iam & Mary] at 05:41 26 September 20 Downloaded by [Col Routledge Tylor Fancy ARTICLES Picking One’s Battles: NNES Doctoral Students’ Imagined Communities and Selections of Investment Yu-Jung Chang may pT Me National ‘Tsing Hua University few. Tite The growing participation of nonnative English-speaking (NNES) international students. in English-speaking graduate schools has prompted scholars to explore the diferent challenges (i. in uistic, social, and Financial at eormpliva these students” academic pursis. Ihe analyses offered by previous studies have often focused on students’ present academic participation without taking their personal histories and aspirations into consideration, Through the lens of investment, which lights leamer agency and imagined communities (Kanno & Norton, 2003; Norton, 2000; Noxton Peirce, 1995), this study examines how the academic/professional backgrounds and aspirations of two NNES doctoral students have affected thei selections in learning investment in the present aca demic eommunity. The findings demonstrate that their academic paths are individualized by their luajectories before, during, and after their doctoral studies. Moreover, rather than trying to avoid or ‘overcome all possible bariers brought along by being NNES and intemational, the students are able to exer their own agency to selectively invest in areas that would most likely increase their market value in their current and envisioned furure communities Key words: imagined community, investment, agency, cultural capital, intemational students, nonnative English speakers With English being the world language and the most common mode of communication in the international academic community, graduate schools in what Kachru (1990) ealls inner cir- cle English-speaking countries, including the United States, Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom, have become increasingly heterogeneous places thanks to the participation of inter- national students from outer and expanding cireles of English use. While these international students come to study in the inner circle to avcess the wider range of available Department of Foreign Languages and Literature, National Thing Hua University, No. 101, Seeion 2, Kuang-Fu Row, Hsinchu, ‘Taiwan 30013 County Taiwan. Eemall sehen atu edu CConrespondence should be sent to W-Tung Cha-ge of William & Mary] at 05:41 26 September 2011 Downloaded by [Col 214 cHANG resources compared to home universities and the perceived higher status of an inner circle degree (Kennedy, 2001), universities trom inner circle countries are equally Keen to recruit international students for their economic contribution, diversity, and cross-cultural understanding and for the Figorous research productivity they bring to host communities (Andrade, 2006; Nettles & Millett 2006: Tardy, 2004; Van Dijk. 1994), Despite the anticipated mutual benefits between intemational students and their English speaking host institutions, these students’ sojourn in a foreign country is often portrayed as a painstaking process to overcome a wide spectrum of challenges. Studies have identified Various Juetors—including students’ marital status, language proficiency, culture differences, interpersonal relationships (with advisors and peers), individual resources, and the availability of academiv appointments—in determining the success of NNES international students’ aca demic experiences (Al-Sharideh & Goe, 1998; Angelova & Riazantseva, 1999; Belcher, 1994; Casamave, 2002; Cho. 2004; Kim, 2007; Krase, 2007; Lacina, 2002; Perrueci & Hu, 1995; Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006; Tomich, McWhirter, & Darey, 2003). Specifically, a large aum- ber of studies have been devoted to examining these NNES international students’ language barriers and have found that the need for high-level English usage within academic and social communication can prevent them from active academic participation, hamper the development of community membership, and ultimately curb their academic satisfaction and general well- being (Kim, 2006; Kuwahara, 2008; Shaw, 1991}. Moreover, since most international graduate students come to their host country without a pre-established social network, studies have dis- ceussed students’ academic and social adjustment in terms of the challenges faced in establishing interpersonal relationships with students frum te hust country itself, as well as co-nationals from their own ethnic communities (Al-Sharideh & Goe, 1998; Perrucci & Hu, 1995). Adding lo the list, Trice’s (2003) study indicates that financial difficulties—together with the collec tive challenges of functioning in English, achieving unique academic goals, adjusting culturally, and integrating with American students—are the most commonly observed challenges that international students face during their sojourn, Although previous studies have generated significant insights into the different issues NNES international students face in the English-speaking academic community, the scope of these anal yses is often limited to (a) the difficulties faced and the students" effort wo overcome them and (b) the context of the here and now. Firs, itis assumed that the work required for students to ‘adjust and assimilate into the host community tends to overshadow the work required to achieve individual learning goals, and as such, nts of learners” deliberate nonparticipation (Norton, 2001) —that is, those areas of investment they decide to skip—are overlooked. Moreover, with a few exceptions (ic., Hirvela & Belcher. 2001), students” actions and emotions are often presented in isolation from their personal histories and, more importantly, their future aspirations. Haneda (2005) argues that studies of learners’ approaches to learning tasks should emphasize “learners needs, desires, and aspirations, as each seeks out and exploits opportunities to become the person they envisage” (p. 286), Without such considerations, we find ourselves learning about students” endeavors and evaluating their performance only in the context of their immediate present rather than in that of their learning trajectories, which encompass both their past and their envisioned future, In this qualitative study, I aim to expand the perspective through which we understand NNES. intemational graduate students” academic experience by situating two NNES doctoral students” learning investment within their academic/ professional backgrounds and career aspirationsjam & Mary) at 05:41 26 September 2011 Downloaded by [College of Wi IMAGINED COMMUNITIES AND SELECTIONS OF INVESTMENT 215, ‘Through the lens of investment that highlights leamers’ agency (Norton, 2000; Norton Peirce, 1995) and imagined communities (Kanno & Norton, 2003). this article analyzes how their past and envisioned future affect their selections of learning investment in the present academic com- ‘munity, My analysis of the findings demonstrate that rather than trying to rid all possible barriers brought along by being NNES and international, students are able to exert agency to invest selec: tively in areas which will most likely inerease their market value in their current and/or aspired future communities. Therefore, despite their seemingly similar academic and professional bac grounds and shared institutional fabels, such as “nonnative English speaker." “doctoral student,” and “Taiwanese.” their academic paths are individualized by the battles they each picked during their overseas doctoral studies, THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Informed by Bourdiew’s (1977, 1991) notion of cultural capital, which includes knowledge, skills, aeademic experiences, and educational qualifications that have high market value in a particular social context (Bourdicu, 1977, 1991; Horvat, 2001), Norton (2000; Norton Peirce, 1995) conceptualizes the notion of investment to capture language learners" multiple and some- times ambivalent desires to learn and practice languages. Her study of immigrant women in Canada illustrates that even when language learners have high affective filters, thus low motie vation, they might still continue to use or learn the new language because of the responsibiliti attached fo their identities ay snuthers ur a breadwinners ofa family (Norton Peitce, 1995). These immigrant women foresaw their investment in the target language as a means to expand their capital: “If earners invest in a second language, they do so with the understanding that they will acquire a wider range of symbolic and material resources, which will in turn increase the value of their cultural capital” (Norton Peirce, 1995, p. 17). Following Norton’s (2000: Norton Peirce, 1995) concept of investment, McKay and Wong (1996) highlight language learners’ selective investment in diffrent language skills (i... writing or oral competence) by studying a group of adolescent ESL students’ efforts to meet the academic and social demands they respectively faced in school, Theit ndings show that some students went beyond just language learning, choosing ‘o also invest in nonlanguage areas, such as music and sports, which gave them the highly val- ‘ued cultural capital to win peet recognition in spite of lacking native-like English competence (McKay & Wong, 1996). In addition to expanding and complicating the relationship between learners" learning desires and efforts, Norton's (2000; Norton Peirce, 1995) conceptualization of investment embodies two ideas particularly relevant to the present study: learner agency and the future-forward outlook ‘of eventual profit, Fist, 10 discuss the investments Ieamers select or pass up is 0 acknowl- cedge leamers’ agency, or their ability to act and make investment choices. According to Norton (2000), learners—with learning expectations and desires—exercise their agency to negotiate their identity and participation, While they may choose to learn and to appropriate institutional ctations for theit own learning objectives (Berkenkotter & Huckin, 1995; Casanave, 20025, Casanave & Vandrick, 2003; Leki, 1995: Prior. 1998; Tardy, 2005), they may also resist par- ticipation because their self-positioning, desires. and expectations are in conflict with and/or discriminated by the ideology, structure, and practices of their learning community (Canagarajah, 1999; Casanave, 2002).im & Mary] at 05:41 26 September 2011 Downloaded by [College of Wi 216 CHANG Nevertheless, although agents have the capacity to make choices, far from “socially unfet~ tered free will” (Ahearn, 2001, p. 114), agency is “the socioculturally mediated capacity 10 act” {p. 112). In fact, individual actions are governed by the very social structures that constitute “both ‘the medium and the outcome of the action they organize” (Scott, 1995, p. 204; see also Giddens, 1991), Therefore, many also caution that the decisions made in terms of learning can be influ: ‘enced, or limited, by different social, cultura, and contextual factors (Pavlenko & Lantolf, 2000; Prior, 1998). In Flowerdew and Miller's (2008) study of three Hong Kong students” investment in English, they observe that, even though all three students benetitted—both professionally and petsonally—from their language investment, it was the student who was from a relatively better socioeconomic background that received the largest return in his investment—a master’s degree and a prestigious job that uses English as its working language. Thus, the researchers commented, with regard to the enabling yet structurally constrained aspects of agency and mutually constitu- tive nature of structure and agency, “learners may be constrained on the one hand, by the social world in which they find themselves, but atthe same time are active participants in creating this social world on the other” (Flowerdew & Miller, 2008, p. 202) addition to learner ageney, Norton’s concept of investment (2000; Norton Peirce, 1995) connotes one's anticipated positive return that comes hereafter. In fact, there has been a grow: ing interest among language researchers in using investment in conjunetion with the notion of imagined community (Kanno & Norton, 2003) to unravel how a learner's envisioned future affil- iations affect their current self-positioning and learning, or choices of investment. Imagined communities are intangible communities formed by groups of people, connected through the power uf nation (Kano & Norton, 2003; Wenger, 1998), Just like any tangible com- munity (ic. schools, neighborhoods, and office}, an imagined community has regulations and requircments for potential participants to follow and accomplish. Kanno and Norton (2003) arguc that imagined communities ate no less real and “might even have a stronger impact ‘on their current actions and investment” (p. 242), Learners’ experiences, therefore, must be understood in terms of their multiple identities, including their imagined identities and their selections of participation in both the real and the imagined worlds (Kanno & Norton, 2003; Norton, 2001) Several studies have discussed the critical influence of one’s imagined communities on his/her language learning practice, For instance, Haneda’s (2005) study of two college students” invest- ments in learning Japanese shows that the variation was a result of the students’ different imagined identities as Japanese users. While Jim, the second-generation Japanese-Canadian, invested heavily in writing skills and sociolinguistic competences because he wanted t0 assert his, Japanese identity, Edward, the White, Canadian, native English-speaking (NES) student, focused ‘on oral communication skills because he aspired to become a business executive in a multina- ‘ional company. In the study of rural Ugandan women’s learning to read and write, Kendrick and Hissani (2007) point out that the women’s decision to enroll in literacy programs Was prompted by their belie that literacy skills would help them become independent, valued, and contributing members in their families and communi Most NNES international graduate students leave their home countries and invest time, ‘energy, and money for advanced overseas degrees in anticipation of a good retum: the attain. ment of professional degree that will further their tangible and intangible resources. Such notions of investment, agency, and imagined community, not only help trame the examination of NNES international graduate students” desires to learn, or invest, and how they exercise theiriam & Mary] at 05:41 26 September 2011 lege of Wi Downloaded by [C IMAGINED COMMUNITIES AND SELECTIONS OF INVESTMENT 217 agency to select investments meaningful to their learning goals, but also locate students’ learning ‘experiences from a futuristic point of view. Developed from these combined theoretical frameworks, the research questions that guide the analysis in this article are (a) what are the reasons behind NES international students? decision to study for their PhD degrees overseas and (b) in which areas do they choose to make academic investments in their doctoral programs? That is, what factors are at play in making such decisions? METHOD ‘This article is « part of a larger research study on NNES international graduate students’ di ciplinary enculturation across disciplines. Over a nine-month period during the 2007-2008 academic year, I conducted fieldwork at a major tescarch-hased university in the United States and collected data from four NNES doctoral students, who volunteered to participate in the research by responding to a recruitment lyer circulated by their graduate program advisors. The data for the research were collected through multiple sources: (a) five to seven interviews with ceach student, (b) one interview with cach student’s doctoral advisor, (c) six full days of shadow- ing observation of each student, and (d) written documents, including students writing samples, departmental brochures and website information. This article examines and analyzes the inter- view and observation data collected from two of the four NNES doctoral students. I draw on only the two students’ experiences not only due to space limitations, but also because the data collected from them were sufficient to answer the questions raised Data Collection and Analysis For the interviews, protocols and questions were prepared in advance and cach interview ran between 45 and 90 minutes. The interviews were conducted by the researcher and they were audiotaped and later Tully transcribed, Since I shared the same mother tongue and nationality with the participants, | was able to provide them with the option of communicating with me in the language(s}—Mandarin Chinese, English, or Taiwanese—in which they felt most comfort- able expressing themselves. The two students chose tobe interviewed in Chinese with occasional code-switching, In addition to languages, in spite of being previously unacquainted with the pat- ticipants, the fact that I was also an international graduate student atthe time of the research made it easy 10 develop a rapport with the students through each in-depth and sometimes cathartic and emotional conversation. In addition to interviews, I shadowed the students for six full school days (on campus. The observation sessions were scheduled between the interviews to contextualize the students” experiences, especialy their academic routine and! interaction with other members (ic. students, professors, technicians) within their program of study. The data collected were coded and analyzed inductively to extract salient themes and patterns ‘The scope of this article zooms in on the students’ perceptions and experiences, with «we main foci of the analysis: (1) the triggers and aspirations of the students’ overseas academic pursuits and (2) the relationship between the selected investments the students made during their overseas study and their imagined identities and communities1m & Mary] at 05:41 26 September 2011 Downloaded by [College of W: 218 CHANG The Students Burnerman and Hou (pseudonyms) were third-year graduate students in aeronautics and astro- nauties engineering (AAE) at the time of the study. Different from many other engineering programs, such as electrical. computer science, ot mechanical engineering, which are often populated with international graduate students (Nettles & Millet, 2006; Welch, 2008), the AE program was relatively small with few international students, According to the university's stan- ‘dard admission policy, NNES international students had to prove themselves to be linguistically competent and financially secure by presenting satisfactory scores on English proficiently tests (580 or 237 on the TOEFL) and certifications of adequate financial ability to afford the nontes ident tuition fees and overseas living expenses, Although the university offered various types of financial aid programs, most scholarships, fellowships, and loans were only’ available to students, with U.S. citizenship. In act, the website of the AAE program clearly indicates that PRD students, carrying U.S. citizenship of permanent resident status are given priority in obtaining departmen- tal aid and that financial support in the fist year is rarely given to international students unless ‘the applicant has an “exceptionally outstanding record or highly sought after skills” Before coming to the United States, Burnerman and Hou had received bachelor’s and master’s degrees in mechanical engineering in Taiwan. The PhD program in AAE was their first degree program in an English-speaking university, and they had satisfied the language and financial requirements for admission, During the first year of their study, they also completed a quatter- long English course required for all prospective international teaching assistants. When they pattivipaved inthis study, Burnet and Hou had completed their own reyuined coussework an passed their qualifying exam, On paper, they have similar language and academic credentials and were institutionally recognized as qualified to learn and teach in the United States, The similarities between the two students, in fact, helped highlight the differences found in their choices of learning investments, DOCTORAL DREAMS: TRIGGERS AND ASPIRATIONS ‘This section presents Burnerman and Hou’s academic and professional backgrounds before com= ing to the United States and the reasons behind their decisions to study in the United States to obtain doctoral degrees in AE. Burnerman Burnermian chose his pseudonym because he worked in the combustion fab day’ in and day out. Coming from a middle-class family in a small agricultural town in southern Taiwan, he recalled that many of his classmates in elementary school had to drop out of school to help their fail with facming, while he and his siblings all went on to receive graduate degrees. Burmerman’s father sed to be the magistrate and the mayor of his hometown. Although Burnerman's parents never received higher education, they had high expectations for their children and had always, hoped that one of the children would go on to become the fist doctoral-degree holder among their extended family. Feeling blessed to have the financial support and academic caliber to continue5 2 = 3 % £ 4 Downloaded by [College of IMAGINED COMMUNFTIES AND SELECTIONS OF INVESTMENT 219 is education, Burnerman said that whenever he felt frustrated in the labs, he would remind himself that he had been given an opportunity that many other kids in his hometown could never dream about. Bumerman had such a smooth academic journey earning his bachelor’s and master’s degrees: that his advisor in the master’s program encouraged him to stay on to pursue his doctorate. ‘Though Burnerman accepted the offer initially, he decided to drop out before the school year started because he felt he was not ready to commit fo another five years in school: “[1} did not ‘want to waste time and money to go onto the doctoral program without full commitment.” After Burnerman left school, he found an associate researcher position in Taiwan's largest engincet- ing research center. This job gave him an opportunity to work with many of the nation’s best researchers and meet renowned scholars from abroad, Most importantly, his team supervisor at the center became Bumerman’s role model and triggered his aspirations to return to academia. Burnerman regarded his supervisor, educated and trained at a renowned university in the United States, as having a much greater intellectual ability and more conscientious research attitude than most of the Taiwan-trained researchers: ‘When [team leaders} worked together, you can clearly tell the difference fhetween them]... the mindset, the attitude, and the way they work .... [My team supervisor] was a hardworking and scrupulous resewrcher... you have got to have that kind of atitude when doing engineering research, Eventually, what Bumerman had seen at work inspired him to develop himself professionally by undergoing academic training in the United States and establish a carver there alterwards. With his parents’ support, Burnerman decided to frst “test the waters” by enrolling ina three- ‘month ESL program at the university where he would go on to study for his PhD. According to Burnerman, this initial sojourn in the United States was an eye-opening experience that further strengthened his aspirations to study overseas: “[The United States] provides such a wonder ful academic environment ... with abundant resources ... and students serious about their study . .. . So I thought to myself: If I could have the chance to study here, why not go for it?” Burmerman chose the AAE program because it was closely related to his background in ‘mechanical engineering and his personal interest in space technology, and because it surpassed ‘Taiwan's meager resources in the area, Three years into the graduate program, Burmerman had made up his mind to work in the U.S. industry after completing his doctoral degree, He hoped to not only continue strengthening his competence in research, but also familiarize himself with the business aspects of the engineering industry. Hou With thick glasses, simple and plain clothes, and a down-to-carth manner, Hou easily fit the stereotype of the earnest and diligent engineering major. He was neither very social nor eloquent, cither in Chinese or English, and often tried to downplay his past credentials despite having attended some of the best schools in Taiwan and worked in one of the most promising companies in Taiwan's IT industry. mn Hou’s apartment, a poster of the cockpit of a Boeing aireraft hung at the center of the living room wall, Hou said he had been interested in machines. military vessels, and especially aircraft since he was a little boy. After he had earned his bachelor’s and master’s degrees in mechanicalsm & Mary] at 05:41 26 September 2011 lege of Wi Downloaded by [C 220 CHANG engineering, Hou worked asa junior equipment engineerin a semiconductor company in Taiwan, Hou said is job allowed him to observe and participate in the actual factory and machinery opet- ation; “It was like I was finally able to digest the fextbook information and suddenly understood the logic.” However, it was this job's less-satisfying aspects that triggered Hou’s PhD plan, First, as an entry-level engineer, Hou felt that the job limited his chances to bring his knowledge into full play: “It almost seemed like whether I did well or not would not really differentiate me from iy colleagues.” Second, Hou had a hard time dealing with corporate culture and office polities: {was an idealist who believed that things should be done in certain ways... . But when you work in the indusiry .. . even thovgh some ways of doing things did not seem right or reasonable... Thad tw agree with them because I was not the bos. Hou hoped that an advanced degree would allow him to work in academia, which in turn would help him find balance between work and his interests and give hitn the freedom to Follow his principles. Hou said he never really considered pursuing the doctoral degree in Taiwan because he felt that graduate students in Taiwan seemed “too comfortable” and that their often dispassionate learning attitude was not conducive to research, Though trying to refrain from appearing to Wor ship foreign degrees, Hou had already begun to anticipate the profits of his investment, ineluding English proficiency, the experience of working on advanced engineering research in the United States, and the symbolic value of a degree from an overseas research institute. These, according to Hou, were expected to give him more leverage in job-seeking in the competitive academic job market in Taiwan, Hou was from a family of relatively bigh socioeconomic status. Hous parents were colleg educated: his father held a top managerial position in a large manufacturing corporation and his mother used to work for foreign enterprises. Unlike Bumerman’s father, who took pride in having highly educated children, Hou’s father did not think pursuing an advance degree abroad swas the only way t0 get ahead. However, his parents sill respected his decision to study abroad ‘and supported his ambition both morally and financially Hou chose to study in AAE because of his own interest in aircraft and his education back- ‘ground in thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, a subdiscipline of mechanical engineering that thas been applied to areas of aerospace engineering. Hou was married before coming to the United States and his wife was admitted to another graduate program in the same university. The couple planned (0 return to Taiwan after completing their graduate programs to look for faculty posi- tions in local universities. The main reason for their plan to return to Taiwan, according to Hou, ‘was a lack of confidence in their prospects of finding ideal academic jobs as NNES in the United States, “and I see no point of staying in the U.S. for the sake of it” The couple believed that the training they received in the United States and their professional knowledge would be better valued in their home country. PICKING THE BATTLES: SELECTIONS OF INVESTMENT This section presents how Burnerman and Hou strategized their selections of investment as NNES international students to ready themselves to take on their desired roles in their imag- ined communities: for Burnerman, a rigorous researcher in the U.S. industry and a good sonDownloaded by (College of William & Mary] at 05:41 26 September 201 IMAGINED COMMUNITIES AND SELECTIONS OF INVESTMENT 221 \who sought to honor is parent’s wish work. Bumerman’s and Hous academic lives were defined by their ong hours in the labs working oon research experiments, writing reports, and doing self-guided study. In the AAE program Burerman worked alone in the combustion lab while Hou shared the Rid dynamics tab with tnvo other American students who worked together on a different project assignment, The analysis of the students” selections of investment focused on four areas: (a) seeking funding opportunities, (b) developing social networks, (c) overcoming language barriers, and (d) strengthening different kinds of disciplinary competences, The first three areas are regarded as specifically challenging to NNES internationals students whereas the final area is ikely to be AAE-specitic. ; for Hou, a university professor with autonomy over his Funding Versus Academic Progress Unlike the common belief that doctoral students, especially those in science and engineering. ae fully sponsored throughout their graduate studies by their advisors’ researeh or department's training grants (Golde & Dore, 2004), neither Burnerman nor Hou were provided such oppor- tunities, Even so, when faced with the realities of the overseas living expenses and nonresident tuition bill, Burnerman and How often placed their academic progress at the top of their pri ority list when making decisions about taking academic assistantships and looking for funding ‘opportunities. ‘Dumerman started the program with « two quarter tuition waiver because the visiting grad- uate student to whom the waiver was originally designated did not register, After the tuition ‘waiver expired, his family sponsored him until he was offered a teaching assistantship in his second year to co-teach an undergraduate course with his PhD advisor. Burnerman accepted the teaching assistantship because his doctoral advisor had run out of a research grant with ‘which he would have been able to offer Burnerman research assistantship. However, Burnerman chose to discontinue the teaching assistantship after a year because he found the responsibi ities required for the job, including grading, leading quiz sections, keeping office hours, and responding to students’ questions and concems, (00 time-consuming and distracting from his ‘own research: I tried to do a good job [us a teacher] by devoting & lot of time and effort to prepare each class session, In the end, I strained and exhausted myself It just took too much time and jeopardized my ‘ows research pr Without assistantship, Burmerman had to fall back on his family’s sponsorship and the lump sum froma student loan in Taiwan. Though Burnerman seemed to he bothered by the heavy financial ‘burden, he told me that he had to convince himself to stop worrying about money and concentrate his effort on academic work: “At least [will progress faster this way.” Similarly, Hou relied on his own savings and his family’s financial support through the frst «wo yeurs of his graduate program until he was Unally awarded a research assistantship in his third year. As his wife was also dependent an her own savings while studying for her doctoral degree, Hou said the lack of funding had created extra pressure to their already stressful academic lives, Although Hou was qualified to work as an international teaching assistant he chose not to apply fora teaching position beeause he believed thatthe job would require hin to spend too much time5 5 g é s 2 5 Downloaded by [Ci 222 CHANG focusing on material that was mostly irelevant to his current research. Research assistantship, on the other hand, was about “doing [real research] work” that was “a hundred percent relevant” to his thesis. Therefore, Hou preferred to wait for the research assistantship to open over devoting, time to seek funding opportunities. Coping With a Diminished Social Network. Bumerman and Hou were not keen on socializing with colleagues or establishing local social networks. Being the only person in his lab, Burnerman said he often did not utter a single word for the whole day except when he had weekly group meetings with his advisor and the advisor’s other advisees. After a long diy’ in the lab, he went straight back to his studio apartment where he lived alone. For Burnerman, the isolated and routinized lifestyle was far from pleasant and often drove him to self-doubt: “Look. I work alone in the lab from 8 10 8 from Monday to Friday and then come back {10 the lab again] on Saturday... | have no friends and family around .... . [IF you were in my position.) ‘voukln’t you ask yourself why come here to torture yourselt? ‘Nonetheless, Burnerman took his situation in stride beeause he had made his aeademie work his priority and “there is absolutely nothing more important than (focusing on my academic work] Hou, on the other hand, had labmates and his lab was Frequently visited by mechanies, eusto- stians, Hou’s advisor. and other graduate students, However, Hou often seemed detached from the happenings around him and was reticent among his NES cohorts. His conversation with others ‘was mostly polite, briet, and Himited to greetings and work-related topies. As a self-proclaimed introvert, How said he avoided communication for fear of wasting other peoples’ time: Maybe its hecause of my personality I don't usually speak to others if there is nothing major to talk about... Also, Thave a hard time understanding people when they speak [English] too quickly and 1 el rather embarrassed to have to ask people to repeat. Outside of academic settings, Hou and his wife preferred spending time at home than participat- ing in soctal events, even those with eo-nationals from Taiwan, The isolated student life did not really bother the rather shy and reserved couple. Hou said that they even made a deliberate effort, to stay at home due to their financial burden. Most importantly, since the couple regarded their lives in the United States as temporary, they did not put much effort in trying t cross the cultural gap. to blend into the local community: “We don't particularly want to stay in the U.S. {after our Studies}... so we don’t really fel the need to go out and make more friends.” ‘Overcoming Language Barriers ‘Burnerman’s and Hou’s language investment, however, seemed to be more complicated than the stereotypical portrayal of NNES students’ struggle to aequire advanced English competence to ‘meet the academic demands. On the one hand, Bumerman and Hou both indicated that in AAE, the presentation and evaluation of one’s disciplinary competence was Jess dependent on one’s English proficiency than on one’s mathematic ability and disciplinary-specific knowledge. As a result, the wa students did not find that their nonnative English skills hampered their acaclemicDownloaded by [College of William & Mary] at 05:41 26 September 201 IMAGINED COMMUNITIES AND SELECTIONS OF INVESTMENT 223, performance (sce also Chang & Kanno, 2010), On the other hand, Burnerman and Hou were jware of the need to invest in improving their English competence—but the areas and the extent of their investment varied according to ther different future aspirations For Burnerman, his gout of working in the U.S. industry had made him a dedicated investor in English communicative competence. Although Burnerman was confident about his knowledge ‘and ability in many valued disciplinary skills, including math, programming, and conducting ‘experiments, he said he feared that his expertise might be undermined by his nonnative English speaking abilities: “If your English is not good enough, you will not be able to leave a good frst impression [on your job interviewers] . .. regardless of your professional knowledge and back: ‘ground Therefore, Bumerman had made it habit to read online English news—particularly that related to engineering, space, and technology—as the firs hing he did when he arrived in the lab every morning. Also, wit limited opportunities for interpersonal interaction, Burmerman tried to practice is English speaking skills by reading the news articles out loud—a technique he learned from a NNES Korean ESL teacher who had taught Burnerman in the ESL. program prior to his doctoral study. Burnerman chose to focus on this self-practice technique, not only because hie looked up to the NNES teacher who had achieved neat-native fluency, but also because there were no oral training courses available on campus for students who had already passed the language requirements for graduate school admission. While Burnerman’s aspirations motivated him to invest in English communicative compe- tence, Hou did not regard his nonnative English skills and limited communication with his peers as detrimental to his academic work or a future career in Taiwan, Although he admitted that he trad sometimes “thought about” improving his English, he suid he hal wever actually put the thought into real practice. At home, he rarely watched American TV programs, Instead, he and his wile often watched the latest Taiwanese and Japanese dramas and TV programs online when they had some five time. Nevertheless, Hou was keen on improving his English competence in & few academie genres, such as those related to publication, grant application, and proposal writ- ing, for he believed such competence would be “critical even for an engineering professor in “Taiwan.” For that reason, Hou put extra clfort into studying the proposals his PhD advisor wrote and was especially grateful for the opportunity o collaborate with his advisor inthe preparation, submission, and revision of a journal article during his second year in the program. Strengthening Disciplinary-Specitic Competence ‘Acconding to Burnerman’s doctoral advisor, though students might have different academic skills ‘and degrees of motivation and independence, he expected his PhD students to become fully versed in their topics of research in the discipline, make original contributions, and eventually become a collaborator who could “start teaching me things.” Putting similar emphasis on stu- dents? ability to “explore the field independently 10 make the unknown known,” Hou's doctoral advisor also pointed out that the ultimate goul of graduate school training in his program was to have students “end up knowing more than the professors in their particular areas of research in the discipline.” As for the two participating students, since the wealth of academic resources and rigorous. training offered by U.S. universities was one of the main reasons that drove them to study1m & Mary] at 05:41 26 September 2 Downloaded by [College of Wi 224 CHANG overseas, they were both keenly invested in developing the discipline-specitic knowledge and skills integral to their hecoming qualified professionals in their field, According to Bumerman, When you are a professional [in AB], you should at least have the fundamentals of aerospace- related knowledge ... and have the basie knowledge about space and NASA shuttles... IE would the quite embarrassing il you only know your specific areas of study. ‘To strengthen his academic competence, Bumerman had made deliberate efforts to seek guid- ance from more-experieneed members in the academic community. For instance, he regularly consulted with seasoned mechs and engineers in the department to improve his lab work and met with different professors to ask for extra reading materials, feedback on his perfor- mance, and/or general advive to prepare himself for becoming a professional in the discipine. Burnerman said he once heard i professor in his department comment that lab work was not an § to 5 or 20-hour week routine, and that in order to qualify for the PAD title, a graduate Student eventually needed to be more Knowledgeable than the senior members in his field of research, Burnerman said that the professor's words were a sharp warning to him: he immedi- iNely adjusted his work hours so he could to spend even longer hours working inthe labs every day, Afier investing the extra time and the effort, Burerman commented that “my future seems more tangible: Hou was keen on strengthening his eredentials as « qualified academic professional with an eye 10 receiving a satisfactory offer in the academic job market in Taiwan. In addition to investing in the three most critical competences he believed a professional should have in his discipline content knowledge, statistics, and computer programming skills Hou also stressed the importance for him to start building up @ more impressive publication record and better skills in writing grant proposals to survive a faculty position after the doctoral program. Having published one paper in Taiwan and co-authored another with his advisor in the United States, Hou understood the importance of publication to one's academic career advances and was eager to master the genre—including writing, revising, and corresponding with reviewers—before he ‘completed the PhD. Additionally. to give himself more time to accumulate the knowledge and apprentice the skills critical to becoming a faculty member in his discipline, Hou said he was pre- pared to go through postdoctoral training for a few years before he actually started shouldering the responsibility of rescurching, teaching, supervising, and administrative duties. DISCUSSION In examining NNES international graduate students’ learning in English-speaking academic communities, researchers have tended to emphasize the various difficulties the students have to ‘overcome and analyze student experiences within the context of their immediate surroundings. In this study, I have situated wo NNES international doctoral students’ selections of investment in the context of their present academic pursuits as well as their future aspirations. The analysis ‘of the motivation behind their investment in an overseas PhD degree and four major aspects of their overseas academic lives complicates the usual, monolithic portrayal of struggling NNES international graduate students facing wide-ranging challenges. The findings highlight learner agency and shows that where and how they were willing to make investments was guided by5:41 26 September 20 jam & Mary] at Downloaded by [College of Wil IMAGINED COMMUNITIES AND SELECTIONS OF INVESTMENT 225 their personal academic trajectories before, during, and after their doctoral study in the United States First, lke the rural Ugandan women who envisioned themselves becoming independent and valued community members by attending the literacy program (Kendrick & Hissani, 2007), the two NNES international doctoral students anticipated that, by going through the training and challenges associated with obtaining a doctoral degree in the United States, their cross-cultural investment would yield a high return, Thus. they not only looked forward to enjoying the wealth of resources offered by U.S. academia, hut also the profits brought by the rigorous academic training and brand of their U.S. degrees. ‘Second, while Burnerman and Hou scemed to share many similarities, their selections of investment reflected their respective learning goals and the culture oftheir immediate and imag ined communities, Although Burnerman and Hou looked forward to securing funding to lessen their financial hurden, teaching experience was not as highly valued as research achievements in the lab-based community where they were preparing (0 enter For a wider range of research cearcers. Therefore, there were times when Burnerman and Hou chose to wait for higher-yield funding opportunities, such as a rescarch assistantship. rather than surrendering part of their rescarch time and effort to nonessential credentials, which might jeopardize their academic progress Echoing provious studies of international students’social marginalization during in their over- seas study (i.e,, Dem & Brehony, 2000), Bumerman and Hou did experience interpersonal isolation, and their minimal social interaction with others was mostly driven by academic and porsonal reasons, What is illuminating, here, is that their lack of a social support network was not cntirely the result oftheir inaccessibility to local people and social resources. Rather, Bumerman ‘and Hou did not actively invest in the expansion of their diminished social circles because they {did not find their lack of social life to be inhibiting to their academic development. Unlike their ‘eagerness to strengthen their disciplinary knowledge, these students believed that their failure to Integrate socially would not detrimentally undermine their legitimacy in the community (Lovitts, 2001; Nettles & Millett, 2006). Instead, they sought to channel their efforts towards strengthening their disciplinary competence and other more valued academic skills, In terms of language. the two students’ choices of investment were conditioned by their perceptions of the language dependence of their discipline as well as by their future aspini- tions. Although both Burnerman and Hou found their discipline relatively language independent (Chang & Kanno, 2010), they were selective in investing in the language skill areas that could generate the most profit valued in their imagined communities. Therefore, Burnerman was eager {o improve his oral communicative competence, because he considered it the key for a NNES professional entering the U.S. engineering industry: Hou, on the other hand, focused on partic- ular research genres (ic., proposal writing and journal publication) deemed critical to his career in English as a foreign language (EFL) contexts The learning choices made by the (wo students illustrate that although their immediate goals were to succeed in their graduate program, completing their doctoral degree was just a pit stop rather than the end of their academic and professional journey. Thus, the students in this study did not see the need, and so didnot try, 19 follow a particular fixed path or attempt to rid all chal- lenges they faced in their host academic community. Rather, they exerted agency to negotiate and reappraise their capital and invest strategically. Although the effects of their agency were more discernible at the moment they decided to invest, they were equally actively involved in theiriaded by [College of Wi 2 a 226 CHANG. learning and language negotiations even when they were reticent and nonparticipating (Morita, 2004: Norton, 2001), ‘AS agency is not free will or an unlimited power to act, highlighting NNES international students” ability to make choices for their learning should not be taken as an attempt £0 gloss ‘ver the constraints and difficulties they Face, Cooke's (2006) study of immigrants in the United Kingdom indicates that despite the vocational skills (ie., plumbing and nursing) immigrants bring with them into the new community, the social constraints imposed by immigration laws, which prohibit them from practicing their skill, thereby, sabotage their imagined future as a part of the labor force in the United Kingdom, In this study, although the two students did not face the same extreme social constraints, the level of agency they were able to exert in making selections and the range of imagined affiliations they had were not unlimited; the students were ‘undeniably subjected to the contextual and structural constraints. Therefore, while Hou had no problem identifying himself as a legitimate member of the community of his eurrent discipline, he was more confident envisioning himself establishing an academie career in Taiwan. where he believed that his academic credentials as a U.S.-trained PhD would have a greater value than as an NNES scholar in the United States. Similarly, if Burnerman and Hou did not have families that could financially support hem during unfunded periods, thus allowing them 1o be selective in ‘accepting graduate assistantships, they would have had to accept whatever funding opportunities ‘were offered to them to sustain their lives in the United States or else, as in many cases, switch their research directions of change doctoral advisors for the sake of acquiring stable funding IMPLICATIONS By qualitatively analyzing two NNES international graduate students’ aspirations and their clfcts on the students’ learning investments, this article has illustrated that despite the differ cent language, social and financial challenges the students faved, they were able to exert their ‘own agency when picking which battles to fight. Whether Burnerman and Hou chose to actively participate in or withdraw from « particular practice, their investments were made for the pur- pose of inereasing their market value in their discipline or professional community rather than trying to rid all possible barriers. Their leaming trajectories did not start or end in their adopted ‘academic communities. Their learning trajectories continue to meander through each student's past, present, and Future as they reassess their goals and put their selections of investment into perspective. Burnerman and Hou, as advanced NNES international students, travelled overseas to study. for PhD degrees with the intent 10 fulfill their academic, professional, or personal goals, and they are able to make selections for their own learning. Among the heated worldwide competition in the intemational academic community, foreign graduate students provide some of the strongest talent to universities. To assist them in succeeding in their academic pursuits. fostering their professional knowledge, and, most importantly, encouraging their retention after they complete their advanced degrees, ideal support should be built upon the acknowledgement of the different earning goals that drive these students as they make their way to the host academic communities, First, professors and PhD advisors need to have a better understanding of the goals and the ‘various worlds in which their NNES international advisces are engaged so that they can help students channel their energies effectively and enable them to invest in the kinds of resourcesDownloaded by [College of William & Mary] at 05:41 26 September 201 IMAGINED COMMUNITIES AND SELECTIONS OF INVESTMENT 227 ‘and skills particularly applicable to their aspirations. As Flowerdew and Miller (2008) point out, “By acknowledging that students are already taking responsibilty for their learning, teachers may go some way to empowering their students with the skills they need to take contro) of theit learning and appreciate the control they may already have" (p. 221). Its important to do ‘our students justice by explicitly informing them, especially those who are relatively unfamiliar with the language and its sociocultural aspects in the English-speaking academic community, of the kinds of skills and tesourees that may be more important to their aeademic and professional participation. In tis study, for instance, the wwo NNES students’ understanding of the knowledge and competence required of « member in their disciplinary community was not far from their doctoral advisors’ expectations of a qualified PhD student. Nevertheless, they, as well as other NNES students, might have ignored the importance of acquiring particular skills or eredentials (ie.,advanced academic communication skills, teaching credentials, and peer and social support) because they viewed their discipline as language independent and research oriented and social activities as frivolous and time-consuming. While the students might be right itis the students, who will suifer if they are wrong. Therefore. professors and doctoral advisors who see good Fanguage communication skills—or any other disciplinary skills—as significant must explicitly direct their students to make investments in that area, Second, language support should extend beyond helping NNES students meet basic admission requirements, In this study, since there were no additional language courses designed to support [NNES international students once they have fulfilled the basic admission requirement graduation requirement for language, Burnerman had (o rely on himself and limited language learning strat fies (reading news aloud) « practice his speaking skills in English. A more diseiplinary and genre-specific academic English curriculum should be implemented 10 meet the diverse lan- guage needs of a wider student population from different specialized areas of study. According to Paltridge (2001), genre-based English classes can help students demystify the use of English in academic contexts and provide students with the language resources and skills that will, not only help them students gain access to discourses. texts, and genres that have accrued eul~ tural capital in their disciplinary community, but also encourage them to explore the particular expectations and conventions of their disciplinary genres and discourses. Hence, by giving the Students the opportunity to focus their language learning efforts on speeitie genres, such as oral presentation skills, grant proposal research statement writing skills, oF writing for journal pub- lication, advanced and busy graduate students—NES and NNES alike —can manage their time and energy more efficiently when making language investments meaningful to their individual learning objectives. Furthermore, as foreigners and novice participants in an English-speaking academic com- munity, not all NNES international students will have a comprehensive understanding of the ‘options available to them after completing the doctoral program. Therefore, professors and PhD advisory should help open international students’ eyes to new communities and identities that ‘might not seem obvious, Without being fully aware of the different communities and identities they could possibility take on with their academic and professional credentials, some, like Hou, right be unaware of the full range of opportunities available to them in the overseas job market Therefore, itis essential for advisors or other established members of the academic community to help students “think of themselves as living in multiple communities, including the class- room community, the target language community, and the imagined community” (Norton, 2001, p. 178).iam & Mary] at 05:41 26 September 201 Downloaded by [College of W 228 CHANG CONCLUSION ‘This article explored the experience of two NNES international doctoral students who exerted their agency to fight their academic battle. As the participants were stil students in their respec- tive programs at the time of the research, it was impossible to evaluate the extent to which the students’ selections of investment actually brought about the benefits they expected in their subsequent participation in the graduate program and theit professional lives. According to Morita (2002), the employment of a longitudinal, in-depth investigation of a small number of participants allows for a more complete documentation of their gradual development, chang- ing feelings, and personally significant transformations. This article has documented one part, the first half, of Burnerman and Hou's academic experiences. Future research is encouraged (0 ‘continue exploring these students’ experiences, or the second half of their journeys, through to the finish line of their PhD programs and their subsequent career lives, to explore the long-term cllects of their current learning practices and investments. 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