Materials Science and Engineering, 93 (1987) 73-82
The Thermal Fatigue Behavior of Near-eutectoid Steel
A. CABRAL
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, E. Hartford, CT 06108 (U.S.A.)
A. W. THOMPSON and I. M. BERNSTEIN
Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Materials Science, Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213
(U.S.A.)
D. H. STONE
Research and Test Department, Association of American Railroads, Chicago, IL 60616 (U.S.A.)
(Received August 20, 1986; in revised form December 2, 1986)
ABSTRACT
The thermal fatigue behavior o f a near-
eutectoid steel has been studied with particular
attention to the influence o f the various
microstructural instabilities and transforma-
tions attendant on temperature cycling.
Cycling was co n duc t e d between room tem-
perature and an upper temperature T 2. For
T2 below the A I temperature, fatigue life
decreased both with increasing T 2 and with
an imposed dwell time. Thermal exposure in
this temperature range resulted in spheroidiza-
tion and coarsening o f the carbide lamellae,
producing a soft microstructure prone to
fatigue cracking. F or cycling to T 2 above the
A3 temperature, thermal fatigue life appeared
to depend on carbide re-solution kinetics.
Cycling to T 2 in the ~ + 7 range or just above
the A 3 temperature resulted in shorter fatigue
lives than those obtained from tests at higher
or lower temperatures, apparently because
incompletely solutionized carbides spheroid-
ize and coarsen during continued cycling,
resulting in a rapid weakening o f the micro-
structure.
1. INTRODUCTION
The steel wheels of railroad cars n o t only
act to carry and guide the cars' loads on the
rail but also act as a brake drum. Thus, to-
gether with the brake shoes, the wheels absorb
(as heat) the energy dissipated in controlling
or stopping the train. Under hard or repeated
0025-5416/87/$3.50
73
braking, wheel surface temperatures can easily
reach the range of austenitizing temperatures
for wheel steels, thus inducing microstructural
changes. Moreover, plastic d e f o r m a t i o n of
the heated wheel surface, followed by cooling,
introduces residual stresses. Repeated cycles
of heating, or heating and deformation, can
result in crack f o r m a t i o n and, in some cases,
in wheel failure. Failure while a train is mov-
ing can result in severe accidents. Accordingly,
an improved understanding of thermal fatigue
in wheel steels is desirable, and was a goal of
this work.
Thermal fatigue is a form o f cyclic plas-
ticity caused by alternating thermal stresses
which produce plastic strains and non-recover-
able work. Fatigue cracks are usually initiated
at sites of i nhom ogenei t y in the microstruc-
ture which are either pre-existent or which are
created by the cycling process itself. Although
mechanical cycling alone can produce a local-
ized zone of plasticity which can result in
crack initiation and growth, the imposition of
a thermal cycle can also induce microstruc-
tural changes owing to repeated high tempera-
ture excursions. Whether such changes are
beneficial or detrimental to fatigue life de-
pends on w h e t h e r t h e y lead to an overall
strengthening or weakening. In o t h e r words,
thermal cycling may produce a microstructure
t hat is either more or less susceptible to
fatigue crack initiation.
Most previous thermal fatigue studies have
regarded the accumulation of mechanical
damage arising f r o m cyclic plastic strains as
d o m i n a n t in fatigue life, and a t t e n d a n t micro-
© Elsevier Sequoia/Printed in The Netherlands
74

structural changes have only been invoked to tions will subsequently dictate the types of
explain unexpected behavior patterns. For structures that can form on cool-down, which
instance, slight increases in the fatigue life of can lead to quite different patterns of thermal
Nimonic 90 (Huntington Alloys) cycled above fatigue behavior.
950 °C (1724 °F) were attributed to the onset
of recrystallization [1]. Similarly, grain refine-
ment and subsequent coarsening were found 2. M A T E R I A L AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCE-
to affect the fatigue behavior of Incoloy DURE
(Huntington Alloys) in the temperature range
from 816 to 1093 °C ( 1 5 0 0 - 2 0 0 0 °F) [2], The material used for this study was sup-
although the influence of the initial grain size plied by the Association of American Rail-
was slight. Solutionization and re-precipita- roads, from the rim section of a freight car
tion of both ~" and grain boundary carbides wheel. Its chemical composition was 0.68
have been proposed as reasons for stabiliza- wt.% C, 0.81 wt.% Mn, 0.0221 wt.% P, 0.033
tion of fatigue life of several nickel-base alloys wt.% S, 0.28 wt.% Si, 0.01 wt.% Ni, 0.07 wt.%
at high temperatures [ 3, 4]. Cr, less than 0.01 wt.% Mo and less than
Similarly limited results have been reported 0.01 wt.% Cu, corresponding to a commercial
in steels. Increasing the hold time at 584 °C grade AIS11070 steel. The as-received micro-
(1082 °F) resulted in accelerated o-phase for- structure consisted of medium-sized pearlite
mation and subsequent embrittlement of a colonies, a b o u t 15 #m in diameter, outlined
thermally cycled 2.25Cr- 1Mo steel [ 5 ]. Long by equiaxed ferrite (Fig. 1). The response of
exposure times at high temperatures resulted this structure to thermal cycling was moni-
in grain boundary solute depletion and prema- tored with cylindrical specimens 9.6 mm
ture fracture of H13 tool steel [6]. The initia- (0.375 in) in height and 6.4 mm (0.25 in) in
tion of thermal cracks by rapid cooling of diameter, placed in a quartz radiation furnace
medium and high carbon steels was attributed and thermally cycled in the absence of stress.
to the residual stresses created by the repeti- A feedback-type controller was used to moni-
tive formation [ 1 ] and subsequent tempering tor the heating portion of the cycle, and
[ 7 ] of martensite. Recently, crack initiation forced laboratory air was used for cooling.
in an AIS11040 steel [8] was observed to
occur in a mixed zone consisting of mar-
tensite, ferrite and cementite, created by
rapid localized surface heating and substrate
quenching.
The present study was intended to investi-
gate more systematically the conjoint role of
thermal and mechanical factors in thermal
fatigue of a near-eutectoid steel, which offers
considerable diversity of possible microstruc-
tural changes. Cooling rates were chosen to
allow a focus on ferrite-carbide aggregates,
rather than on complex martensitic struc-
tures. In addition, long-time exposure below
the transformation temperature was expected
to cause carbide lamellae, present after nor-
malizing, to spheroidize and coarsen, resulting
in a weaker structure. Tests were run in this
regime to assess the role of the developed
residual stress on cracking susceptibility. In
addition, the alloy can undergo two trans-
formations on heating, depending on com-
position, temperature and time; i.e. c~ ÷ Fe3C
~+ 7, ~ + ~/-+ 7, or both. The nature and Fig. 1. Typical microstructure of as-received near-
degree of either or both of these transforma- eutectoid wheel steel.

hit
~ [ Crossheod ] polished longitudinal sections which inter-
:v T (b)
(Q)
Fig. 2. Thermal fatigue testing arrangement: (a)
testing system; (b) typical thermal cycle, showing
dwell time at T 2.
Figure 2 illustrates the major components
of the thermal fatigue apparatus developed
for this study, as well as a profile of a typical
thermal cycle. A standard-size ASTM tensile
specimen was placed in an MTS closed-loop,
servohydraulic load frame, and heating and
cooling cycles were applied and monitored as
described above. For the initial cycle, the
specimen was heated to its upper cycle tem-
perature T~., and allowed to expand freely
in the load frame. When T 2 was reached, the
testing machine's actuating arm was fixed,
and the remainder of the test was run with
the specimen constrained. The lower tempera-
ture T1 was room temperature. Subsequent
heating and cooling induced residual compres-
sive and tensile stresses respectively, which
were recorded from the load cell. These resid-
ual stresses became essentially constant after
the first several cycles. Thus, uniaxial con-
straint was used to simulate thermomechani-
cal fatigue conditions. Tests were run to
specimen failure.
All specimens were sectioned longitudinally
after test and m o u n t e d for microstructural
observation. Polishing was performed using
standard metallographic techniques, with
diamond paste preferred to alumina for fine
polishing. Both Nital and Picral were used
for etching, b u t the latter provided better
resolution of finer structural features at higher
magnifications. All observations were per-
formed on a JEOL JSM-35 scanning electron
microscope. Because of the extreme oxidizing
conditions of these tests, crack initiation and
propagation were studied microstructurally
instead of fractographically, by examining
75
sected the fracture surface.
3. RESULTS
To select the appropriate upper cycle test
temperatures, the A1 and As transformation
temperatures for this alloy were first deter-
mined from microstructural characterization
and identification of reaction products on
isothermally transformed and quenched thin
specimens. The A1 and As temperatures estab-
lished were 729 °C (1344 °F) and 752 °C
(1386 °F) respectively.
3.1. Microstructural changes owing to ther-
mal cycling alone
Tests were conducted for various numbers
of cycles, without a mechanical constraint,
and microstructures were compared to follow
the changes produced by thermal cycling
alone. Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the progres-
sion of such changes for two upper cycle
temperatures, one just below A1 (725 °C) and
one at 737 °C, in the two-phase (a + 7) tem-
perature range. All specimens were held at
the upper cycle temperature for 3 min. Below
A1, carbide spheroidization and coarsening
were observed at prior austenite grain bound-
aries and, to a lesser extent, within the pearl-
ite colonies (Fig. 3); the extent of these
changes increased as the number of cycles
was increased. This is attributed to the longer
overall time spent at the upper cycle tem-
perature, whereas the fine spheroidized car-
bides observed within the pearlite colonies
result from lamellae "pinching o f f " during
high-temperature exposure, a precursor to
more complete spheroidization [9].
Between A1 and A s (Fig. 4), the prior pearl-
itic structure partially transformed to aus-
tenite, as evidenced by the finer pearlite
produced (from austenite) after one cycle.
On further cycling, however, a microstructure
was produced consisting of islands of fine
pearlite intermixed with a dispersion of
spheroidized carbides in a ferrite matrix (Fig.
4(d)). The a m o u n t of fine pearlite decreased
and the a m o u n t of ferrite increased with
increased cycling, and the dispersion of car-
bides paced the disappearance of lamellar
carbides in the ferritic regions. In both cases,
increased cycling appeared to produce micro-
76
Fig. 3. Microstructures achieved by thermal cycling alone, no stress, below A1, T2 = 725 °C (all at same magnifi-
cation): (a) one cycle; (b) ten cycles; (c) 25 cycles; (d) 50 cycles.
structures which should be softer and, as
shown below, were in fact seen to be progres-
sively more susceptible to crack initiation.
Interrupted tests were also run for an upper
cycle temperature just above Aa (760 °C). In
these specimens, the pearlite colony size was
observed to decrease during about ten cycles;
subsequent cycling then produced no other
structural changes. This apparent stabilization
of the pearlite colony size has been observed
previously [ 10].
3.2. Thermal fatigue tests
Six upper cycle temperatures were selected,
with two dwell times, for the thermal fatigue
tests. Heating and cooling rates were 220 +
40 °C min -1 (425 + 104 °F min -1) and 410 +
20 °C min -1 (770 + 68 °F min -1) respectively.
The influences of the upper cycle tempera-
ture T2 and of the a m o u n t of T2 hold time on
fatigue life are summarized in Fig. 5. Below
the A1 temperature, fatigue life decreased
with increasing T2; the logarithm of the
number of cycles to failure (Nf) followed
a generally linear trend with temperature.
In addition, tests with shorter dwell times
exhibited longer fatigue lives. Above the
transformation temperature range, however,
the curve in Fig. 5 appears to take an upward
turn, and the relationship between dwell time
and cycles to failure becomes less clear. In
fact, the result suggests a cross-over point,
so that, at higher temperatures, specimens
cycled with no dwell time appear to fail
sooner than those run with a dwell time of
3 min at the upper test temperature, although
the scatter in such tests makes this observa-
tion only semiquantitative.
The highest residual tensile stresses were
measured in samples cooled from the highest
temperature {870 °C), as shown in Fig. 6.
Although these specimens might be expected
 77

Fig. 4. Microstructures p r o d u c e d b y thermal cycling, no stress, b e t w e e n A1 and A3, T 2 = 737 °C (all at same
magnification): (a) o n e c y c l e ; (b) ten cycles; (c) 25 cycles; (d) 50 cycles.

"1"2("F)
900 0 no d w e l l 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Ii i L i i i i i , i
z~ 5 minute d w e l l

I 0 no dwell
I 5 minute dwell
~ t/ °"o 8 O O
~ 1500

E
~ i400

o
700 o
u

~ 700 1300 ~,
3 \ \\
6OO

~o 1200
o
I L I l I
510 i i
I0 1130 500 I000 650 700 750 800 850
Cycles to Failure, NI Upper CycLe Temp, Tz (°C)

Fig. 5. R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n upper c y c l e temperature Fig. 6. D e p e n d e n c e o f residual tensile stress at r o o m

T 2 and c y c l e s t o failure, for fatigue w i t h 3 rain dwell temperature (measured) o n upper c y c l e temperature
time at T2, and for zero dwell time. T 2 for no dwell and 3 min dwell time at T 2.

to fail sooner, the 3 min dwell time tests A1 involves the influence o f the transforma-
lasted longer at this temperature than did tion on the mechanically induced failure.
tests which were run at temperatures closer to Microstructures near the fracture surface
A1 (Fig. 5). As discussed below, it is suspected from six failed specimens tested with 3 min
that the likely cause o f this shorter life nearer dwell times at T2 are presented in Fig. 7. The
78

Fig. 7. Microstructures of thermal fatigue specimens after failure with 3 min dwell time, taken near fracture
surface (all at same magnification): (a) T2= 650 °C; (b) T2= 705 °C; (c) T2= 737 °C; (d) T2= 760 °C; (e) T2=
815 °C; (f) T 2 = 870 °C.

major trends in microstructural change mirror
those seen without stress (Figs. 3 and 4). For
T2 temperatures below A1, the fracture ap-
peared to have no specific microstructural
path when the primary fracture was observed,
but secondary cracks did appear to follow
coarsened carbide-ferrite interfaces (Fig. 8).
In addition, many of these coarsened carbides
lie on ferrite grain boundaries, which are
presumably easy diffusion paths for carbon.
For T2 well above A3, a fine pearlitic struc-
ture was obtained; it appears that a 3 min
dwell time at both 815 °C (1500 °F) and
870 °C (1600 °F) was enough to re-austenitize
the structure fully during each cycle, allowing
it to transform normally. In this case, the frac-

ture p a t h s a p p e a r e d t o be intergranular, al-
t h o u g h n o distinct crack initiation sites were
f o u n d . S e c o n d a r y cracks were n o t f o u n d , and
failure o c c u r r e d a f t e r a significant a m o u n t o f
necking.
Tests r u n b o t h in the c~ + 7 t w o - p h a s e
region as well as just above A 3 e x h i b i t e d
f e a t u r e s similar t o t h o s e f o r tests r u n b e l o w
A1. Coarsened carbides o u t l i n e d the grain
b o u n d a r i e s and a fine dispersion o f carbides
r e m a i n e d within the grains. T h e n a t u r e o f
t h e progression o f the f r a c t u r e was unclear,
b u t n u m e r o u s subsurface voids were f o u n d at
c o a r s e n e d carbide interfaces. Previous studies
have s h o w n t h a t these c o u l d serve as p o t e n t i a l
crack initiation sites [ 11].
Fig. 8. Microstructure at tip of numerous sectioned
secondary cracks, T 2 = 650 °C, 3 min dwell time.
Original fracture surface at top of photograph.
Fig. 9. Microstructure just below fracture surface of specimens thermally fatigued with T 2 = 815 °C (both at same
magnification): (a) no dwell time; (b) 3 min dwell time.
79
A c o m p a r i s o n was also m a d e o f the micro-
s t r u c t u r e s f r o m specimens t e s t e d at an u p p e r
cycle t e m p e r a t u r e o f 815 °C ( 1 5 0 0 °F) with
and w i t h o u t a dwell t i m e (Fig. 9). This com-
parison shows t h a t a 3 min h o l d was sufficient
to t r a n s f o r m the s t r u c t u r e fully at this tem-
p e r a t u r e . It w o u l d t h u s a p p e a r t h a t a weaker,
m o r e f a t i g u e - p r o n e m i c r o s t r u c t u r e is pro-
d u c e d in the absence o f a high t e m p e r a t u r e
h o l d t i m e at just above the Aa t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
temperature.
4. DISCUSSION
T h e m e c h a n i c a l and m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l results
o b t a i n e d in this s t u d y seem t o indicate t h a t
t h r e e distinct ranges o f t e m p e r a t u r e T 2 exist
f o r w h i c h differing t h e r m a l fatigue b e h a v i o r
for n e a r - e u t e c t o i d steel is observed. T h e r e are
T2 values below t h e A1 t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t e m -
p e r a t u r e , T 2 t e m p e r a t u r e s in t h e two-phase
+ 7 region or just above the Aa t r a n s f o r m a -
tion t e m p e r a t u r e , and T2 values well above
A 3. In brief, fatigue life f o r T9 b e l o w A1
appears t o be g o v e r n e d primarily b y d i f f u s i o n
kinetics at pearlite c o l o n y boundaries. Fatigue
b e h a v i o r for T2 well a b o v e A 3 is m a i n l y domi-
n a t e d b y the high residual tensile stresses
applied t o w h a t is, after several cycles, a fairly
c o n s t a n t m i c r o s t r u c t u r e . All specimens c y c l e d
above A 1 were i n f l u e n c e d b y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
kinetics. Each t e m p e r a t u r e range is n o w dis-
cussed separately.
80
4.1. Cycling below A1
Figure 5 shows that, for T 2 below A1, the
logarithm of fatigue life varies roughly linearly
with temperature. Prior studies on nickel-base
alloys [12] showed a similar trend. Since the
primary microstructural changes, carbide
spheroidization and coarsening, are diffusion
controlled, this result is not unexpected al-
though difficult to quantify. In addition, it
was shown in Fig. 6 that the residual tensile
8 subboundaries which could be highly effective
b carbide interfaces (Fig. 7(b)); both primary
C
Fig. 10. Schematic depiction of microstructural devel-
opment of near-eutectoid steel thermally cycled just
above A3: (a) starting structure; (b) 760 °C after
3 rain, showing localized regions of carbide frag-
ments surrounded by carbon-rich austenite; (c) struc-
ture formed on cool-down (fine pearlite, coarse and
fine spheroidized carbides in a ferrite envelope).
stress induced by cooling increased when
specimens were cooled from the higher upper
cycle temperatures. It thus appears that two
mechanisms (increased diffusion kinetics and
increased levels of residual stress with increas-
ing upper cycle temperatures) may be used
to explain the thermal fatigue behavior of this
alloy below A1. The dwell time at the upper
cycle temperature also enhanced coarsening,
leading to a more over-aged or weaker micro-
structure, particularly in the vicinity of pearl-
ite colony boundaries, and presumably to a
degradation of properties. Although a detailed
characterization of the extent and kinetics of
spheroidization and coarsening was n o t under-
taken in this investigation, previous studies
have shown that n o t only does deformed
ferrite exhibit dislocation networks at carbide
interfaces [ 13], but also that spheroidization
and coarsening is accelerated by both prior
cold work and concurrent hot deformation
[ 13-15 ]. It is thus postulated that dislocation
networks polygonize on reheating, forming
paths for carbon diffusion [12]. A similar
sequence is expected as the ferrite becomes
cold (or warm) worked during the cool-down
segment of a thermal cycle, leading to poly-
gonization during the heating portion of the
following cycle. Continued cycling causes new
dislocations and subboundaries to form,
further accelerating diffusion and micro-
structural coarsening. In fact, several samples
showed localized areas of ferrite recrystalliza-
tion, which nucleated and grew at coarsened
and secondary cracks followed this path. Thus
a viable mechanism appears to be one in
which a locally unstable (and weaker) micro-
structure is created, which is more susceptible
to crack initiation and subsequent propaga-
tion by the developed cyclic residual stress.
4.2. Cycling in the ~ + 7 two-phase field and
just above As
When this alloy is cycled to T 2 temperatures
above A1, the transformation itself appears to
influence fatigue life. Figure 10 schematically
illustrates the proposed microstructure se-
quence for specimens cycled within this tem-
perature range. It is well established [16] that
above A1, austenite (~/) nucleates and grows
at the expense of pearlite and proeutectoid
ferrite, primarily at ferrite-carbide interfaces.

For complete transformation and homogeni-
zation of pearlite (and ferrite) to austenite to
occur, ferrite and carbides must first be con-
sumed, and carbon concentration gradients
must be eliminated. Time-temperature rela-
tionships for the re-solutionizing of eutectoid
steel [17] are believed to mirror the behavior
of the near-eutectoid steel used in this study.
If the re-solutionizing time is too short, the
consequent incomplete transformation can
result in both the retention of residual carbide
fragments and a surrounding austenite matrix
rich in carbon (as shown in Fig. 10(b)). On
subsequent cool-down, the carbon-rich aus-
tenite farther away from residual carbides will
transform to pearlite. However, microstruc-
tural evidence indicates that the residual
carbides themselves coarsen during cycling,
apparently by drawing carbon from the ad-
joining austenitic regions, probably along
newly formed austenite grain boundaries.
Thus spherical carbides are produced sur-
rounded by a relatively carbon-free ferrite
envelope. Figure 3 shows that this process
can take between one and ten cycles to
develop. Subsequent cycles lead to refinement
of the austenite grain structure which appears
to saturate after ten cycles, at which point
further carbide coarsening can dominate. In
addition, local carbon supersaturations, par-
ticularly at medium cooling rates, can also
result in the formation of new, smaller resid-
ual carbides, also shown in Fig. 3. The conse-
quence of these steps is that less carbon is
available to form pearlite and a rapidly over-
aged microstructure is formed, subsequently
resulting in a loss of strength.
4.3. Cycling well above A3
Specimens tested with T 2 well above A a
exhibited no apparent microstructural abnor-
malities, no reproducible microstructural
initiation sites, and no secondary cracks.
Fracture appeared to be intergranular, and
occurred after a significant a m o u n t of neck-
ing. It would be expected from residual stress
effects alone, that these specimens would
have the shortest fatigue lives. Since they, in
fact, exhibited longer lives than those run in
the two-phase (~ ÷ 7) range or just above A3,
complete transformation and the resultant
fine pearlite formation on cool-down evi-
dently resulted in a slightly more fatigue-
resistant microstructure.
81
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This study has shown that changes in the
microstructure of a near-eutectoid steel can
have a pronounced effect on its thermal
fatigue behavior. The general response of this
alloy to thermal cycling has been followed
for three quite different temperature histories.
5.1. Cycling below A1
In this range, thermal cycling produced
carbide spheroidization and coarsening, par-
ticularly at pearlite colony boundaries, result-
ing in a locally weak microstructure. Cracks
were f o u n d to initiate and propagate at inter-
faces between ferrite and coarsened carbide.
5.2. Cycling in the ~ ÷ 3" two-phase range and
just above A3
Fatigue life in this range was dramatically
lower than that for the other conditions, even
though the residual tensile stresses were only
slightly higher than those for tests below A1.
Microstructural degradation was accelerated
primarily by the rapid coarsening, during each
cycle, of residual carbide fragments remaining
from incomplete austenite transformation.
5.3. Cycling well above A3
Here fatigue life appeared to increase slightly
compared with tests run near A3, even though
the residual tensile stresses were higher.
Results indicated that for lengths of time at
the upper cycle temperature sufficient to
transform the pearlitic structure completely
to austenite, a stronger and more fatigue-
resistant fully pearlitic microstructure was
formed during the cool-down segment of each
cycle.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the Association
of American Railroads through the Affiliated
Laboratory at Carnegie Mellon University.
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