Technical Fact Sheet (Draft: 19 December 2022) DRINKING WATER

Household water treatment

Boiling
Household practices refer to each step in the drinking-water supply chain at the household level, including collection,
transportation, storage, treatment (if used) and handling, prior to consumption. Household water treatment is one step in
this chain. Water may already be contaminated at the source. It can also be contaminated between collection and
consumption. Treatment can reduce some of this contamination, but care should still be taken to store and handle drinking-
water after treatment .
There are various types of water treatment. Each treatment method has different risks to water quality. The factsheets for
household water treatment should be used with the factsheets and inspection forms for household practices and for the
relevant water source. If more than one treatment method is used, then each stage needs to be inspected.
Boiling is a useful household water treatment method in aeration happens if the water is left for several hours
an emergency as it uses equipment that people are likely covered with an air gap between the water surface and the
to have in their home. Water has to be heated to the correct lid.
temperature for a sufficient amount of time to disinfect it.
Pasteurisation will also disinfect water. Heating water to
Bringing water to a rolling boil is enough at sea level, The
at least 65°C for six minutes will treat it at sea level. This
water needs to be vigorously moving with large bubbles
can use less fuel than boiling. A thermometer is needed
on the surface, rather than just small bubbles or steam
to check the correct temperature is reached and a clock
appearing. Water boils at a lower temperature at high
is needed to measure the time.
altitudes, so it should be boiled for an extra minute for
each 1,000 m above sea level. Other stages of household water treatment: The drinking-
water may be treated at the household level before boiling,
Typical risk factors (or hazards) associated with
for instance filtration or settlement. Removal of solids is
household boiling of water are presented in the
recommended for aesthetic reasons. Boiling will
corresponding sanitary inspection form. These risk
inactivate pathogens in turbid water. Boiling will not
factors do not represent all possible hazards that may be
improve water contaminated by certain naturally
present. Figure 1 shows water being heated in batches on
occurring chemicals (e.g. arsenic, fluoride). These can be
a stove. Other arrangements for boiling water may also be
successfully treated by other household water treatment
suitable.
methods, although treatment technologies for these
The disinfection of drinking-water by heating usually chemicals are relatively expensive. Coloured, brackish or
involves use of the following main components: saline water sources and sources affected by agricultural
chemicals or waste, or by poorly treated industrial
• Boiling vessel used to heat drinking-water. Vessels wastewater, typically cannot be treated at the household
should be heat resistant and have a lid to minimize the level. In such cases, alternative sources of safe drinking-
risk of contamination during heating, cooling and
water should be used.
storage. A kettle is suitable. Two vessels allows for
one to be cooling whilst the other is heating water. The
vessel should be kept off the ground in a clean, dry
area to minimise the risk of contamination and out of
the reach of children whilst it cools. The vessel used
for boiling water can be used for final storage to
reduce the risk of re-contaminating the treated water.
• Stove or other heat source is needed to raise the
temperature of the water. The cost and availability of
fuel may limit the amount of water that is treated.
Additional considerations.
Time is a significant input for boiling water. As well as the
time to heat the water, it needs to cool down before
drinking. Ice should not be used to speed up cooling.
Boiling can alter the taste of the water. Stirring or pouring
into another container can re-aerate it. This increases the
risk of contamination. Shaking the water in a clean closed
container can re-aerate it without this risk. Natural re-

Figure 1. Boiling water

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Management Advice Sheet (Draft: 19 December 2022) DRINKING WATER

Household water treatment

Boiling
This Management Advice Sheet provides guidance for the operation and maintenance (O&M) of household water
treatment using boiling. This should be read in conjunction with the Management Advice Sheet for Collection, storage,
treatment and handling. Household treatment may need several steps. If the water looks very dirty, it should be allowed to
settle to remove any solids before boiling. Any additional stages of household treatment should be inspected as well as
the boiling stage.
Typical O&M tasks are listed in Table 1 with suggested frequencies for each activity. These activities are important for
improving the quality of the water. . Table 2 lists potential issues associated with drinking-water treatment using boiling.
Suggested improvements are listed for each possible risk.

1. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Checking the effectiveness of each stage of household water treatment reduces the risk from environmental
contamination . Household water treatment methods should be used correctly and in a consistent manner. To minimize
the risk of contamination from the user, general hygienic practices should be followed. Effective handwashing prior to
handling is important.
All containers used for treating drinking-water should be dedicated for this purpose (i.e. treat only drinking-water and no
other liquids, including heating water of lesser quality for washing) and should not be directly used for other household
activities (e.g. cooking). Re-use of old/ recycled containers should be avoided (e.g. those which may leach chemical
contaminants, such as engine oil containers). Periodic disinfection of containers may also be required (e.g. after long
periods without use).
Table 1. Operation and maintenance schedule guidance

Frequency Activity
• When not in use, ensure the treatment vessel is covered with its lid and kept in a clean, sanitary
Daily
area.
Weekly • Inspect the vessel for obvious signs of damage or failure.
• Check that household drinking-water treatment procedures are being followed correctly and
Annually
consistently,
As the need • Repair or replace containers.
arises

Notes:
1. The suggested frequencies in Table 1 represent a minimum requirement and may need to be increased depending
on the local context. A suitable timetable should be made for each household drinking-water supply chain.
2. For guidance on appropriate frequencies for monitoring (e.g. sanitary inspections and water quality testing), refer to
Guidelines for drinking-water quality: risk-based management, regulation and surveillance of small water supplies
(WHO, in preparation).

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 2. ISSUES AND REMEDIAL ACTIONS
Each issue in Table 2 is linked by a number to a corresponding question in the Household water treatment: Boiling
sanitary inspection form (e.g. issue 1 below is linked to question 1 in the sanitary inspection form.)
Table 2. Common issues associated with boiling drinking-water, and suggested remedial actions
Issue
Untreated water
The water is cloudy or solid particles settle
out of the water if it is left to settle for a
while. Boiling will disinfect the water but not
remove other impurities. Cloudy or coloured
water could indicate other types of pollution.
1 solid particles, especially during periods of heavy rainfall.
People may not want to drink water that
looks or smells unusual, even if it is safe to
drink.
Consistent and correct use
There is evidence that boiling is not being
carried frequently, so it is not being treated
consistently. The boiling vessel should be on
or near the stove. It could contain water that
is cooling.
2
The householder is not clear about how to
3
treat water. The method has steps missing.
The treatment vessel is used to heat liquids
other than drinking-water, increasing the
4
likelihood of cross- contamination
The vessel is uncovered, providing a route
for contaminants to enter the container.
5 Covering the pot saves fuel and raises the
temperature faster.
If the intention is to boil the water, it needs to
reach a rolling boil .At 1 000 metres above
sea level, the boil needs to last for one
6a
minute; at 2 000 metres it needs to be two
minutes, at 5 000 metres above sea level, it
needs to be 5 minutes.
If the intention is to pasteurize the water, it
needs to reach 65°C for six minutes.
6b
Householders do not always drink boiled
7
water.
Remedial actions to consider
• Use the source with the best available water quality.
• Carry out a source water Sanitary Inspection. Complete
any remedial actions identified from this inspection.
• Consider pre-treatment (such as settlement or straining)
for water that clearly looks cloudy or has lots of small
• Check that any pre-treatment processes are being used
effectively and if not, address any issues.
• Check that the container used to collect the unfiltered
water is clean and free from particles before filling with
water
• Provide information or instruction to the whole
community on the importance of treating water when
needed.
• People may only boil water in specific seasons, in
response to changes in water quality, when there is a
disease outbreak or other heightened risk, or for
vulnerable people. Check that the use of boiling matches
the risk.
• Review the cost and availability of suitable vessels such
as kettles for boiling water.
• Provide information or instruction to all householders on
how to improve current practices.
• Explain the risks of using the vessel for other liquids and
clean the container thoroughly, or replace if deemed
necessary.
• Consider getting a kettle for boiling water only.
• Explain the risks of not using a lid, and the benefits in
terms of cost savings.
• Use a lid when boiling water.
• Consider getting a kettle for only boiling water.
• Explain how to recognise boiling water and not to stop
heating it when there is only some steam or small
bubbles appearing. The water should be all be moving
and large bubble appear.
• A clock is needed at high altitudes
• If pasteurisation (rather than boiling) is being used, some
sort of thermometer and a timer such as a clock is
needed.
• Provide instructions on how to improve current practices.
• Identify barriers and motivations to help change
behaviour so that boiled water is consistently consumed.
3

Treated water
The water is transferred to another
8 container to cool down or for storage. Ice is
added to speed up cooling.
Aerating boiled water can improve the taste
of boiled water but stirring or pouring may
9
lead to contamination.
• Address barriers to boiling/ pasteurization. Pot lids,
kettles or fuel-efficient stoves may make the process
more economic.
• Pasteurization may consume less fuel than boiling, but
requires a thermometer or other suitable device
• Provide instruction on how to improve current practices.
• A second boiling vessel provides flexibility.
• Provide instruction on how to improve current practices.
• Storage in a covered boiling vessel allows re-aeration
over a few hours.
• Shaking in a clean, covered container speeds up aeration.

10
The boiled water is mixed with non-boiled in • Provide instruction on how to improve current practices.
the container

Notes:
1. The suggested remedial actions apply to the specific household being inspected.
2. If the same hazard is found frequently, considered a community wide action

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Sanitary Inspection Form (Draft: 15 December 2022) DRINKING WATER

Household water treatment

Boiling
Sanitary inspection questions NA NO YES What action is needed?
(risk)
Untreated water
Is the untreated water cloudy, coloured or contains small
particles?
1 Cloudiness or colour will not be removed by boiling. This may q q q
result in the user rejecting the water.

Correct and consistent use

Is evidence of recent boiling missing?
If boiling is carried out inconsistently, unsafe water could be
2
consumed by the user. Signs of recent use include owning a q q q
suitable vessel, drinking water being stored in the boiling
vessel and the vessel being on the stove or nearby.
When demonstrating the method, does the householder miss
any steps?
3
If boiling is carried out incorrectly, unsafe water could be q q q
consumed by the user. Observing the householder boil water
can show if they know the correct method.
Is the vessel used for other purposes as well as boiling
4 water?
Using a vessel for other purposes can result in cross- q q q
contamination.
Is the vessel boiled uncovered ?
Heating water without covering the pot wastes fuel, slows the
5 rate of heating and may allow contamination. Check there is a q q q
lid.
Is the water taken off the heat before it reaches a rolling boil?
At sea level, a rolling boil shows that the water has reached
6a the right temperature for disinfection. At 1 000 metres above
sea level, the boil needs to last for one minute; at 2 000 q q q
metres it needs to be two minutes, at 5 000 metres above sea
level, it needs to be 5 minutes.
Is the water taken off the heat before it has been heated
sufficiently?
6b Water needs to be heated to at least 65°C for six minutes to q q q
make it safe to drink. A method of checking that the water
reaches 65°C and to time the process is needed.
Does the household ever use un-boiled water for drinking?
7
Inconsistent use means people may drink unsafe water. q q q
Treated water
Is the water transferred to another pot to cool down?
8 Pouring treated water into another container may increase q q q
chances of contamination

9 Is the water poured or stirred to re-aerate it?.

Pouring treated water into another container or stirring it to
q q q
5
 re-aerate it may increase chances of contamination but can
improve the taste.
Is the boiled water mixed with non-boiled in the storage
container?
10
Mixing treated water with non-treated water may lead to q q q
contamination
Total number of yes responses: ........ /10

This inspection sheet is for water being heated in batches on a stove or similar. Solar pasteurization or continuous heating
methods need to be assessed separately.
Notes:
1. Question 6a is for boiling. Question 6b is for pasteurization. Only answer one of these questions.
2. Only a representative sample of households will need to be inspected. The remedial actions will need to be carried
out for all households.