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Abstract cent of the men and 17 percent of the women with schizo-
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Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2004 P. Moran and S. Hodgins
play a pattern of antisocial behavior both before and after orders and another set conferring a vulnerability for exter-
the onset of schizophrenia (Hodgins 2004). nalizing problems. Just as investigations of hereditary fac-
Comorbid APD amplifies the suffering of people with tors associated with schizophrenia have not taken account
schizophrenia. Among men with schizophrenia, comorbid of antisocial behavior patterns, studies of the role of
APD is associated with persistent criminality, much of it obstetric complications have not taken account, for exam-
nonviolent, that begins in adolescence and often leads to ple, of the damage that maternal antisocial behavior could
imprisonment (Hodgins and Cote 1993), with early-onset do to the developing fetus.
substance use, unemployment, and homelessness Some children with conduct disorder (Frick et al.
(Tengstrom and Hodgins 2002). Other studies suggest that 2003) and some adults with APD (Cooke and Michie
the presence of APD among persons with schizophrenia is 1997) also display two personality traits included in the
associated with an increased severity of substance abuse, syndrome of psychopathy: arrogant and deceitful interper-
a greater severity of symptoms of psychosis, higher rates sonal conduct, and deficient affective experience. The first
of police contact, and with violent behavior (Mueser et al. trait does not characterize men with schizophrenia, but
1997, 1999; Gandhi et al. 2001; Moran et al. 2003). deficient affective experience is elevated among offenders
Furthermore, a small number of studies have reported that with schizophrenia (Tengstrom and Hodgins 2002) and
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Comorbid Antisocial Personality Disorder Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2004
state of Hessen in Germany; and southern Sweden). One childhood and adolescence (defined as birth to age 18)
hundred and forty-five (62.5%) of the men had been dis- was obtained from participants; family members; and
charged from a forensic psychiatric hospital, and 87 school, military, criminal, and medical files. A consensus
(37.5%) had been discharged from a general psychiatric decision about each variable was made by the research
hospital. The proportion of the total sample recruited in psychiatrist and research assistant after all information
each site was as follows: Canada, 39 percent (n - 90); had been extracted from files and interviews with patients
Finland, 25 percent (n = 57); Germany, 27 percent (n = and family members had been completed.
63); and Sweden, 9 percent (n = 22). The mean age of the Parents' characteristics. Information on parents
sample was 38 years (standard deviation [SD] = 11.3), and was obtained from the participants, family members, and
the principal DSM-IV (APA 1994) diagnoses were schizo- in some cases records.
phrenia (n = 186), schizoaffective disorder (n = 45), and Diagnoses. Primary, secondary, and tertiary diag-
schizophreniform disorder (n = 1). Twenty-two percent of noses—lifetime and current—were made using the
the total sample (n = 51) (95% confidence interval [CI]: Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID) for
16.7-27.3) met DSM-FV criteria for a comorbid diagnosis Axis I and II disorders (Spitzer et al. 1992). Experienced
of APD: 26 percent (n - 38) of the forensic patients and 15 psychiatrists who were trained by the developers of the
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Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2004 P. Moran and S. Hodgins
Procedure. Within each site, each participant with a APD, compared to those without APD, met criteria for
diagnosis of a major mental disorder being discharged alcohol and drug abuse or dependence. The history of
from the forensic hospital was approached and invited to treatment in psychiatric services, psychosocial function-
participate in the study. If the participant formally con- ing, and symptoms at discharge did not distinguish those
sented to participate, the SCID (Spitzer et al. 1992) was with APD. As would be expected because of the overlap
completed. If a diagnosis of a major mental disorder was between symptoms of APD and items on the PCL-R, the
confirmed, the participant was included in the study and participants with APD obtained higher mean total PCL-R
the other interviews and assessments were completed and scores and higher scores on the factor indicating an
information was collected from files and collaterals. impulsive and irresponsible behavioral style. Notably,
Patients from general psychiatric hospitals in the same however, they also obtained higher scores on the trait of
geographical region who had the same sex, similar age deficient affective experience, which does not overlap
(±5 years), and the same principal diagnosis were identi- with APD symptoms. The statistical significance of this
fied and also invited to participate in the study. If the prin- comparison, however, diminished after applying the
cipal diagnosis was confirmed by the research psychiatrist Bonferroni correction.
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Comorbid Antisocial Personality Disorder Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2004
Table 1. Comparisons of the characteristics of men with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder with and
without comorbid APD
Variable APD No APD Test P
Sociodemographic characteristics
Mean age (yrs) 37.5 (SD= 11.7) 38.3 (SD= 11.2) 4230, n = 232) = 0.5 0.06
Father's occupation
White collar or professional 16% (7) 30% (47) X 2 (1,n= 199) = 3.6 0.06
Mother's occupation
White collar or professional 15% (7) 19% (31) X 2 (1,n=207) = 0.4 0.05
Diagnoses
Principle diagnosis
Schizophrenia 78% (40) 81% (146) X2(2, n = 232) = 3.6 0.2
Schizoaffective disorder 20% (10) 19% (35)
Schizophreniform 2%(1) —
Mean age of onset of prodrome (yrs) 20.3 (SD= 6.7) 0.4
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Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2004 P. Moran and S. Hodgins
Table 1. Comparisons of the characteristics of men with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder with and
without comorbid APD—Continued
Variable APD No APD Test P
2
Substance abuse 82% (41) 4 1 % (73) X (1,n= 230) = 26.9 <0.001*
Mean age of onset (yrs) 13.7 (SD = 2.5) 14.9 (SD = 2.9) /(93, n = 95) = 2.0 0.05
Anxiety problems 35% (17) 34% (60) X 2 (1,n = 226) = 0.01 0.9
Mean age of onset (yrs) 9.8 (SD = 5.6) 9.7 (SD = 4.3) /(59, n = 61) = 0.03 0.9
Childhood academic performance
Below average performance, elementary
school 48% (24) 2 1 % (36) X 2 (1,n= 224) = 14.8 <0.001*
Successfully completed high school 16% (8) 40% (69) X 2 (1, n = 222) = 9.9 0.002
Placed in an institution before age 18 yrs 49% (25) 24% (43) X 2 (1,n = 229) = 11.7 <0.001*
Childhood victimization
Physical abuse before 12 yrs 79% (38) 56% (97) X 2 (1,n = 220) = 8.2 0.004
model: attention/concentration problems, substance abuse, percent were characterized by all three variables; 40 per-
below-average performance at elementary school, and cent were characterized by two variables; 26 percent by
being placed in an institution before age 18. Likelihood one variable; and 2 percent by none of the three variables.
ratio tests indicated that the best model of childhood cor- The second model included variables that distin-
relates of APD included three variables: attention/concen- guished the participants with and without comorbid APD
tration problems before age 18 (adjusted odds ratio: 2.83; in adulthood. The analysis included 230 participants with
95% CI 1.34-5.94); substance abuse before age 18 complete data. Lifetime DSM-IV diagnoses of alcohol
(adjusted odds ratio: 5.44; 95% CI 2.41-12.28); and abuse or dependence and drug abuse or dependence were
below-average performance at elementary school entered as predictors because they had significantly distin-
(adjusted odds ratio: 2.91; 95% CI 1.39-6.11). This model guished the participants with and without comorbid APD
could not be improved upon to a statistically significant in univariate analyses. While the total PCL-R scores and
degree by the addition of further variables and yielded an the scores for impulsive and irresponsible behavioral style
overall likelihood ratio statistic of 46.96 (p < 0.001). The were significantly different for the participants with and
three significant variables often co-occur; therefore, we without APD, they were not entered into the model
examined the proportions of participants characterized by because they overlap with a diagnosis of APD. The score
these variables. Among the men with comorbid APD, 32 for deficient affective experience may be important in
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Comorbid Antisocial Personality Disorder Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2004
understanding antisocial behavior among persons with bid APD, 14 percent were characterized by all five predic-
schizophrenia. It was therefore entered into the model tors, 44 percent by four, 22 percent by three, 18 percent
even though the univariate comparison was not significant by two, and 2 percent by one.
once the Bonferroni correction was applied. Site of Finally, a model was determined using variables
recruitment and hospital at discharge (forensic or general) descriptive of participants' criminal careers. The follow-
were also entered as covariates. The best model of adult ing variables were entered into this model: total number
clinical correlates of APD included three variables: adult of crimes, total number of violent crimes, total number of
alcohol abuse or dependence (adjusted odds ratio: 2.92; nonviolent crimes, having a criminal conviction before
95% CI 1.38-6.15); adult drug abuse or dependence first admission to general psychiatry, site of recruitment,
(adjusted odds ratio: 2.39; 95% CI 1.21^.72); and defi- and type of discharge. The best model of criminal corre-
cient affective experience (adjusted odds ratio: 1.25; 95% lates included only two variables: total number of crimes
CI 1.07-1.46). This model could not be improved upon to (adjusted odds ratio: 1.03; 95% CI 1.01-1.05) and having
a statistically significant degree by the addition of any fur- a criminal conviction before first admission to general
ther variables and yielded an overall likelihood ratio sta- psychiatry (adjusted odds ratio: 3.13; 95% CI 1.23-7.94).
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Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2004 P. Moran and S. Hodgins
nor homicide was found to be associated with APD. This the risk of schizophrenia (Arseneault et al. 2002; Zammit
finding is consistent with the observation that there are et al. 2002), intervening to reduce conduct disorder
several distinct subgroups of offenders with schizophrenia among children with a family history of schizophrenia
(Hodgins 2004). spectrum disorders could reduce cannabis abuse and
The men who developed comorbid APD had experi- thereby lower their risk of developing schizophrenia. The
enced numerous difficulties in childhood and early ado- effective treatment of conduct disorder during childhood
lescence. In addition to presenting conduct disorder, a sig- would reduce antisocial behaviors and increase prosocial
nificantly greater proportion of those with APD, compared skills. If schizophrenia did develop, these skills might
to those without APD, presented attention/concentration serve to increase compliance with treatment and prevent
problems in childhood and poor academic performance as substance misuse and crime. While the effective treatment
early as elementary school. Neither of these symptoms is of conduct disorder among children with a family history
included in the diagnosis of conduct disorder. While tru- of schizophrenia would appear to have many benefits,
ancy from school is a symptom of conduct disorder, it is treatment for childhood attention and concentration prob-
more common among teenagers than among elementary lems is potentially problematic. Stimulant medications
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Comorbid Antisocial Personality Disorder Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2004
bid APD were first admitted to the general psychiatric ser- Armstrong, T, and Costello, E.J. Community studies on
vice, they had a long history of antisocial behavior, sub- adolescent substance use, abuse, or dependence and psy-
stance abuse, poor academic failure, and an adverse fam- chiatric comorbidity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
ily environment, and many already had a criminal record. Psychology, 70:1224-1239, 2002.
There was, therefore, ample evidence for general psychi- Arseneault, L.; Cannon, M.; Poulton, R.; Murray, R.;
atric services to identify needs for specific treatments and Caspi, A.; and Moffitt, T.E. Cannabis use in adolescence
services in addition to those traditionally provided to first and risk for adult psychosis: Longitudinal prospective
onset cases of schizophrenia. Ideally, such patients require study. British Medical Journal, 32:1212-1213, 2002.
thorough assessments once the psychotic symptoms are
Asarnow, J.R. Children at risk for schizophrenia:
reduced, to identify comorbid APD. Such patients are
Converging lines of evidence. Schizophrenia Bulletin,
likely to require complex treatment plans adapted to their
14(4):613-631, 1988.
antisocial personality and placement in neighborhoods
that support and promote positive change. Currently, gen- Blair, R.J.R. Neurobiological basis of psychopathy.
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Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2004 P. Moran and S. Hodgins
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Schizophrenia Bulletin, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2004 P. Moran and S. Hodgins
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