ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
◾ Define hormone and endocrine system.
◾ Name the organs of the endocrine system.
◾ Describe the relationships between the hypothalamus & pituitary gland.
◾ List the hormones produced endocrine system,and outline the main targets
and functions of each hormone.
◾ Identify the chemical classes to which various hormones belong.
◾ Describe how hormones stimulate their target cells.
◾ O utline the stages of the stress response.
 HOMEOSTASIS

◾ stable internal environment

◾ organs, tissues & cells function within certain physiological limits

◾ when homeostatic regulation cannot compensate,disease can result

◾ endocrine system is primary mechanism of homeostatic regulation

◾ keeps physiological variation within normal limits compatible with survival

◾ ignores minor variation & allows values to oscillate within a normal range
 O VERVIEW OF THE ENDOCRIN E SYSTEM
Body has four principal mechanisms of communication between cells
◾ Gap junctions
◾ pores in cell membrane allow signaling molecules,nutrients & electrolytes to
move from cell to cell
◾ Neurotransmitters
◾ released from neurons to travel across synaptic cleft to second cell
◾ Paracrine chemicals
◾ substances secreted into tissue fluids to affect nearby cells
◾ Hormones
◾ Chemical messengers that travel via bloodstream to tissues & organs
 O VERVIEW OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

◾ comprises glands,tissues & cells that

secrete hormones - chemical messengers

◾ transported by bloodstream & stimulate

physiological responses in cells of another
tissue or organ

 target organs or have receptors for

specific hormones & respond to them

 some target cells possess enzymes that

convert circulating hormones to more
active form
 ENDOCRINE & EXOCRINE GLANDS

◾ Exocrine glands
◾ ducts carry secretion to an epithelial surface or mucosa of the GIT
◾ extracellular effects (food digestion)

◾ Endocrine glands
◾ ductless
◾ dense capillary networks which allow uptake of hormones into bloodstream
◾ intracellular effects such as altering target cell metabolism
 C O M PARISON OF NERVOUS & ENDOCRINE
SYSTEMS
◾ both systems serve for internal communication

◾ Speed & persistence of response

◾ nervous: reacts quickly (ms timescale),stops quickly
◾ endocrine: reacts slowly (seconds/days),effect may continue for days or
longer

◾ Adaptation to long-term stimuli

◾ nervous:response declines (adapts quickly)
◾ endocrine: response persists (adapts slowly)

◾ Area of effect
◾ nervous: targeted & specific (one organ)
◾ endocrine: general,widespread effects (many organs)
 C O M PARISON OF NERVOUS & ENDOCRINE
SYSTEMS

◾ Several chemicals function as both hormones & neurotransmitters

◾ norepinephrine,dopamine &A D H

◾ Both systems can have similar effects on target cells

◾ norepinephrine & glucagon both cause glycogen hydrolysis in liver

◾ The two systems can regulate each other

◾ neurotransmitters can affect glands,and hormones can affect neurons

◾ Neuroendocrine cells share characteristics with both systems

◾ neuron-like cells that secrete e.g.oxytocin into blood
C O MMUNICATION BY NERVO U S & EN D OC RINE SYSTEMS

(a) Nervous system

(b) Endocrine system

 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this lecture you should be able to:

◾ Define hormone and endocrine system.√
◾ Name the organs of the endocrine system.
◾ Describe the relationships between the hypothalamus & pituitary gland.
◾ List the hormones produced by the endocrine system and outline the main
targets and functions of each hormone.
◾ Identify the chemical classes to which various hormones belong.
◾ Describe how hormones stimulate their target cells.
◾ Outline the stages of the stress response.
 A N ATOMY OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
◾ major anatomical structures are the hypothalamus & the pituitary gland

◾ hypothalamus is part of diencephalon

◾ regulates wide range of bodily functions

 A N ATO MY O FTHE ENDO C RINE SYSTEM

◾ pituitary gland [hypophysis] is suspended from hypothalamus by infundibulum

◾ lies in the sella turcica of sphenoid bone

◾ comprises two lobes of different embryological origins & separate functions

◾ adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)
◾ neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary)
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE PITUITARY GLAN D
 PITUITARY GLAND

◾ Adenohypophysis (anterior lobe) constitutes anterior 3/4 of pituitary gland

◾ linked to hypothalamus by hypophyseal [vascular] portal system
◾ primary capillaries in hypothalamus connected to secondary capillaries in
adenohypophysis by portal venules

◾ Hypothalamic hormones regulate adenohypophysis cells

◾ hypothalamic-releasing & inhibiting hormones/factors travel in
hypophyseal portal system from hypothalamus to anterior pituitary
◾ factors promote secretion of hormones from anterior pituitary
 A N ATOMY OF THE PITUITARY GLAND

Hypothalamic hormones
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
C orticotropin-releasing hormone
Prolactin-inhibiting hormone
Growth hormone-releasing hormone
Somatostatin

A nterior lobe hormones

Follicle-stimulating hormone
Luteinizing hormone
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Prolactin
Growth hormone
 PITUITARY GLAND

 Neurohypophysis (posterior lobe) constitutes posterior 1/4 of pituitary gland

 nerve tissue
 axons of nerve cell bodies in hypothalamus pass down the stalk as the
hypothalamo– hypophyseal tract
 tract ends in the posterior lobe
 hypothalamic neurons secrete hormones that are stored in neurohypophysis
until released into blood
POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAN D A N ATOMY
HISTOLOGY OF PITUITARY GLAND
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this lecture you should be able to:
◾ Define hormone and endocrine system.√
◾ Name the organs of the endocrine system. √
◾ Describe the relationships between the hypothalamus & pituitary gland. √
◾ List the hormones produced by the endocrine system and outline the main
targets and functions of each hormone.
◾ Identify the chemical classes to which various hormones belong.
◾ Describe how hormones stimulate their target cells.
◾ O utline the stages of the stress response.
 HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES/FACTORS

Hypothalamic hormones
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
C orticotropin-releasing hormone
Prolactin-inhibiting hormone
Growth hormone-releasing hormone
Somatostatin

A nterior lobe hormones

Follicle-stimulating hormone
Luteinizing hormone
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Prolactin
Growth hormone
 HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES

◾ oxytocin (OT) & antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

◾ both produced by cells of hypothalamus

◾ stored & released by posterior pituitary

◾ not synthesized by the posterior pituitary

 POSTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES
◾ OT &ADH released when hypothalamic neurons are stimulated
◾ Oxytocin (OT)
◾ stimulates labour contractions during childbirth
◾ stimulates flow of milk during lactation
◾ may promote emotional bonding between lactating mother & infant
◾ promotes feelings of sexual satisfaction & bonding between partners

◾ A D H (antidiuretic hormone)
◾ increases water retention - reduces urine volume & prevents dehydration

◾ also called vasopressin because it can cause vasoconstriction

 ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES
Six principal hormones
◾ two gonadotropin hormones target gonads
◾ Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
◾ stimulates secretion of ovarian sex hormones, development of ovarian
follicles,and sperm production
◾ Luteinizing hormone (LH)
◾ stimulates ovulation,stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progesterone,
stimulates testes to secrete testosterone

◾ Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

◾ stimulates secretion of thyroid hormone
 ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

◾ Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

◾ stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids

◾ Prolactin (PRL)
◾ after birth,stimulates mammary glands to synthesize milk

◾ Growth hormone (GH)

◾ stimulates mitosis & cellular differentiation
HYPOTHALAMO–PITUITARY–TARGET ORGAN RELATIONSHIPS
 CONTROL OF PITUITARY SECRETION
◾ Rates of secretion are not constant
◾ regulated by hypothalamus,other brain areas & feedback from target organs

◾ Hypothalamic & cerebral control:

◾ brain monitors conditions & influences anterior pituitary
◾ in times of stress, hypothalamus triggers release ofACTH
◾ during pregnancy,hypothalamus triggers prolactin secretion

◾ Posterior pituitary is controlled by neuroendocrine reflexes

◾ hypothalamic osmoreceptors trigger release ofA D H when they detect a rise
in blood osmolarity
◾ infant suckling triggers hypothalamic response to release oxytocin
 CONTROL OF PITUITARY SECRETION

Negative feedback
◾ increased target organ hormone levels inhibit release of hypothalamic and/or
pituitary hormones
◾ E.g. thyroid hormone inhibits release ofTRH by hypothalamus &TSH by
anterior pituitary

◾ Positive feedback can also occur - rarer

◾ stretching of uterus increases OT release,causes contractions,causing more
stretching of uterus,etc.until delivery
CONTROL OF PITUITARY SECRETION
 GROWTH HORMONE

◾ widespread effects on body tissues

◾ cartilage,bone,muscle,and fat
◾ bone growth,thickening & remodeling influenced
◾ especially influential in childhood & adolescence
◾ can peak in response to vigorous exercise

Figure 17.25

◾ induces liver to produce growth stimulants

◾ insulin-like growth factors (IGF-I) or somatomedins (IGF-II)
◾ stimulate target cells in diverse tissues
◾ IGF-I prolongs the action of GH

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

 GROWTH HORMONE

◾ Induces liver to produce growth stimulants:

◾ protein synthesis increases:increases amino acid uptake into cells;suppresses

protein catabolism
◾ lipid metabolism increases:stimulates adipocytes to catabolize fats (protein-
sparing effect)
◾ carbohydrate metabolism: glucose-sparing effect, mobilizing fatty acids reduces
dependence on glucose, freeing more for the brain; stimulates glucose
secretion by liver
◾ electrolyte balance:promotes Na+, K+, and Cl− retention by kidneys, enhances
Ca2+ absorption in intestine; electrolytes available to growing tissues
 THE PINEAL GLAND
◾ attached to roof of third ventricle beneath posterior end of corpus callosum
◾ after age 7,it undergoes involution (shrinkage) - reduced 75% by end of puberty
◾ may synchronize physiological function with 24-hour circadian rhythms
◾ synthesises melatonin from serotonin during the night
◾ fluctuates seasonally with changes in day length
◾ regulates onset of puberty
 THE THYMUS

◾ role in endocrine,lymphatic,& immune

systems

◾ bilobed gland in mediastinum above heart

◾ undergoes involution after puberty

◾ site of maturation ofT-cells important in

immune defense

◾ secretes hormones that stimulate

development of other lymphatic organs &
activity ofT lymphocytes

Figure 17.8
 A N ATOMY OF THE THYROID GLAND

◾ largest gland that is purely endocrine

◾ two lobes & an isthmus below the larynx

◾ dark reddish brown color - rich blood supply

Figure 17.26

Goiter:pathological enlargement of
thyroid gland
 endemic goiter (geographic locality)
 dietary iodine deficiency,no TH, no
feedback,increasedTSH - hypertrophy
 THYROID GLAND
Thyroid follicles - sacs comprising most of thyroid
 contain protein-rich colloid
 secretes thyroxine (T4 ) & triiodothyronine (T3 )

Increases metabolic rate

 O2 consumption
 heat production (calorigenic effect)
 appetite,
 growth hormone secretion
 alertness,reflex speed

Parafollicular (C or clear) cells

 secrete calcitonin with rising blood Ca+
 stimulates osteoblast activity & bone
formation in children