IE Lec - 11

In the name of Allah the Most Gracious the Most Merciful
Dr. Shakil Ahmad, NICE (SCEE) NUST
Lecture 11
Canal Flow Measurements

Outline
• Objectives of Canal Flow Measurements
• Good Water Management vs Accurate Water Measurement
• Velocity or Head Measurements
• Usual Methods/Techniques for Canal Flow Measurements
(Weirs, Flumes, Electronic Devices, Rated Sections, Rated Gates, Floating Devices, Dilution Method)
• Water Level Measurements

(Point Gauge, Staff Gauge, Pressure Bulb, Bubbler, Ultrasonic Level Sensor, Float-operated Recorder)
• Issues that may Affect the Accuracy of the Water Level

Assessment and Discharge Computation
• Checking the Flow Conditions and Using the Right Formula
• THE ONLY ONE OPTION to remedy accuracy problems:
CALIBRATION
Objectives of Canal Flow Measurements
1. Types of Hydraulic Structures for Canal Flow
Measurements: weirs, flumes, long-throated flumes
2. Water Level Measurements: gauges, pressure, floater,
ultrasonic sensors
3. The Issue of Accuracy and the Need for Calibration
current meter
4. Electronic Devices: velocity sensor doppler
5. Other Techniques: rated section, rated gates, floater,
dilution method, etc
Good Water Management requires Accurate Water Measurement
1. Service oriented management
2. Accurate and equitable distribution of water to key nodes and to
end users
3. Adjusting water deliveries to water needs
4. Water accounting and improving irrigation water efficiency &
water productivity
5. Energy savings in case of lift/pressurized irrigation systems
6. Water billings
7. Protection of environment (salinity, drainage, water logging,…)
8. Managing water for multiple use of water
9. Adjusting for consumptive use of water
10. Real time operation monitoring
11. Estimating canal seepage losses
12. etc
Velocity or Head Measurements
Most devices measure flow indirectly and require the use of formula
or tables. Flow measuring devices are commonly classified into those
that sense or measure velocity & those that measure pressure or head
When velocity is measured, it is combined with information on the

cross sections of the flow to yield discharge:
Q = Cross-sectional Area × Mean Velocity
Q=AV
When head is measured, it requires charts, tables, or equations to

relate head to hydraulic characteristics of the fluid and of the bed
shape to obtain the discharge:
Q = Hydraulic Coeff. × Cross-section Characteristics × f(Head, Longitudinal Slope)
Q = Cd L H3/2 (example, broad crested weir)
Usual Methods/Techniques for Canal Flow Measurements
1. Weirs
2. Flumes
3. Electronic Devices
4. Rated Sections
5. Rated Gates
6. Floating Devices
7. Dilution Method
Critical Flow Devices  Weirs and Flumes
Weirs & flumes are devices based on “Critical Flow”. For one value of
water depth, there is one corresponding flow rate as shown below:
A Rating Curve Q = f(H) for a Broad Crested Weir
Free Flow vs Submerged Flow Conditions on a Crested Weir

Weirs
• Weirs operate on the principle that an obstruction in a channel will
cause water to back up, creating a head behind the barrier
• The head is a function of flow velocity, and therefore, the flow rate
V = f(H)  Q = f(H)
• The discharge through a weir is a function of head  so water level
measurement techniques must be used  gauges, float-operated
recorder, etc
The Physical Dimension of a Crested-Weir

Type of Weirs
Measuring Head over the Weir Crest
Zero of Staff Gauge at Weir Crest

Flumes
• Flumes are more used and often more convenient measurement
devices for canal flow measurement
• Various types of flumes  all based on a contraction of the flow to
generate a critical flow between upstream & downstream of flume
• Various types:
1. Parshall (Short Throat) Flume
2. Venturi Flume
3. Cut Throat Flume
4. Long Throated Flume
Short-Throated vs Long-Throated Flumes
Long-Throated Flume / Ramp Flume
Parshall Flume / Modified Broad Crested Weir
Advantages of Long Throated Flume
• Low head losses
• Easy and cheap to build as compared to Venturi and Parshall
• Higher accuracy
Long-Throated Flume Illustrating Comparison of Head Losses between Weir

Very Low Head Losses (high) and Long Throated Flume (Low)
Problem of Long Throated Flume
• Silt problem  to deal with silt it is recommended to install a
flushing pipe at the bottom of the canal
Long Throated Flume with a Flushing Pipe

Estimating Discharge from Head Measurement by Flumes
Formulas, rating equations, rating tables or rating curves are often
given by the constructors of the flume linking head upstream of the
flume and discharge
Example of a Rating Curve for a Long Throated Flume

Usual Methods/Techniques for Water Level Measurements
1. Point Gauge
2. Staff Gauge
3. Pressure Bulb
4. Bubbler
5. Ultrasonic Level Sensor
6. Float-operated Recorder
Water Level Measurements
Point Gauge
A point gauge is the most accurate head-measurement instrument
(error of O.1 mm)  restricted to research facilities. The point
gauge consists of a pointed and graduated rod suspended above the
water surface, often including a Vernier scale to increase
measurement accuracy. The rod is lowered until the point just
touches the water surface, and the vertical position of the point is
then read from the Vernier scale
Advantages
• most accurate  research
Staff Gauge
A staff gauge should be placed in such a manner that the water
level can be read from the canal bank and also be cleaned easily. It
is convenient to mark the gages of structures in liter/s (lps), m3/s
(cumec), or ft3/s (cusec), or other units of discharge rather than in
head units
Advantages
• eliminates the possibility of using the wrong rating tables
• easiness in reading discharge by farmers
Gauge along a Lined Canal, in lps
Pressure Bulb
This instrument consists of a flexible bulb that is placed in a
perforated metal container for protection and connected by an air
tube to a mechanical pressure gauge and recorder or to a pressure
transducer with an electronic output. The container and flexible
bulb are fixed in place below the minimum water level to be
recorded. Any change in water level changes the pressure inside the
system and thus is recorded
Advantages
• installation of the system is simple and relatively cheap
• doesn’t not require a stilling well
• the distance between the bulb and the recorder may be up to 50
m  the recorder can be placed at a suitable location
Bulbler
This instrument consists of a tube that is usually fastened with its
open end at least 0.05 m below the lowest water level to be
recorded. The tube is connected to a supply of air from a cylinder of
compressed air or a small compressor and to a pressure gauge or a
pressure transducer plus a recorder. Air flows very slowly from the
open end of the tube, and the pressure required to overcome the
head of water above the end of the pipe is measured and recorded
Ultrasonic Level Sensor
Ultrasonic level sensors are mounted above the water surface and
determine the position of the free surface by measuring the transit
time of an acoustic pulse that travels from the sensor down to the
water surface and is reflected back up to the sensor
Advantages
• installation of the system is easy
• doesn’t not physically contact
the water surface  can be used for
polluted or corrosive water sites
Radar Level Sensor
Radar level sensor is one kind of level measuring instrument which
uses FMCW (Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave) special
millimeter wave technology
Advantages
• installation of the system is easy
• doesn’t not physically contact
the water surface  can be used for
polluted or corrosive water sites
Float-operated Recorder
Float-operated recorders have been one of the most commonly
used instruments for measuring water level. The instrument
consists of a float of sufficiently large diameter, which is attached to
a tape or cable that passes around the float wheel of a recorder and
then to a counterweight. The float rises and falls with the water
level, and its movement rotates the float wheel and thus is
recorded. To function properly, the float must be located in standing
water. Thus, a stilling well is required on all field installations
Advantages
• relatively low cost
• good accuracy (0.005 m)
• wide availability
Issues that may Affect the Accuracy of the Water Level Assessment
• Systematic error (position of the gauge for zero is not correct)
• Reading is difficult because of the degraded marks on the gauge
• Gauge is far from an accessible point along the banks

• Turbulences
Issues that may Affect the Accuracy of the Discharge Computation
• Hydraulic characteristics of the fluid (viscosity, silt load, etc…)
• Friction losses on the flume and weir sections
• Sedimentation affecting the entire canal section and the flowing
conditions on the measurement device
THE ONLY ONE OPTION to remedy accuracy problems: CALIBRATION

• Calibration should be performed with current meters for 2 or 3
different discharges (low-medium-high). This leads to identify 3
points of the rating curve Q = f(H)
Electronic Devices: The Velocity Sensor Doppler
Electronic Doppler principle is based on the Doppler effect of beams
that are directed towards upstream and those directed towards
downstream. The device measured the difference of response which is
an indicator of the flow velocity
Advantages
• No head losses
• Installation Cost is reduced compare to flume
• Installation can be done without closing the canal
Dis-advantages
• Data records are scattered and needs averaging
• Silt load might create interferences reducing accuracy
Electronic Doppler Emitter & Sensor Placed at

the Bottom of the Canal
Rated Sections
• A rated section is a section of a canal which is not under the
influence of a downstream structure. The flow is said to be a
“normal flow” (water level is parallel to bottom) and for any value
of head there is a unique corresponding value of discharge
• Any discharge equation reflecting normal flow can be used, e.g. the
Manning’s equation, Chezy equation, Kutter’s equation, etc
Example of a Rated Section

Downstream a Cross-regulators to
Estimate the Discharge
(Gauge can be Seen on Left Side)
Rated Gates
• This technique is used for large structures at major diversion points
(reservoir or river). It combines head on structure, opening of the
gates & hydraulic characteristics of the flow conditions at the gates
• Discharge calibration is key to ensure a robust assessment of
discharge & compensate for variations of the characteristics of flow
• Numerous gates, variables flowing conditions depending on the set
of gates opened, the amplitude of openings
Q = f (Hus, Hds, W1, W2, W3, C1, C2, C3, .....)
Disadvantages
1) Many variables  ERRORS accumulate  accuracy goes down
2) The downstream flow conditions vary with the set of operating
gates and hydraulic-coefficients “Cx” are not constant!!!!!
Checking the Flow Conditions and Using the Right Formula
Sometimes the formula used for computation is no longer
correct due a deviation of the flow conditions, or due to the
fact that the formula applies only for a limited part of the
range of discharge variation. Therefore checking the formula
might be a key for improving accuracy of measurements,
together with calibration
Example of wrong formula used: a

submerged instead of an orifice flow
formula is used (with upstream and
downstream gauges)
Floating Method to Estimate Velocity along Small Canals
• Simply consists of measuring the velocity of floating debris in the
middle of the canal
Vsurface = Travel Distance / Travel Time = L / T
• Because surface velocities are typically higher than mean or average
velocities  the mean velocity is computed using a correcting factor
Vmean = k Vsurface
where k is a correction coefficient that generally ranges from 0.8
for rough beds to 0.9 for smooth beds (0.85 is a commonly used)
• The mean velocity is multiplied by the cross-sectional area to yield
to the value of discharge
Q = Area × Vmean
Advantages
• inexpensive and simple method
• independent of any heavy equipment
Dilution method: Constant-Rate Injection
It involves the injection of Rhodamine WT fluorescent dye at one point
in a system, and the removal of samples of water from a point further
downstream, after the dye has been thoroughly mixed with the water.
Flow rate is established from the determination of the dilution of the
injected dye. If this dye is injected at a constant rate, the relationship
between the concentration and flow is, in its simple form:
Q1 C1 = Q2 C2
Where:
Q1 = dye injection rate
C1 = concentration of injected dye
Q2 = flow rate to be determined
C2 = concentration of dye in water stream
Dilution method: Slug (i.e. Sudden) Injection
The slug injection technique (preferred for high discharges) features a
discrete amount of tracer poured or injected into the stream over a
short time period. At the measurement site, the concentration is
measured continuously from the first arrival of tracer until all has
passed. The preferred method is by continuously pumping stream
water through the fluorometer with a recorder attached. Using this
method:
=
0
.
Where:
M is the total amount of dye added.
Q is the flow rate of the system and is assumed to be constant during
the measurement
t is time, usually in seconds
C is the dye concentration passing the sampling location as a function
of time
One Single Conclusion for Canal Flow Measurement
There is no device accurate and robust enough to avoid
the needs of regular calibration

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In the name of Allah the Most Gracious the Most Merciful

Dr. Shakil Ahmad, NICE (SCEE) NUST

Canal Flow Measurements

• Water Level Measurements

• Issues that may Affect the Accuracy of the Water Level

When velocity is measured, it is combined with information on the

When head is measured, it requires charts, tables, or equations to

A Rating Curve Q = f(H) for a Broad Crested Weir

Free Flow vs Submerged Flow Conditions on a Crested Weir

The Physical Dimension of a Crested-Weir

Measuring Head over the Weir Crest

Zero of Staff Gauge at Weir Crest

Long-Throated Flume Illustrating Comparison of Head Losses between Weir

Long Throated Flume with a Flushing Pipe

Example of a Rating Curve for a Long Throated Flume

• Gauge is far from an accessible point along the banks

THE ONLY ONE OPTION to remedy accuracy problems: CALIBRATION

Electronic Doppler Emitter & Sensor Placed at

Example of a Rated Section

Example of wrong formula used: a

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