Module 4. A Special Theory of Relativity * Prerequisites : (Cartesian co-ordinate system) * Special theory of Relativity: Inertial and Non-inertial Frames of reference, * Galilean transformations, Lorentz transformations (space — time coordinates), * Time Dilation, Length Contraction and Mass-Energy relation.A Physical Event * An event is something that happens. + The event happens at some point in space at an instance of time. * An event can be specified by numbers (x,y,z) with respect to axes system chosen and time t. + A framework consisting of a coordinate system for determining a position and a clock for assigning time of an eventis called as frame of reference.A Physical Event *Some other observer in some other frame of reference, may specify it by numbers (x’, y’, z’) and time t’. *So, to describe an event, we need to first decide a frame of reference. * Reference frames can be of two types — * Inertial frame of reference * Non-inertial frame of referenceInertial Frame of Reference * Also called as un-accelerated frame of reference. + Law of inertia — Newtons first law holds. Thus if the net external force is zero, the moving body continues to move with constant velocity. * e.g. Arocket ship drifting in outer space, without spinning and with its engine cut off. * If we neglect small acceleration effect due to rotational and orbital motion of earth, we may call any set of axes fixed on earth forming inertial axes system (frame of reference). * Atrain, a ship, an aeroplane moving with constant velocity can also be treated as inertial frames of reference. * The special theory of relativity only deals with description of events in inertial frames of reference.Non-Inertial Frame of Reference * A system of axes (frame of reference) is said to be non- inertial (accelerated) if law of inertia is not obeyed in that system. * e.g. A system of axes that accelerated with respect to earth such as merry go round. * According to an observer in such non-inertial frame of reference, the body acted upon by zero net external force will not move in a straight line path with a constant velocity. * Einstein developed general theory of relativity that covers all frames including non-inertial frames of reference.Galilean Transformations:Galilean Transformations: S4Y s' y' x'=x-vt a y=y ” eas x=x'+vt ee ann J z=z If we assume, time can be defined independent of any frame of reference. This leads to fourth Galilean transformation — vstGalilean Transformation Let us consider a rod with end points A and B in frame S. According to the observer in frame S, the locations of point A and B are x, and xp. According to the observer in frame S’, the locations of point A and B are x4 and xg. Using Galilean transformations, X4 = X%q— Vtg meee (1) Xp =Xg— Vtg --e------- (2) If the measurements in frame S and S’ are made at same time instance tg = tg, we can write the length of the rod as — XA — Xp = Xa — XB Thus Galilean transformations imply that length and time are independent of relative motion of the observer.Galilean Velocity Transformations: Velocity transformations can be obtained by differentiating the Galilean transformations with respect to time. a d As t=’, the operation ae identical vr In general, if the relative velocity of the frames has components along all three axes, we can write, SeyGalilean Acceleration Transformation Acceleration transformations can be obtained by differentiating the Galilean velocity transformations with respect to time. du, d(u,—v) du, du, du, _ du, Tn (3 Toe Cs Taner Ce dean CT a,=a, Thus, components of acceleration remain unaffected by uniform relative velocity of reference frames. So, we can write ae a=aGalilean Transformation In classical physics, the mass is also not affected by the motion of reference frame. So, the force in frame S is F = md and in frame S’ is F’ = ma’. Asa’ = @, we can write, Fi=F. This means, the force is same in all inertial frames. Therefore, Newton’s laws of motion and equations of motion are also exactly same in all inertial systems.OW re ae Cl aed] platform at t=t’=0. After 30 sec train passes him, the man on a platform observes a bird flying along the track in the same direction as the train is 900 m away. What are the coordinates of the bird as determined by train passenger. Given : Coordinates for observer on platform are (x,y,z,t) = (900, 0, 0, 30) For train passenger, x’ =x—vt = 900-20 x 30 = 300 y'=y=0 ze =0 1S eemee uC se a ae meee i acuta ttcd directions. One electron has speed 0.6c and the other has speed 0.7c as observed by laboratory observer. According to classical transformations (Galilean) calculate the speed Cee eens mks According to Galilean transformations, Uy = Uy — Vv —0.6c¢ — 0.7¢ —1.3¢Special Theory of Relativity * Einstein in 1905, developed a Special theory of relativity for inertial frames of reference. To develop this theory, he did two assumptions which are called postulates of Special theory of relativity — 1. The laws of physics are same in all inertial frames. No preferred inertial system exists. (The principle of relativity) 2. The speed of light in free space has the same value ‘c’ in all inertial frames. (The principle of Constancy of the speed of light) * Later he developed General Theory of relativity which is applicable to Non-inertial (accelerated) framesLorentz Transformations Let the new transformations be - Let some event P occurs at point P whose space-time coordinates are measured in each frame of reference. ‘An observer in frame $ will specify them as x,y,z,t and an observer in frame S’ will specify them as xy Ze. x =Ax+Bt, y=y, 2 =z --------- (1) t=Cx+Dt (2) Where A, B, C and D are constants.Lorentz Velocity Transformations ve Lorentz transformations can be written as - x’ = is and t’ = aa bes ee Differentiating, we get dx’ = “= = anidtimes Wee cs ars axr py dx-vdt au ae-("/,2)ae av uy-v * C)ele Ts We can also write the transformation as u, = wee a Velocity can be written as u). =Time Dilation Let the observer in frame S at position x, measures time interval as — At = t, — The observer in frame S’ measures the time interval as - At’ = t) — t{ 1/2 v a Bf 4-2 nt a 2 2 2 Ty ae ees (ony =e When v << c and when vis close to c? ee Bah, Using Lorentz transformation, t> = and f= 2 At ===An experiment is performed in a laboratory moving at speed 5 x 10’ m/s. If the time required to complete the experiment is 1.013 x 10~° sec, find the time measured to complete the experiment in a laboratory at rest. 2 At = At'x h-3 5x 107 = 6 At = 1.013 x 107° x aTAt what speed does a clock move if it runs at a rate which ERC SeUC Lm MCR aC Ras alae tg Let At’ be a time interval measured by an observer in S’ which is moving with velocity v. Let At be a time interval measured by an observer at rest in S. at’ = ° If the clock in frame S’ which is running at half the rate of a clock in frame S, -At'=2at > stat > « (ie =} a1-3=2 a-B nee Dp ec +323 > ave ff c=0866Length Contraction Let us consider two inertial frames S and S’. Let S’ is moving with relative speed v with respect to $ in X direction. Let an observer in frame S, measures length of the rod as- L=x2-x% Similarly, an observer in frame S’ will measure the length if the rod as — L=x-x ss , x2-vt According to Lorentz transformations, X3 ja ° 1-z é M-vt 2 -hy LLength ContractionA rocket ship is 100m long on the ground. When it is in flight, its length is 99m to an observer on ground. What is its speed? Given : L= 99m, L’ = 100m v cr 1-3 Ce Whe “1-35 epee: (es = (3 x 108)? x 1-2") = 1.791105 L? 100?) ~~ «v= 4.23 x 10’m/sOle etal Cm la MR Re UU lela a ele What will be its length measured by the observer on the earth. = 100 fi — 020" = 43.58mRelativistic Mass * In Newtonian mechanics, the momentum p and energy E assigned to a body of rest mass mo and velocity v p=mpvandE =E, +Fmgv?, In special relativity, the mass of the body depends on the velocity and the relativistic mass is given by mo m= where cis the speed of light in a vacuumMass Energy Equivalence The force is defined as the time rate of change of momentum ee — F= 7(mv) (1) The in kinetic energy of the particle when the particle is displaced by distance S is given by— s Sq Ey = [ ras [ amas + Ey = fy" v d(mv) = fj vd = —(2) a—*"/2 Integrating by parts, we get — vy? » vdv i jp ______|Mass Energy Equivalence Wecmente m= Tape A/a using binomial theorem. ‘At low velocities (v <« ¢), higher terms can be neglected. + Ey= moc” ieee 1 =dmgv? > 2c? 2 ‘We can write equation (3) as me? = Ey +moc? So, E= Ey+Eo The equations E = mc? and Eo = moc? are known as | mass-energy equivalenceMass Energy Equivalence Wecmente m= Tape A/a using binomial theorem. ‘At low velocities (v <« ¢), higher terms can be neglected. + Ey= moc” ieee 1 =dmgv? > 2c? 2 ‘We can write equation (3) as me? = Ey +moc? So, E= Ey+Eo The equations E = mc? and Eo = moc? are known as | mass-energy equivalenceCalculate the speed at which the mass of an electron bec: Me SSC Given : m= 4mo 1 2 (iq) =O: 16 C ( z) 8.4375 x 10 + v= 2.904 x 10°m/sCalculate the speed of the particle whose total energy is twice i acuce4 7 Total energy is E = mc? and rest energy is Ey = moc? Given that - mc? = 2moc? ae 4 --)=6. ae aa 7 6.75 x 10 2. v = 2.5984 x 10°m/s Rn eerie