Russian Journal of Nondestructive Testing, Vol. 37, No. 11, 2001, pp. 789–798. Translated from Defektoskopiya, No.

11, 2001, pp. 39–50.

Original Russian Text Copyright © 2001 by Baldev, Jayakumar, Moorthy, Vaidyanathan.

MAGNETIC AND EDDY-

CURRENT METHODS

Characterisation of Microstructures, Deformation,

and Fatigue Damage in Different Steels
Using Magnetic Barkhausen Emission Technique
R. Baldev, T. Jayakumar, V. Moorthy and S. Vaidyanathan
Metallurgy and Materials Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, India

Absract—The characterization of microstructures, mechanical properties, deformation, damage initiation,

and growth by Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) techniques is assuming a vital role in various industries
because of the growing awareness of the benefits that can be derived by using NDE techniques for assess-
ing the performance of various components. NDE is widely applied for assessment of material degrada-
tion, where investment in new plants is not cost-effective and safe operational life of existing plants needs
to be extended. In recent years, various advanced NDE techniques have been successfully employed for
characterization of defects and microstructural features such as grain size, texture, nucleation and growth
of second phases, assessment of tensile, creep and fatigue properties, deformation, and damage.
With the advent of fracture mechanics concepts, microstructure, defects as well as stresses must be
quantitatively characterized to have reliable and fail-safe materials and components. Any alteration in
the microstructure, which reduces the life or performance, should be predicted sufficiently in advance
in order to ensure safe, reliable, and economic operation of the components. This is possible when one
realizes that the interaction of the nondestructive probing medium with the material depends on the
substructural/microstructural features such as point defects, dislocations, voids, micro and macro
cracks, secondary phases, texture, residual stress, etc.
In this paper, use of Magnetic Barkhausen Emission technique for characterization of microstruc-
tures, deformation, and fatigue damage in different steels would be discussed. When a ferromagnetic
material is subjected to a varying magnetic field, the magnetic flux densidy during magnetization
varies in discrete steps as the magnetic domain walls have to overcome various types of obstacles dur-
ing their movement. The discrete changes in magnetization induce electric voltage pulses in pickup
coil placed near the surface of ferromagnetic materials. This noise like voltage pulses were, firstly
observed by Barkhausen in 1919 and this phenomenon is named as magnetic Barkhausen Noise
(MBN) or magnetic Barkhausen emission (MBE).
Based on the two stage magnetization process modeled by the authors, the size of the grain/lath
and carbides in ferritic steels could be correlated with MBE parameters. The influence of mor-
phology of cementite (lamellar and spheroidized) on the MBE behaviour has been understood.
Various stages of tensile deformation, viz. (i) perfectly elastic, (ii) micro-plastic yielding, (iii)
macroyielding, and (iv) progressive plastic deformation in ferritic steels could be identified using
the MBE parameters. The hardening depth and its quality with respect to the microstructure in
induction hardened specimens could also be established using the MBE technique. MBE is found
to be highly sensitive in detection of stress induced martensite in stainless steels with metastable
austenite phase. Different stages of fatigue damage in 9Cr-1Mo steel, viz. (i) cyclic hardening, (ii)
softening, (iii) saturation, and (iv) crack initiation could be identified using the MBE parameters.

INTRODUCTION
Tne characterization of microstructures, mechanical properties, deformation, damage initiation, and
growth by Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) techniques is assuming a vital role in various industries
because of the growing awareness of the benefits that can be derived by using NDE techniques for
assessing the performance of various components. Nondestructive evaluation is particularly assuming
greater significance in the assessment of material degradation, where investment in new plants is not
cost-effective and safe operational life of existing plants needs to be extended. In recent years, various
advanced NDE techniques have been successfully employed for characretization of defects and
microstructural features such as grain size, texture, nucleation and growth of second phases, assess-
ment of tensile, creep and fatigue properties, deformation, and damage.
1061-8309/01/3711-0789$25.00 © 2001 MAIK “Nauka/Interperiodica”
790 BALDEV et al.

Most of the components and structures, subjected to complex service environment such as exposure
to elevated temperature and/or loading undergo degradation in mechanical properties like strength,
fracture toughness, etc. due to microstructural changes, corrosion, creep, and fatigue damage.
Microstructural features are decisive as these decide the physical, mechanical, and corrosion perform-
ance of materials.
With the advent of fracture mechnanics concepts, microstructure, defects as well as stresses must be
quantitatively characterized to have reliable and fail-safe materials and components. Any alteration in
the microstructure, which reduces the life or performance, should be predicted sufficiently in advance
in order to ensure safe, reliable, and economic operation of the components. This is possible when one
realizes that the interaction of the nondestructive probing medium with the material depends on the sub-
structural/microstructural features such as point defects, dislocation, voids, micro and macro cracks,
secondary phases, texture, residual stress, etc. While this is considered as advantageous for complete
characterization, many a time such comprehensive interaction of the probing medium with various
microstructural features may lead to complex signals, thus making interpretations very difficult and
requiring unfolding the signal to obtain the feature specific information. Under such conditions, use of
multiple NDE techniques and multiple NDE parameters in a complementary manner helps in isolating
the influence of one or a combination of specific microstructural features. The benefits of non-destruc-
tive characterization and the challenges in interpretation of results have led to intensive efforts world-
wide. Modeling, development of new sensors, advanced signal analysis, and materials science based
approaches are the new directions.
Nondestructive evaluation techniques like in-situ metallography, Acoustic emission (AE), ultra-
sonic attenuation and velocity measurements, acoustic harmonic measurement, magnetic Barkhausen
emission, acoustic Barkhausen emission, laser interferometry, positron annihilation, X-ray diffraction,
small angle neutron scattering (SANS), etc. are used for characterization of microstructutal features
such as grain size, precipitation and growth of second phases, etc. due to thermal aging, and creep and
fatigue damage. In this paper, use of MBE technique for characterization of microstructures, defor-
mation and fatigue damage in different steels is discussed.
When a ferromagnetic material is subjected to a varying magnetic field, the magnetic flux density dur-
ing magnetization varies in discrete steps as magnetic domain walls have to overcome various types of
obstacles during their movement. The discrete changes in magnetization induce electric voltage pulses in
pickup coil placed near the surface of ferromagnetic materials [1, 2]. This noise like voltage pulses were
first observed by Barkhausen in 1919 and this phenomenon is named as magnetic Barkhausen Noise
(MBN) or magnetic Barkhausen emission (MBE). The plotting of the RMS voltage of the MBE signal as
a function of magnetic field or the current applied to the electromagnetic yoke indicates the changes in
material parameters. Various parameters such as number of peaks and their heights and positions are used
for characterizing the materials with different microstructural and substructural features. It is the objective
of many studies to establish correlations between the MBE parameters and material parameters that would
be useful in assessing the fabrication quality and inservice performance assessment of components using
the MBE technique. In this paper, the developmental studies undertaken at the authors’ laboratory towards
meeting this objective are discussed.

MAGNETIC BARKHAUSEN EMISSION PARAMETERS FOR ASSESSMENT

OF GRAIN/LATH SIZE AND CARBIDE SIZE ASSOCIATED
WITH THERMAL AGING IN FERRITIC STEELS
During thermal aging of ferritic steel components operating at higher temperatures, the dislocation den-
sity, size and distribution of laths/grains and second phase precipitates vary in a synergistic manner. Using
magnetic Barkhausen emission parameters, a two-stage magnetization process has been recently proposed
in sufficiently tempered microstructures, considering the grain boundaries and the carbide precipitates as
the two major types of obstacles to the domain wall movement. The model has been validated by making
studies of the influence of tempered microstructures on the MBE behaviour in carbon steel, 2.25Cr–1Mo
steel and 9Cr–1Mo steel [3].
The plot of RMS voltage of the MBE vs. current applied to the electromagnetic yoke systematical-
ly changes from a single peak to two peaks with increase in tempering time in carbon steel and Cr–Mo
steels as typically shown in Figs. 1a and 1b for 0.3% carbon steel [3]. Based on the two-stage magne-
tization process, the MBE peak 1 has been attributed to influence of grain boundaries and the peak 2
to that of carbides [3, 4]. The grain boundaries and precipitates act as obstacles to the domain wall
RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Vol. 37 No. 11 2001
 CHARACTERISATION OF MICROSTRUCTURES, DEFORMATION, AND FATIGUE 791

(a) (b)
1.00
Tempered of 873 K Tempered of 873 K
Peak 1 Peak 2
Peak 1 Peak 2
RMS voltage of the MBE, V

0.75 ( )Quenched
( )15 h
( )0.5 h
( ) 25 h
( )1 h
0.50 ( ) 100 h
( )5 h

0.25

0.00
–0.7 –0.35 0 0.35 0.7 –0.7 –0.35 0 0.35 0.7
Applied current, A

Fig. 1. Variation in the RMS voltage of the MBE for different tempered 0.2% carbon steel samples.

(a) (b)
0.60
Tempered of 873 K Tempered of 873 K
Correlation 䊉
Correlation
coefficient = 0.96 0.50 coefficient = 0.99
䊉
0.15
Reciprocal of grain size, µm–1

Average carbide size, µm

0.40
䊉 䊉

0.10 䊉
0.30
䊉

0.20
䊉
0.05 䊉
d
0.10

0.00 0.00
–0.05 0.00 0.05 0.25 0.30 0.35
MBE peak 1 position, A MBE peak 2 position, A

Fig. 2. Relationship between the MBE peak (a) 1 and (b) 2 position and average size of (a) grain and (b) cementite pre-
cipitales for different tempered 0.2% carbon steel sampes

movement in different field ranges and two peaks in the MBE profile have been observed for these
steels in sufficiently tempered condition. The systematic changes in the height and position of these
two MBE peaks at different stages of tempering have been explained based on the variations in the
lath/grain size and type and size of carbides [3, 4]. Since the formation and growth of reverse domains
become more and more easy with the increase in grain size due to large demagnetizing field at the
grain boundaries and hence, the MBE peak 1 position shifts to lower magnetic field as shown
in Figs. 1a and 1b. Similarly, with increasing tempering time, the carbide size increases. The carbide
with higher size offers more resistance to domain wall movement and hence the field corresponding
to peak 2 shifts to higher filed, as shown in Figs. 1a and 1b. Excellent correlations between positions
of MBE peaks 1 and 2 and microstructural parameters (grain/lath size and carbide size), shown in

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Vol. 37 No. 11 2001

792 BALDEV et al.

0.60 ( ) As received
(ferrite + lamellar pearlite)

RMS voltage of the MBE, V

( ) Aged of 923 K/100 h
(ferrite + spheroidized
cementite)
0.40

0.20

0.00
– 0.7 – 0.35 0 0.35 0.7
Applied current, A

Fig. 3. Difference in the RMS voltage profile of the MBE for lamellar and spheroidized cementite structures in 0.3%
carbon steel

Figs. 2a and 2b, indicate that the MBE technique can be used to evaluate the changes in the grain size
and precipitate size in long-term aged ferritic steels. However, this is difficult in short-term aged con-
ditions, where the dislocation density is high, and the lath and precipitate sizes are very small.

INFLUENCE OF MORPHOLOGY OF CEMENTITE

IN 0.3% CARBON STEEL ON MBE PROFILE
Studies have been carried in annealed and thermally aged 0.3% carbon steel samples to establish
the effect of lamellar and spheroidized cementite structures on MBE behaviour. The annealed sample
having ferrite and pearlite microstructure showed a sharp slope change near the field transition and
a dominant peak in the MBE profile whereas the thermally aged sample having spheroidized cemen-
tite particles showed two peaks in the MBE profile (Fig. 3). The microstructural observation clearly
shows that, every ferrite grain is covered with lamellar cementite boundaries on at least two sides.
Hence, even in the ferrite grains, the domain walls can not move to larger distance as it is restricted by
the pinning of domain walls by the grain boundaries with lamellar cementite. Therefore, the small peak
(slope change) near the field transition in the MBE profile can be attributed to the domain wall move-
ment in overcoming the ferrite grain boundary (without precipitates) resistance before they are pinned
by the grain boundaries with lamellar precipitates. The dominant peak at higher field is attributed to
the domain wall movement overcoming the resistance offered by the grain boundaries with lamellar
precipitates. The spheroidization of cementite during thermal aging increases the precipitate-free fer-
rite grain boundaries and hence the first MBE peak height near the field transition. The second peak
becomes narrow and shifts to higher field indicating the spheroidization of cementites and their
stronger resistance to domain wall movement.

MBE ANALYSIS FOR EVALUATION

OF INDUCTION HARDENED SPECIMENS
Studies have also been carried out on understanding the MBE behaviour in induction hardened
specimens with a view to develop a MBE based method for qualifying induction hardened components
[5]. These studies have established that it is possible to detect the coexistence of one hard and one soft
ferromagnetic phases (for example, martensite and ferrite) from the observed two-peak MBE profile
(Fig. 4a). The variation in the volume fraction on ferrite and martensite phases within the hardened
RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Vol. 37 No. 11 2001
 CHARACTERISATION OF MICROSTRUCTURES, DEFORMATION, AND FATIGUE 793

(a) (b)
1.6 NBE coil probe, 80 dB 40
Applied Case

Ration of the MBE peak heights

1.4 voltage, V depth, mm 35 Correlation

RMS voltage of the MBE, V

( ) 385 1.30 mm coefficient = 0.98
1.2 30
( ) 360 1.05
1.0 ( ) 340 1.00 25
0.8 ( ) 320 0.90 20
0.6 15
0.4 10

0.2 5
0.0 0
–0.70 –0.35 0 0.35 0.70 0.75 1.00 1.25
Applied current, A Case depth, mm

Fig. 4. (a) Variation in the rms voltage of the MBE signal with applied current at different voltages used for induction
hardening and (b) variation in the ratio of the MBE peak heights with case depth of the induction hardened shafts made
of CK-45

region could be directly correlated to the height variation of the two peaks in the MBE profile
(Fig. 4b). This method gives not only the case depth but also the quality of the case depth with respect
to the microstructure consisting of ferrite and martensite phases.

MBE ANNALYSIS FOR CHARACTERIZATION OF DIFFERENT STAGES

OF TENSILE DEFORMATION AND FRACTURE
Studies carried out on ferritic steels (carbon steel, Cr–Mo steel, and high strength low alloy (HSLA)
steel) [6, 7] have shown that four different types of tensile deformation, namely, (i) perfectly elastic,
(ii) micro-plastic yielding, (iii) macroyielding, and (iv) progressive plastic deformation can be identi-
fied from the MBE measurements. Figure 5 shows the effect of different stages of prior tensile defor-
mation on the MBE profile in a tempered 2.25Cr–1Mo steel.
It can be observed from Fig. 5 that the MBE profile remains more or less same up to certain stress
level. Then, with the increase in prior applied stress level, both MBE peak 1 and peak 2 height values
decrease. On further increase in prior stress level, the initially present two peaks in the MBE profile
merge into a single peak in between the originally present two peaks. Beyond macroyielding, the sin-
gle central MBE peak decreases gradually with prior tensile stress level. Similar changes in the MBE
profile have also been observed in tempered 0.2% carbon steel samples [6]. Figures 6 and 7 show the
variation in the MBE peak height and the prior stress level as a function of strain in a tempered
2.25Cr–1Mo steel and in a HSLA steel weldment respectively. The different stages of progressive ten-
sile deformation are clearly brought out from this illustration.

Stage 1 — Perfectly elastic region

It can be observed from Fig. 5 that, during initial stages of elastic loading, the MBE profiles remain
comparable to that of the virgin condition. This indicates the fact that there is no significant change in
the microstructure (dislocation density) after unloading from these stress levels. The constant value of
MBE peak 1 height in the unloaded condition (stage 1 in Figs. 6 and 7) confirms that the stage 1 to be
in perfectly condition.

Stage 2 — Micro-yielding
It can be seen from Fig. 5 that the height of both MBE peak 1 and peak 2 decreases significantly well
before the macroyielding. This indicates the creation of grain boundary and Frank-Read type dislocation
RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Vol. 37 No. 11 2001
794 BALDEV et al.

(a) Peak 1 Peak 2

1.50 Tempered at 923 K for 50 h

RMS voltage of the MBE, V

( ) Stress, 0 159
1.25 MPa
239
1.00 279

0.75 319

0.50

0.25

0.00
– 0.7 (b) – 0.35 0 0.35 0.7
1.50
Tempered Peak 1 Peak 2
RMS voltage of the MBE, V

1.25 at 923 K for 50 h

( ) Stress, MPa
378 358
1.00 418
438 319
358
0.75 478

0.50 319
508

0.25

0.00
– 0.7 – 0.35 0 0.35 0.7
Applied current, A

Fig. 5. Variations in the RMS voltage profile of the MBE for different prior stress levels of tensile deformation in a tem-
pered 2.25Cr–1Mo steel.

1.8 1800 1.8

Tempered at 923 K for 50 h
1.6 1600 1.6

1.4 1400 1.4

( ) Stress
Magnetic flux density, T

1.2
MBE peak height, V

1.2 1200
( ) MBE
( )B 1.0
1.0 0 1000
Stress, MPa

( ) Bmax
0.8 800 0.8

0.6 600 0.6

0.4 400 0.4

0.2 200 0.2

<1> 2< 3>< 4
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Percentage strain

Fig. 6. Typical variation in the MBE level, magnetic flux density, and the applied stress as a function of percentage no-
minal strain in quenched and tempered 2.25 Cr–1Mo steel specimen.

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Vol. 37 No. 11 2001

 CHARACTERISATION OF MICROSTRUCTURES, DEFORMATION, AND FATIGUE 795

70 700

HSLA steel ( ) Stress 600

60
weldment MBE with load
RMS voltage of the MBE, mV ( ) Weld
50 500
( ) HAZ

Stress, MPa
40 ( ) Base 400
MBE without load
( ) Weld
30 300
( ) HAZ
( ) Base
20 200

10 1 2 3 4 100

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Percentage strain

Fig. 7. Typical variation in the MBE level in the loaded and unloaded conditions and the applied stress as a function of
percentage nominal strain at weld, HAZ, and base metal regions of a HSLA steel weldment specimen.

sources even during the macro-elastic region (about 3/4 of the yield stress) causing the micro-plastic yield-
ing. The dislocation pile-ups created within the grain reduce the mean free path of domain wall displace-
ment and hence the MBE peak heights.

Stage 3 — Macro-yielding
Near the macro-yielding, the originally present two MBE peaks merge into single central peak with rela-
tively higher peak height and narrow profile width. It is known that the macro-yielding is associated with grain
rotation in order to maintain the boundary integrity between the adjacent grains for compatible deformation.
When such grain rotation occurs under the action of external tensile stress, the grain reorientation is such that
the <100> direction in some grains tends to align closer to the stress direction in order to reduce its magneto-
static energy by way of decreasing the normal component of magnetization across the grain boundary. This
results in domain alignment closer to the tensile stress direction and enhances domain wall movement during
magnetization along the stress direction and hence the increase in the micro-magnetic parameters.

Stage 4 — Progressive plastic deformation

The entry into the dominant plastic regime is clearly reflected by gradual decrease in the MBE
peak height. The dislocations generated due to plastic deformation act as a strong obstacle to domain
wall movement. The plastic deformation is associated with formation of extensive dislocation tangling
which redices the mean free path of the domain wall displacement. The linear reduction in the MBE
peak with strain is attributed to the increase in the dislocation density and the compressive residual
stress produced on the surface due to the prior tensile deformation.

INFLUENCE OF COLD WORK ON MBE BEHAVIOUR

IN AISI TYPE 304 STAINLESS STEEL WITH METASTABLE AUSTENITE
In the case of stainless steels with metastable austenite like AISI type 304 stainless steel, the stress
induced ferromagnetic phase formation during cold working contributes to the magnetization and hence to
the MBE. The RMS voltage of the MBE signals for different cold worked specimens of AISI 304 stainless

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Vol. 37 No. 11 2001

796 BALDEV et al.

MBN amplitude, G. V.
1 Hz

Cold work

50%

40%

30%
20%
10%
0%

–300 –200 –100 0 100 200 300

Applied field, A cm–1

Fig. 8. Variation in RMS voltage of MBE signal with applied field for different cold worked AISI type 304 stainless steel.

steel has been measured at 50 mHz, 1 and 10 Hz applied field frequencies [8, 9]. The variation in the MBE
rms voltage with applied magnetic field is shown in Fig. 8 for the applied field frequency of 1 Hz. There is
a gradual increase in peak height and broadening of the MBE signal with increase in the cold work (Fig. 8).
Two parameters, half of the difference in the magnetic field corresponding to the two peaks of the MBE
signal (Hcm) and the maximum amplitude (Mmax) of the RMS voltage of the MBE signal were estimated. The
Mmax value was found to increase with the degree of cold work and the frequency of applied magnetic field.
The increase in Mmax was more pronounced in specimens with higher degree of cold work (> 20%) and at
higher frequencies of applied field. The increase in Mmax with frequency of magnetic field was attributed to
the higher rate of movement of domain walls with the applied field frequency causing a higher induction in
the pick up sensor. The increase in the Mmax with the degree of cold work is attributed to the increase in the
amount of α′-martensite. The MBE measurements can also be used, particularly at higher applied field fre-
quency, to detect the presence of α′-martensite even in 10% cold worked specimens. This study establish-
es that it is possible to use the MBE analysis for assessment of stress induced α′-martensite in nonstan-
dard/irregular shaped objects/components and at localised regions.

FATIGUE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT IN 90CR-1MO FERRITE STEEL

USING MBE TECHNIQUE
Magnetic Barkhausen Emission technique has been used to assess the low cycle fatigue (LCF) damage
in 9Cr–1Mo ferritic steel. Total strain controlled fatigue tests have been carried out at 300 K at strain
amplitudes of ± 0.25, ± 0.50 and ± 0.75%. MBE measurements have been performed on LCF tested spec-
imens interrupted at various live fractions. The various stages of deformation and fracture under LCF load-
ing such as cyclic hardening, cyclic softening, saturation and surface crack initiation and propagation have
been examined and identified using peak height value of the root mean square (RMS) voltage of the MBE
(Fig. 9) [10]. The cyclic hardening, which occurs in the early stage of LCF cycling in 9Cr–1Mo steel,
decreases the MBE peak height due to the presence of dislocation tangle, which reduces the mean free path
of the domain wall movement. The progressive cyclic softening stage displayed reversal in MBE response
i. e., the MBE peak height value increased with softening due to rearrangement of dislocation tangles into
cells. Further, the saturation stage, where the stress value remained constant for a large number of cycles
due to formation of stable dislocation substructure, results in a constant value of MBE. Finally, the onset
of rapid stress drop and cusp formation in the stress-strain hysteresis loop, which indicate surface crack
initiation and propagation, exhibited a rapid increase in the MBE peak values. This is ascribed to the

RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Vol. 37 No. 11 2001

 CHARACTERISATION OF MICROSTRUCTURES, DEFORMATION, AND FATIGUE 797

6.0 9Cr–1Mo steel 600

Low cycle fatigue
5.5 MBE coil probe, 68 dB 550

5.0 500

4.5 450
εa

Stress amplitude, MPa

MBE peak height, V

4.0 400
MBE peak height
3.5 ( ) ± 0.75% 350
( ) ± 0.50%
3.0 Stress amplitude 300
( ) ± 0.25%
2.5 ( ) ± 0.75% 250
( ) ± 0.50%
2.0 200
( ) ± 0.25%
1.5 150

1.0 100

0.5 50
1 10 100 1000 10 000
Number of cycles

Fig. 9. Variation in the MBE peak height and stress amplitude at different stages of LCF for three different strain amplitudes.

movement of additional reverse domains produced at the crack surfaces. The rapid increase in MBE due
to crack initiation and propagation has been confirmed by the measurement of MBE on the crack and away
from the crack using surface MBE probe. This study suggests that the MBE can be used to assess the pro-
gressive accumulation of fatigue damage in ferrite steel components.

CONCLUSIONS
The developmental studies undertaken at the authors’ laboratory demonstrate the capabilities of
Magnetic Barkhausen Emission technique for characterization of microstructures, deformation, and
fatigue damage. Based on the two stage magnetization process modeled by the authors, the size of the
grain/lath and carbides in ferritic steels could be correlated with MBE parameters. The influence of mor-
phology of cementite (lamellar and spheroidized) on the MBE behaviour has been understood. Various
stages of tensile deformation, viz. (i) perfectly elastic, (ii) micro-plastic yielding, (iii) macroyielding, and
(iv) progressive plastic deformation in ferritic steels could be identified using the MBE parameters. The
hardening depth and its quality with respect to the microstructure in induction hardened specimens could
also be established using the MBE technique. MBE is found to be highly sensitive in detection of stress
induced martensite in stainless steels with metastable austenite phase. Different stages of fatigue damage
in 9Cr–1Mo steel, viz. (i) cyclic hardening, (ii) cyclic softening, (iii) saturation, and (iv) crack initaion
could be identified using the MBE parameters.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors wish to sincerely thank many colleagues from the Division of PIE and NDT Development and
Mechanical Metallurgy Division of IGCAR for their contributions.

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