table is also given in Figure 2. It is a simple matter to
show that the + and { signs in the diagrams in Figure 2 corre-
spond to the entries 1 and {1, respectively, in the character table.
As a second simple example, consider the point group
C2h. This is a group for which the conventional stereographic
projection contains eclipsing points, so it highlights the
difference of the present diagrams. Figure 3 is an attempt to
show the situation in three dimensions. The diagram includes
the symmetry elements explicitly. Most important is the hori-
zontal mirror plane (it leads to the eclipsing), which is shown
as the large central circle (drawn in perspective as an ellipse).
The smaller circles (ellipses) above and below it along the
twofold axis contain the set of symmetry-related points that
are the subject of this discussion. They correspond to the
circles which appear in the subsequent diagrams (the large,
central, mirror-plane circle does not appear in these diagrams).
The new-type stereographic projection appropriate to the
C2h group is shown in Figure 4. In it, points “above” the σh
horizontal mirror plane in Figure 3 are indicated on the inner
circle; points “below” the horizontal mirror plane are indicated
on a second circle, concentric with the first and larger than
it. Figure 5 shows diagrams of the irreducible representations
of the C2h point group; again, the character table is included.
As an aid to comprehension, Figure 6 shows these same irre-
ducible representation diagrams using the perspective of Fig-
ure 3. However, perspectives akin to that of Figure 5 will be
used in all the following diagrams.
For the two groups so far exemplified, simple basis func-
tions are available for all the irreducible representations. The
final example is one in which this is not the case. It is the
important group D4h, for which simple basis functions are
not available for the A2g , A1u, B1u, and B2u irreducible repre-
sentations. The last two are spanned by f functions; the first,
by R z (but most students find rotations difficult to handle)
and by a g orbital function; and A1u , by an h orbital function.
In D4h there is not only a horizontal mirror plane reflection
but also other symmetry operations for which an ambiguity
arises. There are two sets of twofold axes perpendicular to
the C4 axis and two sets of mirror planes containing this axis.
Although it is not strictly necessary (given the final projec-
Figure 2. The nodal patterns associated with each of the irreduc-
ible representations of the C 2v point group. This diagram should
be interpreted with reference to the modified projection of Fig. 1.
For ease of reference, the C 2v character table is also given.
Figure 3. A three-dimensional diagram
showing the symmetry elements of the
C2h group and also the result of the
corresponding operations acting on
the point labeled E. The same labels
are used in this diagram to represent
both symmetry element and operation.
In the new-type stereographic projec-
tions of the following figures, only the
top and bottom circles (drawn here in
perspective and so as ellipses), those
containing the symmetr y-related
points, are shown. Although in this
diagram the top and bottom circles are
the same size, in the following figures
the bottom circle is drawn the larger,
so that it is not eclipsed by the top
circle. For the same reason, in the fol-
lowing figures the points here labeled
i and σh are placed in the lower,
larger, circle in the region outside that
eclipsed by the top circle.
Figure 4. A modified stereographic
projection for the C 2h group. E rep-
resents a general point. Two of the
symmetry operations transform this
into points below the horizontal
mirror plane σh. In the diagram,
these points are located between
the “above the σh” circle and a
larger, concentric, circle represent-
ing the “below the σh” region.

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 Research: Science and Education

C2h E C2 i σh
Ag 1 1 1 1 Figure 6. The irreduc-
Bg 1 {1 1 {1 ible representations of
Au 1 1 {1 {1 Fig. 5, this time drawn
Bu 1 {1 {1 1 in the perspective of
Fig. 3. Beware of one
potentially misleading
aspect of these dia-
grams. The phases
shown do not just re-
late to the planes on
which they are drawn
but to the correspond-
ing quadrant of space
(quadrant, because
there are four opera-
tions in the C2h group).

D4h E 2C4 C2 2C2′ 2C 2′′ i 2S4 σ h 2σ d 2σ d′

A1g 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Figure 5. The nodal patterns associated with each of the irreduc- A2g 1 1 1 {1 {1 1 1 1 {1 {1
ible representations of the C2h point group. This diagram should B1g 1 {1 1 1 {1 1 {1 1 1 {1
be interpreted with reference to the modified projection of Fig. 4 B2g 1 {1 1 {1 1 1 {1 1 {1 1
and the three-dimensional picture given in Fig. 3. For ease of ref-
Eg 2 0 {2 0 0 2 0 {2 0 0
erence, the C2h character table is also given.
A1u 1 1 1 1 1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1
A2u 1 1 1 {1 {1 {1 {1 {1 1 1
B1u 1 {1 1 1 {1 {1 1 {1 {1 1
B2u 1 {1 1 {1 1 {1 1 {1 1 {1
Eu 2 0 {2 0 0 {2 0 2 0 0

Figure 8. The nodal patterns associated with each of the irreduc-

Figure 7. A modified stereographic projection for the D4h group. E ible representations of the D4h point group. This diagram should
represents a general point. Points below the horizontal mirror plane be interpreted with reference to the modified projection of Fig. 7.
σh are represented in a way similar to that adopted in Fig. 4. For ease of reference, the D4h character table is also given.

tion one can always work backwards and determine the par-
ticular choice used in its construction), life is made much
easier if the choice is indicated in the stereographic projec-
tion. I have adopted the convention that, for example, the
members of one pair of σd mirror planes are separately de-
noted σd (1) and σd (2). The modified stereographic projection
of the D4h group is given in Figure 7 and its irreducible repre-
sentations are diagrammatically represented in Figure 8, along
with its character table.
A Cubic Group
All the examples I have given are of axial groups, those
for which there is a unique axis of symmetry, but this approach
can be extended to the cubic groups. Inevitably, the resulting
diagrams are somewhat complicated (many more symmetry
operations have to be shown) and therefore less useful for
teaching, although they are useful for research. As an example,
Figure 9 gives the modified stereographic projection of the tet-

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 Research: Science and Education
rahedral group Td , from which the interested reader can de-
termine the details of the extension referred to above. The
“tetrahedral” nature of the group is more evident in this
representation than in the conventional. For convenience in
denoting the effects of the symmetry operations, key parts of
the diagram are reproduced alongside the main diagram. In
this diagram, too, it is helpful to include the parentage of
the labels used to denote the results of most of the symmetry
operations (the numbers 1–4 suffice for this). For evident
reasons, we do not represent the irreducible representations
of the Td group.
Conclusion
It is inevitable when a line in a character table is replaced
by a diagram (sometimes by several diagrams, in the case of
degenerate irreducible representations) that the space occupied
is increased considerably. This is the major disadvantage of
the diagrams presented in this contribution. They are perhaps
more suited for a lecture presentation, when they can be
projected onto a screen and copies given to the students, than
for inclusion in a textbook. However, they give a physical nodal-
plane meaning to irreducible representations, which can be
very valuable when the student first encounters character
tables. They have other advantages as well. First, when it is
necessary to use projection operators in the construction of
symmetry-adapted functions, the problem of correctly handling
the operations arises. Even for some simple systems it is easy
to become confused over whether a particular operation has
already been considered. The modified stereographic projections
presented here almost entirely eliminate this problem. The
pictures of irreducible representations readily enable demonstra-
tion of the important fact that integration over a function
678 Journal of Chemical Education • Vol. 76 No. 5 May 1999 • JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu
Figure 9. A modified stereographic projection of the group Td .
The four 3-fold rotation axes are denoted by the labels 1–4,
shown at the center of the face through which they may be
regarded as emerging. The stereographic projection consists
of the six circles at the center of this figure; but for ease, the
smallest circles (each of which may conveniently be associated
with one of the faces of the tetrahedron), are shown enlarged
along with the identification of each of the 24 symmetry-re-
lated general positions. Because the identity element is contained
within the circle labeled 1, all symmetry operations are identified
by a label that includes the 1 if possible. Clockwise rotations about
the 3-fold axis emerging from a particular face are denoted by
+; anticlockwise by {. Mirror-plane reflections are denoted by
the two 3-fold axes that lie in the mirror plane; C 2 rotations by
the two 3-fold axes the angle between which is bisected by
the corresponding C2 axis. S 4 operations are similarly labeled,
a rotation clockwise about an emerging axis being denoted +.
The irreducible representations of the T d group could be shown
if the four small circles at the center of the diagram (and/or
their enlarged partners) were each subdivided into six and a
phase was associated with each of the resulting 24 segments.
other than a totally symmetric one leads to an answer of zero.
Simply draw tiny, symmetry-related boxes in each separate
region of each of the diagrams; summing the contributions from
these gives the answer zero for all but the totally symmetric
irreducible representation. The same answer results for all
choices of general positions of the small boxes, demonstrating
the result.
It can be helpful to superimpose two overhead transpar-
encies. Symmetry-adapted functions can be obtained by in-
spection if one transparency depicts an individual irreducible
representation as in Figures 2, 5, and 8 and the other shows the
way a basis function (e.g., an orbital labeled “a”) is converted
into b, c, d, etc. by the symmetry operations. Multiplication
of the superimposed entries followed by their addition gives
the required symmetry-adapted function. Next, the super-
position of two transparencies depicting different irreducible
representations (or two components of a degenerate irreducible
representation) enables their orthogonality to be demonstrated
easily. Finally, something for the more advanced user of group
theory: these diagrams, both stereographic projections and
diagrams of irreducible representations, are easily extended to
cover the double groups, making them easier both to visualize
and to handle (3). They can also be simply extended to triple
and quadruple—and even higher—groups, should this become
a valuable thing to do (3).
Literature Cited
1. See, for example, Point Group Character Tables and Related Data;
Salthouse, J. A.; Ware, M. J., Eds.; Cambridge University Press:
New York, 1972.
2. See, for example, Symmetry and Structure; Kettle, S. F. A.; Wiley:
Chichester and New York, 1995.
3. Kettle, S. F. A. Spectrochim. Acta A 1998, 54, 1633–1638.