UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

FACULTY OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT AND DESIGN

DEPARTMENT OF REAL ESTATE, CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT,

AND QUANTITY SURVEYING

AN ASSESSMENT OF CONSTRUCTION SITE HEALTH AND SAFETY:

DRIVERS, BARRIERS AND STRATEGIES IN KENYA

BY
KOECH ARIEL KIBET
REGISTRATION NUMBER:
B66/1091/2019

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF QUANTITY SURVEYING

JUNE, 2023
 DECLARATIONS
Declaration by the Student
This research project report is my original work and has not been presented in any other university
or institution for academic credit.

Signature: .................................................... Date: ...................................

Koech Ariel Kibet
B66/1091/2019

Declaration by the Supervisor

This research project report has been submitted for examination with my approval as the university
supervisor.

Signature: .................................................... Date: ............................................

Mr. Samuel K. Mungai

Department of Real Estate, Construction Management, and Quantity Surveying
University of Nairobi

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
To this far, I would like to thank the Almighty for the gift of life, health, and knowledge throughout
the course of this project. I would also like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Mr. Samuel
K. Mungai for the useful comments, remarks, and engagement throughout the learning process of
this research project. Furthermore, I would like to thank the survey respondents, who willingly
shared their precious time during the process of interviewing. I would like to thank my loved ones,
who have supported me throughout the process by keeping me in harmony and helping me put
pieces together. I will be grateful forever for your love.

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 DEDICATION
This research study is dedicated to the memory of my grandmother Hannah Siele.

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 ABSTRACT
The construction industry is an investment-led sector that contributes to a country’s economy. Poor
health and safety has a detrimental impact on project costs, quality, insurance rates, and medical
expenses. The industry is among the most accident-prone in the economy with a significant number
of fatal incidents in construction sites across the world. Although there are various regulations
enacted, the current situation does not depict if site health is being implemented as accidents and
injuries continue to occur. This study sought to assess the continued poor site health and safety in
the Kenyan construction industry. The study objectives were: to identify key drivers of
implementing construction site health and safety; to assess the challenges facing the
implementation of construction site health and safety; and, to propose strategies for enhanced
implementation of construction site health and safety. The key drivers of implementing
construction site health and safety in the Kenyan construction industry include safety training,
employees, regulatory framework compliance, effective planning and financial aspects. The
barriers facing the implementation of construction site health and safety in the Kenyan construction
industry include political influence, bribery and corruption, insufficient legislation, lack of
awareness, negligence by contractors and management barriers. Strategies of enhanced
implementation of construction site health and safety in the Kenyan construction industry devising
a safety culture, economics of safety, innovative technology, risk assessment and management,
site inspection and audits and incident reporting and analysis need to be implemented. Improving
construction site health and safety requires key drivers, barriers, and implementing effective
strategies to foster a safer working environment and prevent accidents and incidents. The study
recommends increased awareness and training programs for construction workers, stronger
enforcement of regulations, improved collaboration among stakeholders, investment in innovative
technology, regular site inspections and audits, and the establishment of a robust incident reporting
and analysis systems to improve construction site health and safety in Kenya. A quantitative
research methodology and a questionnaire was used to gather data. The study was cross-sectional
in nature. The target population included design and construction phase stakeholders who were the
architects, quantity surveyors, site managers, and electrical and mechanical engineers. A sample
size of 104 respondents, which acquired 88 responses was selected from 28 construction sites
registered by the National Construction Authority (NCA) in Dagoretti North and Roysambu
constituencies of the county. The study got a response rate of 85 percent by acquiring 88 responses.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATIONS ......................................................................................................................... i

ACKNOWLEDGMENT .............................................................................................................. ii

DEDICATION.............................................................................................................................. iii

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. v

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... ix

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... x

APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. xi

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................................... xii

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background of Study .............................................................................................................. 1

1.2 Statement of Problem ............................................................................................................. 3

1.3 Research Objectives ................................................................................................................ 6

1.4 Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 6

1.5 Significance of Study............................................................................................................... 6

1.6 Limitations of Study ............................................................................................................... 7

1.7 Scope of Study ......................................................................................................................... 8

1.8 Assumptions of Study ............................................................................................................. 8

1.9 Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................. 9

1.10 Organization of Study......................................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 12

LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................... 12

2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 12

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2.2 Construction Site Health and Safety ................................................................................... 12

2.2.1 Construction Stakeholders and Exposure to Accidents ................................................ 12

2.2.2 Common Risks and Dangers in Construction Sites ...................................................... 13

2.2.3 Herbert Heinrich’s Dominoes Theory .......................................................................... 15

2.3 Construction Site Health and Safety Drivers ..................................................................... 16

2.3.1 Safety Training ............................................................................................................. 16

2.3.2 Employees .................................................................................................................... 17

2.3.3 Regulatory Framework Compliance ............................................................................. 17

2.3.4 Effective Planning ........................................................................................................ 18

2.3.5 Financial Aspects .......................................................................................................... 18

2.4 Construction Site Health and Safety Barriers.................................................................... 19

2.4.1 Political Sway/Influence ............................................................................................... 19

2.4.2 Bribery and Corruption ................................................................................................. 20

2.4.3 Insufficient Legislation ................................................................................................. 20

2.4.4 Lack of Awareness ....................................................................................................... 21

2.4.5 Negligence by Contractors ........................................................................................... 21

2.4.6 Management Barriers ................................................................................................... 21

2.5 Construction Site Health and Safety Strategies ................................................................. 22

2.5.1 Economics of Safety ..................................................................................................... 23

2.5.2 Devising a Safety Culture ............................................................................................. 23

2.5.3 Innovative Technology ................................................................................................. 25

2.5.4 Risk Assessment and Management .............................................................................. 27

2.5.5 Site Inspections and Audits .......................................................................................... 27

2.5.6 Incident Reporting and Analysis .................................................................................. 27

2.6 Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................ 27

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2.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 29

CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................ 31

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 31

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 31

3.2 Research Design .................................................................................................................... 31

3.3 Target Population, Sampling Units and Sampling Frame ................................................ 32

3.4 Sampling ................................................................................................................................ 33

3.5 Data and Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 35

3.6 Data Analysis and Presentation ........................................................................................... 36

3.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 37

CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................ 38

DATA ANALYSIS, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ........................................................... 38

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 38

4.2 Respondents Information ..................................................................................................... 38

4.2.1 Respondents Occupation in the Construction Industry ................................................ 39

4.2.2 Respondents Experience in Construction Projects ....................................................... 40

4.2.3 How Respondents Keep Themselves Updated with the Latest Developments in their
Field ....................................................................................................................................... 42

4.2.4 Value of Construction Projects Handled by Respondents ............................................ 43

4.3 Construction H&S Drivers................................................................................................... 44

4.4 Construction H&S Barriers ................................................................................................. 47

4.5 Construction H&S Strategies............................................................................................... 50

4.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 53

CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................................ 55

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................. 55

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5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 55

5.2 Summary of Findings ......................................................................................................... 55

5.2.1 Construction H&S Drivers ........................................................................................... 55

5.2.2 Construction H&S Barriers .......................................................................................... 56

5.2.3 Construction H&S Strategies........................................................................................ 57

5.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 57

5.4 Recommendations ................................................................................................................. 58

5.5 Areas of Further Research ................................................................................................... 59

REFERENCES............................................................................................................................ 61

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Nature of Sample Size............................................................................................... 34

Table 4.1: Respondent’s Response Rate ................................................................................... 39

Table 4.2: Respondent’s Occupation in the Construction Industry....................................... 39
Table 4.3 Respondents Experience in Construction Projects ................................................. 41
Table 4.4: How Respondents Keep Themselves Updated with the Latest Developments in
their Field ..................................................................................................................................... 42
Table 4.5: Value of Construction Projects in KES .................................................................. 43
Table 4.6: Construction H&S Drivers ...................................................................................... 45
Table 4.7 Construction H&S Barriers ...................................................................................... 48
Table 4.8: Construction H&S Strategies .................................................................................. 51

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Fatal work injuries in the construction industry in the United States ................. 2
Figure 2.1: Three Aspect Approach to Safety Culture ............................................................ 24
Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework .......................................................................................... 29
Figure 4.1: Respondents Occupation in the Construction Industry ...................................... 40
Figure 4.2: Respondents Experience in Construction Projects .............................................. 41
Figure 4.3: How Respondents Keep Themselves Updated with the Latest Developments in
their Field ..................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 4.4: Value of Construction Projects in KES ................................................................. 44
Figure 4.5: Construction H&S Drivers ..................................................................................... 47
Figure 4.6: Construction H&S Barriers ................................................................................... 50
Figure 4.7: Construction H&S Strategies ................................................................................. 53

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 APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Research Authorization Letter ............................................................................ 71
Appendix 2: Questionnaire to Respondents ............................................................................. 72

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 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
BIM - Building Information Modeling

CAD - Computer-Aided Design

GPS - Global Positioning System

H&S - Health and Safety

HSE - Health and Safety Executive

IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency

NHS - National Health Service

PPE - Personal Protective Equipment

SD - Standard Deviation

SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

UAVs - Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
The construction industry is a large and complex sector that plays a major role in the economy of
a country. According to a report published by Next Move Strategy Consulting, the global
construction market generated 7.28 trillion dollars in the year 2021 and is forecasted to garner
14.41 trillion dollars by 2030. Occupational health and safety are relevant to all branches of
industry, business, and commerce including traditional industries, information technology
companies, the National Health Service (NHS), care homes, schools, universities, leisure facilities,
and offices. “Occupational safety and health (OSH) is generally defined as the science of the
anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control of hazards arising in or from the workplace that
could impair the health and well-being of workers, taking into account the possible impact on the
surrounding communities and the general environment” (Alli, 2008). Health and safety in
construction sites involve workers, contractors, consultants, the contract administrator, and also
neighboring people and structures.

Health and Safety (H&S) measures are generally put in place to curb risks and accidents in this
case where construction is taking place. Risk is commonly expressed as the product of the
probability of the occurrence of an adverse event and the weight of the consequences of such an
event (Šotić, 2015). In the construction industry risk is imminent and an intrinsic part of it. The
risk of workplace injuries for employees at construction sites is typically too high. In contrast to
other sectors, the construction industry is distinctive and includes a wide range of building
services, manufacturers, contractors, and subcontractors as well as design, operation, and
refurbishment services (Lingard, 2004). Due to its complexity, the construction sector is one of
the most dangerous and accident-prone sectors of the economy. According to a report by the
International Labor Organization (ILO), it is estimated that around 60,000 fatal accidents occur
each year on construction sites globally and this data represents a single fatal accident that occurs
every 10 minutes. Additionally, the construction industry in industrialized nations employs
between 6% and 10% of the labor force but is also responsible for 25% to 40% of all fatal
workplace accidents (ILO, 2005).

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Statistics from Britain’s Health and Safety Executive indicate that around a quarter of fatal injuries
to workers in 2021/22 were in the Construction sector (30 deaths), followed by (22 deaths) in both
Manufacturing and Agriculture, forestry, and fishing sectors while the Transportation sector
having 16 deaths. This is a similar profile of deaths by the industry as seen in previous years with
the construction industry having a five-year average of 36 fatalities. In the United Kingdom (UK)
29 fatal injuries in the year, 2021/22 were a result of falling from heights and 94 percent of the
total deaths were predominantly males (HSE, 2022). There were 54,964 injuries on building sites
from 2015 to 2021 that necessitated medical attention according to Federated Employers Mutual
Assurance Company (FEM) and also stated that 36 of its employees suffer injuries on building
sites per day on average (FEM, 2022). Poor health and safety (H&S) not only negatively affect
employees’ lives which is always top priority, it also negatively affects project costs, quality,
schedule and results in increased insurance premiums, medical costs and reduced productivity
(Irizarry, 2005). Figure 1.1 below highlights the rate of fatal work injuries per 10,000 full-time
workers in the construction industry in the United States from 2014 to 2020. The United States
was used as a reference as it had a thriving market value of about 1.6 trillion dollars as per 2021.

Figure 1.1: Fatal work injuries in the construction industry in the United States

FATAL INJURIES IN CONSTRUCTION

12

10

0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Construction All workers
Source: US Bureau of Labor Statistics (2020)

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Poor H&S leads to loss of lives/injuries, reduced productivity since workplace accidents impairs
the functioning of the remaining employees and work teams therefore necessitating a
reorganization of tasks and the provision of psychological and emotional assistance, bad reputation
which will push away investors and other parties in the industry. Time is lost when there are
interruptions which affect planning causing delays environmental contamination. Additionally, the
costs of workers' compensation and civil responsibility represent significant budgetary increases
(Usukhbayar et al, 2020). In cases where workers cannot afford healthcare, they opt to use out-of-
pocket costs for treatment which ultimately results in increased household expenditure, severe
debt, and a higher level of poverty among the population (Van Doorslaer et al, 2006). Occupational
hazards have a significant negative influence on income in the sense that when a worker is
incapacitated or dies they raise the likelihood of extreme poverty and the construction industry
being vital, there is a ripple effect on a country’s economy as well.

Enhanced health and safety is brought about by proper practices and procedures. Practices which
include having Personal Protective Equipment (PPEs) all the time greatly reduces risks and thus
injuries and fatalities are significantly reduced. Reduced accidents increases turnout of employees
which in turn increases productivity, saves time and money for treatment and legal repercussions.
Employees will be able to complete the project in time and be available for other projects in the
industry. Contractors and employees who comply with construction health and safety are awarded
low premiums by insurance companies which saves money. Employers/developers and contractors
should continue to prioritize worker health and safety so as to protect visitors, employees and
clients while they are on construction sites. Safety practices not only affect workers but also future
tenants and therefore buildings constructed through following enhanced H&S practices will ensure
safety for occupants in the long run (ILO, 2019).

1.2 Statement of Problem

The construction industry is subject to general risks because of the type of work involved, various
measures and procedures have been put into place to reduce risks and accidents in the construction
industry. Despite these efforts the number of accidents and fatalities remains at an unacceptable
level and it is necessary to figure out why and what can be done. The number of fatalities in the
industry has remained constant over the past ten years, raising critical concerns about OSHA's
efficacy and what would be necessary to save more lives (Phillips, 2022). The construction sector

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in Kenya has earned the reputation of being a dangerous or highly hazardous industry because of
the disproportionately high frequency of accidents and fatalities (HSE, 2021). According to a
publication in the American Journal of Construction and Building Materials, Kasarani had the
largest number of reported accidents whereas Kibera had the highest number of fatal accidents
(BHRRC, 2017). Could these incidences be related to the poor management and improper
regulation of the construction industry? If so what are the barriers of implementing health and
safety and the strategies that can be implemented to alleviate the situation in the construction
industry.

“On Tuesday, November 15th, a seven-story building under construction in Nairobi's Kasarani
neighborhood collapsed. Construction workers at the site said they first noticed cracks in the
building in the morning and raised the alarm. The site supervisor is said to have insisted and
directed the workers to disregard the alarm, claiming that the building was safe and ordering them
to return to work. Four people were rescued, and it is believed that at least eight people are still
trapped inside, with rescue efforts continuing. This is the second building in Nairobi to collapse in
the last week. On Monday, November 7, an eight-story building under construction in Tassia,
Embakasi, collapsed, killing one person” (Standard, 2022). In Kenya, The government through the
parliament enacted the Occupational Health and Safety Act, 2007 – An ACT of Parliament to
provide for the safety, health, and welfare of workers and all persons lawfully present at
workplaces, to provide for the establishment of the National Council for Occupational Safety and
Health and for connected purposes (COTU-K, 2017). The Employment Act, declares and defines
the fundamental rights of employees, provides basic conditions of employment of employees, and
to provide for matters connected with the foregoing (GOK, 2007).

The Public Health Act, 2012 provides rules for the construction and regulation of buildings used
for the storage of foodstuffs and prohibits residing or sleeping in kitchens or food stores (UNEP,
2012). In the case of occupational injuries, The Work Injuries Benefit Act (WIBA), 2007 outlines
on compensation to workers or their dependents depending on whether the injury is fatal or non-
fatal. WIBA applies to all employees including those employed by the government but excluding
members of the armed forces (KIPPRA, 2021). Although these regulations have been put in place,
the construction industry is still rated as one of the riskiest sectors in terms of accidents and
fatalities and raises a question of whether the measures put in place are adequate or not. Data from

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the Directorate of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) recorded 237 accidents in a four-year
period between 2013 and 2017, with 32 fatalities in Nairobi. At the same time, the data shows
about 115 men aged 21 to 40 were seriously injured during the period, some of them sustaining
lifetime disabilities. More than 70 per cent of the injured or workers killed in accidents
at construction sites in Nairobi were aged below 40 years (Gathura, 2017).

Poor H&S has negative implications in terms of loss of lives and injuries of workers. Defective
measures of good H&S has financial and legal implications to the employers and developers in the
sense that neglect of responsibilities may lead to imposition of fines and penalties, loss of
reputation and loss of licenses for contractors and consultants (Hub, 2017). In July 2013, due to
arson that occurred at Crofty Point Metals Ltd Swansea site in the United Kingdom, investigations
by HSE including site visits found that the company's owner was responsible as security and safety
measures were inadequate. The owner was served with a number of enforcement notices over a
three-year period. The site was unattended and the gate was left open when HSE inspectors visited
in December 2016. Gas cylinders were among the rubbish and debris that were there. The area was
not well defined and notices of enforcement had not been followed. In accordance with sections 2
and 3 of the Health and Safety at Work Act, 1974, the corporation was fined £30,000 for the same
offenses as well as environmental offenses, the owner received a 12-month prison term and was
barred from serving as a director for a period of seven years (Croner-i, 2017).

This study was designed to assess health and safety and the continuance of accidents and injuries
despite measures put to curb the risks in the Kenyan construction industry. Is there negligence?
Are stakeholders failing to implement the measures put in place? Focus was directed on enhancing
construction site H&S which is dependent on drivers of implementing health and safety, barriers
facing construction health and safety, and strategies that can be put in place to enhance H&S.
Scholarly research on the impact of drivers, barriers, and strategies for addressing construction
health and safety in Kenya is limited, and despite the importance of highlighting these variables
on health and safety, it has largely gone unnoticed. This study will primarily concentrate on
Nairobi City County as it is the capital city and a thriving economic hub with several activities
including the construction of commercial, residential, and manufacturing structures.

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1.3 Research Objectives
The overall objective of the study was to assess construction site health and safety performance in
Kenya. The specific objectives of the study were:

i. To identify key drivers of implementing construction site health and safety in the Kenyan
construction industry.
ii. To assess the challenges facing the implementation of construction site health and safety
in the Kenyan construction industry.
iii. To propose strategies for enhanced implementation of construction site health and safety
in the Kenyan construction industry.

1.4 Research Questions

The overall research question of this study was: How can construction health and safety
performance in Kenya be assessed? The specific questions of the study were:

i. What are the key drivers of implementing construction site health and safety in the Kenyan
construction industry?
ii. What are the challenges facing the implementation of construction site health and safety in
the Kenyan construction industry?
iii. What are the strategies for enhanced implementation of construction site health and safety
in the Kenyan construction industry?

1.5 Significance of Study

The aim of the study was to assess the continued rise in poor site health and safety performance in
construction sites in Kenya. Through understanding the drivers, barriers, and strategies of
construction health and safety, industry practitioners will be able to prevent accidents on
construction sites, provide training for the various workers on site, provide safety equipment, and
ensure a safe working environment and proper communication with workers on site. Construction
industry practitioners are generally unfamiliar with the guiding principles of the sector and the
most effective ways to apply safe working standards. Application of strategies formulated in the
study will positively influence decision-making by stakeholders and enhance health and safety.
Furthermore, understanding the drivers, barriers and strategies will offer crucial details on how to

6
implement large-scale initiatives while maintaining workers’ and industry practitioners’ safety.
Industry practitioners will be able to invest in construction health and safety contrary to the norm
and the higher the safety investment in a project, the lower the injury rates and the higher the profit.
Increased training, more frequent inspections, and more health and safety meetings with
supervisors in the field result in fewer lost-time injuries, lower costs, and a larger profit margin.

In studying the drivers, barriers and strategies of health and safety in the construction
industry, government and policy makers will be able to draft guidelines that ensure and promote
the highest level of safety and carry out thorough risk assessment whose goal is to evaluate hazards
and reduce their risk by implementing control measures as needed. Furthermore, through analysis
of barriers, drivers and strategies, new systems, equipment and processes can be introduced to
enhance construction H&S. Policymakers would utilize the research evidence to form or amend
and reinforce existing policies that positively affect construction site H&S. Through these policies,
loss of life, funds needed to compensate for injuries and property damage would be greatly
reduced. The study will serve as a fundamental basis for researchers to understand the precise
events that are taking place on construction sites with regard to safety and health, obstructions that
are being faced by stakeholders as well as the level of awareness with compliances in various
facets that may also be identified for the future direction of the safety and health in construction in
Kenya. The study is expected to add to the existing body of knowledge on health and safety
management in construction sites and also academicians can use this study to further their research.

1.6 Limitations of Study

The study was subject to the below listed limitations
i. Some respondents were hesitant to submit accurate compromising personal information for
fear of being chastised by superiors or losing their job. To avoid this, the researcher did not
require respondents to identify themselves by name but only their construction sites, and
compromising questions were avoided.
ii. Due to the nature of the job and the fact that many respondents had busy schedules and
field work, it was challenging to find or gain access to them. Some people merely choose
not to take part in the study. Meetings with respondents were arranged by the researcher in
an effort to resolve this.

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 iii. Some respondents took an unusually long time to complete the questionnaires, while others
did not complete them at all. The researcher avoided this by keeping the surveys brief and
physically administering them.
iv. Construction sites initially identified during the survey were inactive during data
collection.
v. Distance from one site to the other was sometimes long and covered the construction sites
in the county which necessitated travelling with cost implications.

1.7 Scope of Study

The concentration of the study was limited to independent variables which included construction
health and safety drivers/enablers, barriers, and strategies as key contributors to construction site
H&S as the dependent variable. The construction industry is heavily affected in regard to
occurrences of accidents and health hazards in construction sites and the study wished to adopt
enhanced construction H&S in this sector by leveraging drivers, implementing effective strategies,
and overcoming H&S barriers. This study was conducted in Kenya and narrowed down to Nairobi
City County. The county has recently experienced an increment in construction activities as
developers have directed their focus on putting up of residential buildings. Real estate developers
have adopted the concept of building multistory properties to cut costs of acquiring land through
demolitions of previously built houses and put-up high-rises to meet the needs of the consumers.
Sampling was done on sites that were approved by The National Construction Authority and the
county government of Nairobi. Data collected was quantitative as the data was numerical and
measurable. Due to time constraints, the researcher opted to have a cross-sectional type of study.

1.8 Assumptions of Study

The study was based on the following assumptions:

i. Construction site H&S performance in Kenya is sub-optimal.

ii. The effect upon the dependent variable is solely attributed to the 3 variables; construction
H&S drivers, barriers, and strategies.
iii. Construction site H&S performance in Nairobi City County is similar to that of the other
46 Kenyan counties.

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 iv. The study made the assumption that the contractors, workers and government officials gave
true and correct answers.
v. The study also assumed that ethical standards would be observed and that the results would
be reliable.

1.9 Definition of Terms

i. Construction - the process, art, or manner of creating something (Merriam Webster, 2022).
It entails the techniques involved in the assembly and erection of structures, primarily those
used to provide shelter. Construction is an ancient human activity which was necessitated
by the pure functional need for a controlled environment to moderate the effects
of climate.
ii. Construction industry - Construction industry refers to the industrial branch of
manufacturing and trade related to building, repairing, renovating, and maintaining
infrastructures (Hillebrandt, 2000). Construction is an important industry because it creates
buildings and spaces that connect communities while also providing jobs and improving
society.
iii. Drivers - these are factors which cause a particular phenomenon to happen or develop. In
this study drivers are the enablers of construction H&S (Oesterwind, 2016).
iv. Barriers - these are circumstance or obstacles that keep people or things apart or prevents
communication or progress. Barriers are hindrances to construction site H&S
implementation by responsible bodies (Zeng, 2008).
v. Strategies - Strategies are methods or plans used to accomplish a goal. The Royal Institute
of British Architects (RIBA) Plan of Work 2013 defines strategy as: ‘A plan of action that
considers specific aspects of the design that may affect the project, or may affect health
and safety aspects of the project,’ (Steadman, 2013).
vi. Construction Site - A construction site is a location or plot of land where construction work
is being done and is sometimes referred to as 'building sites.' (Merriam Webster, 2022).
Accidents and injuries occur on construction sites and may involve premises around the
site.
vii. Safety - A condition of being protected from occupational accidents and or health
adherence: Refers to the extent to which secondary constructions have implemented the

9
 Ministry of Labor guidelines on safety (ILO, 2005). Construction safety encompasses any
safety technique related to the construction industry or construction sites.
viii. Health - According to the Constitution of the World Health Organization, health is a state
of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity (WHO, 1995).

1.10 Organization of Study

This study was organized into five chapters; Chapter 1 of this research generally depicts the
introduction of the study which establishes the context of the research and contains the preliminary
items forming the background of the study, a statement of the problem which places the issue in a
specific framework that establishes the boundaries of the subject matter to be explored, study
objectives which describe the purpose of your research and provide justification for it, research
questions, the significance of study which explains the need for research, limitations, scope,
assumptions, definitions of terms and organization of the study.

Chapter 2 provides a review of the books, articles and research related to the subject of the research
as theoretical and practical foundations for the study. The chapter focuses on literature review
which gave an appraisal of the observations and measurements of coming up with evidence in
relation to OSH regionally and globally. The theories and concepts in the literature review become
the basis for identifying and understanding the accidents and health hazards issues. This is in the
broader concept of health and safety management in the construction sector.

Chapter 3 explores the methodological guide for the conduct of the study particularly the data
collected, the method of data collection, data analysis approaches, and ethical concerns such as the
credibility and reliability of the research. It basically answers how data was collected and how it
was analyzed.

Chapter 4 contains data analysis and presentation directed towards answering the problems
identified in the whole research. Here data collected and analyzed was presented in the form of
charts, graphs, and tables and are accompanied by discussions explaining the outcomes of the field
investigation. Chapter 5 contains the conclusions and recommendations of the researcher with

10
basis on the data that was presented and analyzed. The conclusion synthesizes fundamental key
points and helps in understanding why the research should matter.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the existing literature on occupational safety and health in construction sites
and reviews literature on various aspects relating to leveraging construction site health and safety
drivers, barriers, and strategy implementation to come up with a framework that guides this study.
This chapter examines types of incidents that may occur on construction sites, how the industry
addresses H&S issues, how stakeholders contribute to site health and safety, and the exposure of
various professionals to accidents. The chapter also reviews the concept of accident causation, and
common hazards in the industry. The chapter further reviews how regulatory and legislative
frameworks act as drivers of enhancing health and safety and the types of impediments that prevent
enhanced site health and safety for example in management. Lastly, the chapter reviews the
proposed strategies to reinforce health and safety in construction projects. This review concludes
with a conceptual framework that steered this study in subsequent chapters 3, 4, and 5. The
conceptual framework influenced the manner in which the questionnaire was developed together
with the questions therein. An illustration of the resulting independent and dependent variables is
also provided at the end of this chapter.

2.2 Construction Site Health and Safety

2.2.1 Construction Stakeholders and Exposure to Accidents
In the context of this study, construction stakeholders include developers, financiers, contractors,
site operatives and consultants. During construction, mostly the tradespeople who are workers who
have specialized in certain works and have experience from training. Some of them include
carpenters, masons, plumbers, plasterers, painters, and glaziers. According to (Eze, 2020)
construction artisans, craftsmen, or operatives are the categories of construction field workers that
are physically and directly involved in the execution of the works and production of the finished
buildings and other construction-related structures. All types of construction organizations often
employ this group of individuals as the primary construction site labor force and this makes the
productivity and performance of construction projects and construction organizations to be
dependent on this group of people. Construction tradespeople are very essential in the delivery of
construction projects be it civil and/or building project as their inputs in the installations and
12
assembly of building materials and components have an impact on the time, cost, and quality of
the final product (Eze, 2020).
Due to the nature of the work they undertake, these trade workers are continually exposed to
numerous dangers and fatalities. However, due to the fact that each worker's assignments risk
composition varies by trade, some workers are more vulnerable to H&S issues than others.
Workers, whose tasks involve lifting, like the masons and their laborers (helpers) are exposed to
injuries like musculoskeletal injuries/disorders (Okoye, 2018). Lifting entails, manual material
handling activities and these have a serious impact on the muscles and skeletal posture of the
workers. Masonry is one of the trades in the construction sector with the highest accident rate as
reported by (Schneider & Susi, 1994).The degree to which construction professionals are involved
in the performance of construction works is reflected in how vulnerable they are to mishaps,
injuries, and other site risks. When it comes to H&S planning, controlling deaths on the job site,
and managing them, it is essential to understand the trades with the highest accident-prone rate
and the likely causes. Some construction workers are required to work longer shifts than the typical
eight-hour day; as a result, they face significant health and safety risks.

2.2.2 Common Risks and Dangers in Construction Sites

“We kill about a person a week in construction” is a statement made by the Head of
Loughborough’s Construction Health and Safety Research Unit at an independent Technology,
Entertainment, and Design (TED) talk in 2013. Cause is something that brings about an effect or
a result. An accident is defined as a specific event, such as ‘‘struck by” or “fall,” it can and it can
be concluded that the direct cause of an accident can be only that specific act of a person that is
unsafe or that mechanical or physical hazard that occasioned or effected the striking or fall and
resultant injury of a person (Heinrich, 1941). Some of the hazards and risk factors include:

Electrical Hazards
A voltage as low as 50 volts applied between two parts of the human body causes a current to flow
that can block the electrical signals between the brain and the muscles. This may have a number
of effects including; Stopping the heart from beating properly, preventing the person from
breathing, and causing muscle spasms and the exact effect depends upon many things, including
the size of the voltage, which parts of the body are involved, how damp the person is, and the

13
length of time the current flows (HSE, 2022). The construction industry is most in danger from
electrical hazards, accounting for 52% of all electrical fatalities in the US workplace. Most of these
incidents and fatalities were caused by direct worker contact with overhead power lines and
contact with machines, tools, and hand-carried metallic objects (Tarlengco, 2022). Many workers
are unaware of the potential electrical hazards present in their work environment, which makes
them more vulnerable to the danger of electrocution. The following hazards are the most frequent
causes of electrical injuries; contact with power lines, lack of ground-fault protection, the path to
ground missing or discontinuous, equipment, and improper use of extension and flexible cords
(OSHA, 2022). Coming into contact with worn-out cables and chords may lead to electrocution or
short-circuiting therefore damaged equipment should be fixed by qualified personnel.

Fire Hazards
Fire can kill or severely injure people and cause damage to property (HSE, 2022). Fires need three
things to start – a source of ignition (heat), a source of fuel (something that burns) and oxygen.
Sources of ignition include heaters, lighting, naked flames, electrical equipment, smokers’
materials (cigarettes, matches etc.), and anything else that can get very hot or cause sparks, sources
of fuel include wood, paper, plastic, rubber or foam, loose packaging materials, waste rubbish and
furniture, sources of oxygen include the air around us (ILO, 2005).

Chemical and Biological Health Hazards

Chemical and biological hazards in the workplace have the potential to cause adverse health effects
such as breathing problems, burns, skin disease, and cancer (L&I, 2022). Occupational exposures
to fumes, dust, and chemicals in various forms account for around 4,000 deaths a year and some
38,000 individuals suffer breathing or lung problems possibly caused by their work
(Hughes&Ferrett, 2016).

Working at Height Hazards

Working from heights is described as all activities performed where there is the risk of falling and
at a height greater than two metres above the ground (Teti, 2018). Falls from height in construction
projects have long been a major problem and the prevention of accidents involving falls from
height remains a high priority for the construction industry (Chan et al., 2008). Maintenance

14
activities, particularly in old buildings and those in need of renovation, are the most common
causes of fall accidents in the civil construction industry (Teti, 2018). Common scenarios include
over-reaching, over-balancing, or the collapse of a delicate surface. Unprotected floor openings
such as hatchways, inspection holes, and pits can also lead to falls from great heights (Regel,
2017).

Excavation Works Hazards

Excavation and trenching are among the most hazardous construction operations in the
construction sector and majority of excavation-related mishaps are caused by cave-ins on modest
jobs like water, gas, electricity, and sewer line hookups. Workers suffer severe injuries when it
happens (Thwala, 2019). OSHA considers any excavation that is more than 4 feet deep to be a
confined space, necessitating the implementation of additional safety controls (Rampuri, 2019).
There are two ways to excavate: manually and mechanically and when manual done by hand.
Ground is excavated mechanically using tools like JCB excavators and other heavy machinery. A
few key potential sources of danger are; loose soil, undercutting, adjacent structures close to the
excavation site, equipment operation, the presence of subterranean utilities, and the unexpected
discharge of hazardous gas during excavation (Rampuri, 2019).

2.2.3 Herbert Heinrich’s Dominoes Theory

Herbert Heinrich was the first to put forth the Dominoes Theory of Accidents and described
accidents as the consequence of a series of events, like a line of dominoes falling. If the first
domino fell, it would have an effect on the subsequent ones, forcing them to fall as well, finally
leading to an accident. He discussed the theory of accident causation, the relationship between
man and machine, the frequency and severity relation of accidents, the causes of risky acts, the
role of management in accident prevention, the costs of accidents, and the effect of safety on
efficiency (Hagan, 2001). According to Heinrich, 88 percent of accidents are caused by risky
workplace behavior, 10 percent by harmful surroundings, and 2 percent as a result of force majeure
for example natural catastrophes (Hosseinian & Torghabeh, 2012). Furthermore, the study by
Hosseinian and Torghabeh (2012) describes Heinrich’s theory to have encompassed five dominoes
which can be summarized as:

15
Ancestry and social environment which are the process of becoming knowledgeable about
workplace norms and skills. Inadequate skills and knowledge of carrying out tasks, and
inappropriate social and environmental settings will lead to fault of person. Fault of person
(carelessness) is the negative features of a person’s personality though these unwanted
individualities might be acquired and the result of carelessness is unsafe act/conditions. Unsafe act
and/or mechanical or physical condition comprises of the faults and technical failures which cause
the accident. Accidents are caused by unsafe acts/conditions and consequently lead to injuries
which become the result of the accidents. Heinrich's work on accident causation theory may be
simplified into two points: management which has the duty of preventing accidents (having the
power and control) and people are the primary causes of accidents. The technique of streamlining
the management of human behavior in accidents was attributed to Heinrich's domino theory.
Further research on the accident causation model, with a focus on management's involvement in
accident prevention, was built on the Heinrich domino theory.

2.3 Construction Site Health and Safety Drivers

2.3.1 Safety Training
For every employee to be safe in a healthy workplace, safety training is a crucial risk prevention
and management method and in order to best implement required training, the occupational safety
and health Act of 1988 has training guidelines to assist employers in furnishing safety and health
information and instruction to workers (Cohen, 1998). The most significant method of managing
safety is thought to be safety training, which can predict knowledge, motivation, compliance, and
engagement in safety. The important component of any successful company, accident prevention
strategy, or occupational safety and health plan is efficient safety training as it improves behavioral
skills, relevant knowledge and attitudes together with providing ways to make accidents more
predictable (Vinodkumar and Bhasi, 2010). Organizations for example construction companies
should create a systematic, thorough safety and health training program for new employees in
order to improve the safety and health of all employees (Fredenburg, 2013). According to
Tinmannsvik and Hovden (2003), companies with low accident rates commonly provide their staff
with appropriate safety training and for that reason, safety training is considered to be a driver in
furthering and enhancing health and safety performance in the construction industry.

16
2.3.2 Employees
It is not only the management’s participation and involvement in safety activities that is important,
but also the extent to which management encourages participation of the employees (Aksorn,
2008). Some of characteristics linked to this safety driver are as follows: peer review)–In
construction sites where workers often give ideas to each other on how to work safely, usually
report lower accident rates and fewer workers’ distress (Siu et al, 2004) ; safety empowerment-
when employees take ownership of their safety, a positive safety culture is enhanced (Dilley,
1996); adequate supervision– in order to safeguard employees from occupational hazards,
management must have a sound safety program and provide adequate supervision (Aksorn, 2008);
compliance with safety rules– a violation of safety rules occurs when safety regulations are
disregarded and companies must have procedures in place to make sure that workers who don't
follow safety regulations do so (Aksorn, 2008); and, safety perception– employees with good
perceptions of safety tend to participate more in safety activities (Ayim Gyekye, 2007).

2.3.3 Regulatory Framework Compliance

ILO (1992) developed a code of practice for safety and health in construction whose objective
was to, “ provide practical guidance on a legal, administrative, technical and educational
framework for safety and health in construction with a view to: preventing accidents and diseases
and harmful effects on the health of workers arising from employment in construction; ensuring
appropriate design and implementation of construction projects; providing means of analyzing
from the point of view of safety, health and working conditions, construction processes, activities,
technologies and operations, and of taking appropriate measures of planning, control, and
enforcement.” To ensure that emergency medical services arrive to the building site promptly,
coordination with health and police authorities is crucial especially for construction projects taking
place in distant places, which may save the death of some employees and lessen the impact of
injuries on others.

To increase worker understanding of the effects of stress on their capacity to function and their
safety, health authorities may also play a vital role in collaboration with the sector regulating body.
OSH has for decades dominated the international agenda prompting continued support for the
International Labor Organization (ILO) to execute their mandate on behalf of the international
community through regional and national governments. (MOH, 2014). A thorough legal

17
framework is provided by the OSH Act of 2007 for putting into practice measures that are expected
to increase workplace safety and health (MOH, 2014). In order to offer awareness campaigns for
workers to know their rights or other subjects important to workers welfare, the sector regulatory
body could equally act in coordination with the labor authority. Moreover, the creation of WIBA
(2007) ensured that employees were compensated for work-related injuries and illnesses suffered
during their employment (Kiura, 2021). Complying with guidelines in the regulatory frameworks
plays a big role in enabling health and safety in construction.

2.3.4 Effective Planning

Effective planning is a critical driver of health and safety performance in the construction industry.
Before the start of a construction project, a thorough risk assessment must be carried out to identify
potential health and safety hazards, and appropriate measures must be put in place to mitigate these
risks (Kim, 2019). Companies that prioritize planning are more likely to have a safe and healthy
work environment, as they have taken the necessary steps to identify and address potential hazards
before they occur. Additionally, companies that invest in planning are more likely to have well-
structured safety programs, providing workers with the necessary tools and resources to perform
their work safely (Dilley, 1996). Through effective planning, construction companies can improve
the health and safety of their workers and reduce the risk of workplace accidents and illnesses.
Having a well-structured safety program that provides workers with the necessary tools and
resources to work safely is also a result of effective planning. This not only improves the health
and safety of workers but also reduces the risk of workplace accidents and illnesses. The focus on
health and safety through effective planning demonstrates a company's commitment to its workers
and ensures that all workers have a safe environment in which to perform their duties.

2.3.5 Financial Aspects

Financial aspects can also play a significant role as drivers of health and safety performance in the
construction industry. For example, companies that allocate sufficient resources toward health and
safety initiatives are more likely to have a safer and healthier work environment. This includes
resources for regular safety training, the purchase of personal protective equipment, and the
implementation of appropriate safety measures to minimize risk (Siu et al., 2004). Companies that
prioritize health and safety investments are likely to see a positive return on investment, as they
can reduce the costs associated with workplace accidents and illnesses. On the other hand,
18
companies that do not allocate sufficient resources towards health and safety initiatives are more
likely to have a higher rate of workplace accidents and illnesses, which can result in increased
costs for medical treatment and workers’ compensation (Kiura, 2021). Financial aspects can
therefore play a significant role in driving health and safety performance, as companies with the
necessary resources to invest in health and safety are more likely to have a safer and healthier work
environment.

2.4 Construction Site Health and Safety Barriers

H&S enforcement faces various obstacles including; political sway, bribery and corruption,
insecurity, a lack of governmental commitment, and insufficient legislation. The main challenges
of implementing site safety and health are; having an incompetent regulatory framework where
non-compliance does not receive weighty penalties and instead the procedure in place is that
incidents reported receive penalties for disclosure as compared to not reporting incidents, lack of
awareness, education, and training of the workers and also most contractors are profit driven and
fail to associate sites safety with the construction process. These are discussed in detail hereunder.

2.4.1 Political Sway/Influence

According to Rantanen (2005), politics play a major role in the global decline in the development
of occupational health services. Okojie (2010) makes a similar case in relation to African countries
where political influence has been viewed as the greatest obstacle to H&S enforcement, with the
argument being made that political influence prevents enforcement officials from performing their
jobs. This is due to the fact that wealthy individuals or those in prominent or important positions
in the nation own the majority of the industries and factories. The biggest drawback of this is that
wealthy and powerful individuals have a say in how OSH enforcement personnel as well as other
enforcement officers, including the police, carry out their duties. In a similar vein, Onyeozili(
2005), argues that powerful individuals who shelter criminals from justice obstruct the
administration of justice. He goes on to show how the greatest obstacle to policing is the influence
of those in positions of authority, as was previously argued. This begs the question of why
lawmakers (lawmakers) enact laws and obstruct their enforcement.

19
2.4.2 Bribery and Corruption
Some H&S enforcement institution workers allegedly engage in unethical behavior while
performing their inspection and enforcement tasks. The prevalence and level of corruption remain
high, particularly in regulatory and law enforcement organizations. As a result, government
employees who perform law enforcement and regulatory functions may take advantage of
organizational inefficiencies for personal gain. They might violate OHS regulations in return for
bribery and other advantages. The enforcement authority frequently issues or renews the
companies' operating licenses even when the standards are not entirely met. Additionally,
Umeokafor et al. (2014) reasoned that occasionally it seems as though inspectors visit workplaces
to carry out enforcement tasks for their own financial motives rather than to make sure OHS rules
are being followed. The idea that OHS enforcement is crooked is fueled by instances when some
businesses operate with substandard safety protocols but inspectors continue to give them
satisfactory ratings (Sunindijo, 2021).

2.4.3 Insufficient Legislation

Regarding regulation compliance, it has been stated that regulatory agencies only carry out a state
mandate and base their operations on legislation and rules. Although in theory this should support
human welfare, in actuality it falls short. In a country like Kenya where industrial development
has been built on severe environmental injustice, regulation is practically ineffective. According
to Amwelo (2000), the corporate veil frequently deters the entry of standards into the corporate
sector and hinders the application of legal consequences. "Adversarial trained lawyers often aid
avoidance and evasion of corporate liability by inventive compliance with legal requirements," the
author claims. She also asserts that one popular approach to the issue of ensuring that values
penetrate organizations' internal operations is to encourage enormous institutions to govern
themselves, an approach that is frequently deemed to be both effective and troublesome by
different people. There have been claims that OSH regulations are ineffective and only serve as
formalities. OHS initiatives are allegedly ineffective at enhancing worker safety and health. During
the past 20 years of existence, this has happened (Calavita, 1983). In other words, the expense and
risk of not complying with regulations might very easily surpass the expense of making
compliance measures. What we repeatedly observe is that companies who downplay the value of
proactive compliance still have to pay for compliance, albeit in the form of fines, challenges with
their reputation, and delays in delivering their products (Brun, 2019).

20
2.4.4 Lack of Awareness
The improvement of H&S at workplaces is hardly ever the subject of campaigns or educational
initiatives in Kenya. Employers, unions, and H&S stakeholders are not consulted by the OHS
enforcement agencies on a nationwide basis (Kheni, 2008). The overall lack of awareness and
knowledge of OHS rules, as well as Kenya's low H&S performance, have been partially attributed
to the absence of OHS campaigns and education. OHS campaigns and education largely adhere to
the "advise and persuade" strategy, which is typically focused on collaboration, conciliation, and
negotiation to achieve the regulatory system's goals rather than punishing offenders for OHS
violations (Johnstone, 2003).

2.4.5 Negligence by Contractors

The lack of compliance by contractors with H&S requirements on construction site was
responsible for the accidents and fatalities connected to and documented in the construction
industry (Baxendale and Owain, 2000). Compliance is the process of conforming to or being in
accordance with a rule or established rules, such as a specification, policy, legislation, standard, or
regulation and contractors are required to abide by it (Sarbanes-Oxley Act, 2002). Some
explanations for non-compliance with H&S legislation on construction sites are that some
contractors are ignorant of the law, and in other cases they take chances, aware of the small
possibility that they may get caught or of the minor severity of the penalties when they are caught
(Bettesworth, 2011). The cost of complying with regulations is seen as an unnecessary financial
burden for contractors (Gambatese, 1997). According to CIDB (2009), if potential losses relative
to labour, materials, plant and equipment as a result of non-compliance with H&S regulations are
mentioned by regulatory authorities, contractors will be forced to address H&S issues but
corruption facilitates contractors to get away with minor and major misdemeanors and escape
penalties.

2.4.6 Management Barriers

Safety management is the process used to identify Health & Safety (H&S) risks and to implement
procedures to reduce the likelihood of risk and minimize or eliminate the likely results of H&S
risks to the project (Saeed, 2017). The construction industry's OHS management system has shown
to be a neglected area and a function that has not been consistently implemented (Bakri, 2006).

21
One of the five essential safety management practices that distinguish between high and low
percentage accidents at construction sites is safety communication between managers and
employees (Zulkifle, 2017). According to Mouleeswaran (2014), communication problems and
difference in language, religion, and culture tend to prevent safety at worksites and leads to poor
craftsmanship, misreporting accidents, and delays when managers and workers do not
communicate during construction.

Poor equipment maintenance is another major cause of accidents. Maintenance and inspection
schedules are frequently ignored, and equipment is repaired only after it has been damaged or
broken. This method results in lost time, unemployed workers, and project delays (Mouleeswaran,
2014). Adopting an efficient and comprehensive safety approach at the management level is
necessary to improve the standard of occupational safety. This approach should be clear, through
careful consideration of each serious activity identified at the design stage or subsequent stages,
as well as holding occupational safety and health training programs for both new and experienced
workers, where the training is based on the correct decisions in dealing with accidents associated
with their work (Reese, 2006).

2.5 Construction Site Health and Safety Strategies

There are numerous perspectives on strategy but the definition put forth by Johnson (2008)
highlighted critical terms considered important to construction organizations and defined strategy
as the direction and scope of an organization over the long term, which achieves advantage in a
changing environment for the organization through its configuration of resources and competences
with the aim of fulfilling stakeholder expectations. Management of health and safety in
construction is essential for enhancing its future. This involves a number of initiatives aimed at
planning, keeping an eye on, and managing occupational risks in the industry, as well as mitigating
those risks and taking preventative measures. The purpose is to execute work safely, with a focus
on eliminating accidents. McGeorge (2012) came up with a design model and in this model,
fundamental components-its safety mission, objectives, and core competencies- are seen as the
cornerstone of strategic safety management. This framework makes the claim that one of the
guiding principles of organizational operations should be safety, and that this idea should be
reflected in the mission statement. The organizational performance should then be evaluated in
relation to these strategic goals and operating objectives. Employee leadership, know-how, and

22
experience in safety should be part of the core competency which is a crucial component of safety
values and strongly relates to safety science. Specific strategies that can be employed include:

2.5.1 Economics of Safety

According to Votano (2014), risk prevention and reduction programs in construction may yield as
much as 46 percent of return on investment and on the other hand, absence of safety has a negative
bearing on construction as an accident may cost up to 1.6 million Australian dollars. As earlier
stated, lack of safety could result in legal action and claims, which would raise additional expenses,
delay the project, generate negative coverage, and endanger the organization's financial stability.
Contractors, should understand the value and financial advantages of investing in safety
management. Additionally, the aforementioned economic factors highlight the need of addressing
safety issues by taking stakeholders higher up in the supply chain into consideration, particularly
clients and developers who can financially support safety implementation. Clients need to
understand that due to the competitive nature of the market, contractors will find it difficult
implementing safety measures without their backing and must make a commitment to safety by
setting aside enough finances and time to put safety measures into place (Pillay, 2014). As a result,
during the evaluation of tenders, safety should be considered as one of the contractor
prequalification criteria. Stakeholders should work together by allocating the required funds and
resources to employ safety measures and in turn the outcome will be a financial gain from this
focus on safety.

2.5.2 Devising a Safety Culture

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) coined the phrase "safety culture" as a result of
their initial investigation into the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear reactor catastrophe (Lee, 1998).
Realizing world-class safety performance not only involves applying a management system but
also effective safety culture which requires the involvement of every employee, top to bottom,
directing their efforts at continual improvement (BSMS, 2022). Varied organizations have
different views on safety culture, and as a result, they employ various methods to put the idea into
practice (Cox, 1998). Fernandez-Muniz (2007) defines safety culture as a set of shared values,
perceptions, attitudes, and behavioral patterns related to safety; a set of policies, practices, and
procedures relating to the reduction of employees' exposure to occupational risks; and a high level

23
of concern and commitment to the prevention of accidents and injuries. Three unique but connected
aspects of safety culture exist: psychological, behavioral, and organizational. The psychological
aspect of safety relates to the organizational safety climate, which includes staff attitudes and views
of safety and safety management systems. The behavioral component is concerned with what
individuals do within the organization, including the actions, behaviors, and activities staff
members engage in connected to safety. The organizational dimension includes the corporate
operating guidelines, management systems, control systems, communication channels, and
workflow systems (HSE, 2005). Figure 2.1 below summarizes the above discussed approach to
safety culture.

Figure 2.1: Three Aspect Approach to Safety Culture

Psychological
Values, Attitude and
Perceptions
Safety culture
Shared values, actions and Behavioral
behaviours that demonstrate Actions and Behaviours
a commitmment to safety
over competing goals and
demands
Situational/Corporate
Organizational factors
includiing policies, procedures
and Management systems

Source: Cooper (2000)

Managers must concentrate on creating five subcultures in order to create a strong safety culture
(Reason, 2000). The first is informed culture, a cognitive component of an organization that takes
the form of being aware of the potential for unpleasant surprises and having the group mindset
required to recognize, comprehend, and recover them before they have negative effects. The
readiness of employees to report errors, near misses, dangerous situations, incorrect procedures,
and other safety problems comes in second. The willingness of the organization to disclose areas

24
of weakness in order to improve performance comes in third. When there is just culture, employees
are responsible for their acts but are not held accountable for systemic issues that are out of their
control. The fourth factor is learning culture, which encourages businesses to carefully review
safety reports and other safety information and to take action when necessary to correct or improve
the situation. The fifth factor is flexible culture, which may move from the typical hierarchy mode
to a flatter structure where control is given to task experts on the spot and then returns to the
traditional form after the emergency has passed.

2.5.3 Innovative Technology

We now live in a technologically advanced world and each construction project is complex making
construction planning, design, site, and manage difficult (Zhang, 2010). To bridge some of the
gaps in safety for site-based communication, it is beneficial to use current digital communication
to enhance onsite safety for example reporting accidents as it would be useful in conveying new
or improved methods of working on the construction site. Building Information Modelling (BIM)
is considered as one of the new tools that to bridge this gap. BIM is widely viewed as an enabling
technology with the potential for improving communication between stakeholders, improving the
quality of information available for decision-making, improving the quality of services delivered,
and reducing time and cost at every stage in the life cycle of a building (Smith, 2009). One of the
benefits of BIM over two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) Computer-Aided Design
(CAD) is that it represents and maintains information that enables not only the automatic
generation of drawings but also design analysis, timetable simulation, facilities management, et
cetera, ultimately enabling the building team to make better-informed decisions and consequently
the increasing use of BIM in the construction sector may help in changing the way safety can be
approached (Zhang, 2013).

Typically, BIM includes the planned sequence of work, which can then be used to create
animations of a building's construction process through time, demonstrating how the work onsite
should be performed in accordance with contractual obligations. In addition, BIM has the potential
to be used beyond the design stage to include the construction and operation of a virtual building
that parallels the real building (Watson, 2010). Thus, the technology can prove crucial to the
success of a project by effectively controlling the construction schedule, budget, quality, and
reducing risks (Ku, 2010), through time-controlled realistic simulation. BIM technology has the

25
potential to be used in safety planning procedures as modeling tools can be used to link projects
scope in 3D with the construction schedule to simulate the construction process graphically. Harty
(2010), investigated the use of BIM to assess the access adequacy for installing new services and
performing H&S assessment looking for trip hazards. Zhang (2013), developed an automated
hazard identification and correction platform during design and construction. Advances in
technology help to alleviate some of these problems that may be present in construction H&S.

Technology can also be applied in the form of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), sometimes
known as drones, are aircraft that are flown by a controller on the ground. They can be used to
keep an eye on places that pose a risk to people, like poisonous conditions, heights, and cramped
quarters. They communicate information instantly, eliminating the chance of human error when
gathering safety-critical measurements. Drones are a good safety option, and the startup market
for drones is big and has been growing rapidly. Also, use of virtual reality which is a computer-
generated environment that duplicates workplace procedures by creating an artificial world.
Workers are increasingly being exposed to scenarios they can encounter at work while receiving
safety training. By utilizing what psychologists refer to as "embodied cognition," the worker makes
use of all of their body's motor and perceptual systems, which improves memory and knowledge
retention (SoterAnalytics, 2021).

Since the environment is closely observed and regulated, smart wearables can prove to be
beneficial for construction site workers performing risky duties. These wearables can recognize
danger signals including inactivity, gas, and heat. If an issue is found, coworkers and contractors
can be instantly informed. These wearables are typically created as safety vests and hard hats that
incorporate wearable computers, Global Positioning System (GPS), sensors, and real-time locating
systems. A kinetic charger for the vest and a solar charger for the hard hat might be used to power
them. Vital indications such as skin temperature, heart rate, and respiration rate can all be tracked
by the smart clothes. The wearables can measure the worker's motion, keep an eye on their posture,
and even tell if they're getting tired. Workers may relax knowing that in the event of an accident,
their coworkers or superiors will be informed right away (IMPO, 2018).

26
2.5.4 Risk Assessment and Management
One strategy to improve health and safety in construction is to regularly perform risk assessments
and implement risk management procedures. This involves identifying hazards on site, assessing
the likelihood and consequences of each hazard, and implementing controls to mitigate or
eliminate the risk (Egan, 1998). This approach allows construction organizations to prioritize
safety initiatives based on the most significant risks, ensuring that resources are being used
effectively to minimize harm to workers. Regular risk assessments also allow organizations to
adapt to changing conditions on site and respond quickly to emerging hazards.

2.5.5 Site Inspections and Audits

One strategy to improve construction site health and safety is to conduct regular site inspections
and audits. This involves inspecting the site to identify potential hazards and evaluating the
existing safety measures in place (HSE, 2021). This can help organizations identify areas where
improvements are needed and prioritize their safety initiatives accordingly. Regular site
inspections and audits can also demonstrate a commitment to safety and promote a culture of safety
on site. Additionally, having a third-party conduct the inspections can provide an independent
assessment of the site and offer a fresh perspective on the potential hazards.

2.5.6 Incident Reporting and Analysis

Another strategy is to establish a reporting and analysis system for incidents and near-misses. This
involves encouraging workers to report any incidents or near-misses that occur on site, collecting
and analyzing data on these events, and using this information to identify areas for improvement
and prevent future incidents (HSE, 2021). Incident reporting and analysis can help organizations
understand the root causes of incidents and implement targeted safety initiatives to prevent similar
incidents from happening in the future. This approach can also provide valuable information for
continuous improvement of the overall safety management system.

2.6 Conceptual Framework

With health and safety being a global agenda, there is no doubt about the call of action to the
construction industry. Incorporation of construction site health and safety considerations in

27
construction projects through key stakeholders should be starting point for the industry to adopt
and enhance safety. The stakeholders are majorly made up of quantity surveyors, architects,
construction managers, engineers and contractors. These considerations are partly supposed to
inform construction health and safety drivers. The review of past literature in Section 2.3 identified
drivers of site H&S to be: employee participation and communication, safety training, effective
planning, financial aspects and regulatory framework compliance. Through leveraging
construction health and safety drivers like innovative technology and a robust policy framework,
effective planning and financial aspects there is a great potential of transitioning into an enhanced
construction site health and safety performance in Kenya. On the other hand, the factors impeding
enhanced construction site health and safety were identified in Section 2.4 to be: corruption and
bribery, insufficient legislation, lack of awareness, management barriers and negligence by
contractors. Consequently, overcoming health and safety challenges in the industry has the
potential of realizing a comparatively safe and healthy construction industry. Through leveraging
and employing construction H&S strategies, the future of the construction industry, health and
safety can be enhanced. Several actions are necessary to plan, monitor, and manage occupational
risks in the sector, as well as to reduce those risks and take preventative measures. The review of
past literature in Section 2.5 identified strategies of site H&S to be: devising a safety culture,
applying ecoonomics of safety, the use of innovative technology, risk assessment and
management, site inspections and audit and incident reporting and analysis.

The independent variables, leveraging H&S drivers, countering H&S barriers, and implementing
H&S strategies, represent various aspects that influence the health and safety at construction sites.
By examining the relationship between these independent variables and the dependent variable,
"Construction site health and safety," this study aims to comprehensively understand the factors
that contribute to enhanced health and safety at construction sites. By doing so, the study hopes to
make recommendations for practical steps that can be taken to improve health and safety in the
Kenyan construction industry. Overall, this study underscores the importance of considering the
interplay between various factors in improving construction site health and safety. By leveraging
drivers, overcoming barriers, and implementing effective strategies, achieving enhanced health
and safety at construction sites is possible. Figure 2.2 below summarizes the conceptual framework
for this study.

28
Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework

Enhanced
construction site
health and safety
(Dependent
variable)

Leveraging H&S
Drivers Leveraging H&S
Countering H&S Barriers Strategies
(Independent (Independent variable 2)
variable 1) (Independent variable 3)

Source: Author (2023)

2.7 Conclusion
This chapter discussed the construction industry and its relation to health and safety as the
dependent variable. It introduces drivers (independent variable 1) including safety training,
employees, regulatory framework compliance, effective planning and financial aspects that
enhance site safety and health in the construction industry, and the avenues through which
stakeholders can implement safety practices. Secondly, other factors that impede the adoption of
health and safety in construction practices and are referred to as barriers including political
sway/influence, bribery and corruption, insufficient legislation, lack of awareness, negligence by
contractors and management barriers were looked at as (independent variable 2). Lastly, plans of
action in the form of strategies (independent variable 3) included economics of safety, devising a
safety culture, innovative technology, risk assessment and management, site inspections and
incident reporting and analysis were identified to achieve enhanced health and safety in
construction. The chapter emphasizes that the independent variables, including drivers, barriers,
and strategies, interact to influence health and safety in the construction industry. The study aims

29
to understand these interactions and their impact on health and safety. The chapter concludes with
a framework that guides the execution of the study. The following chapter presents the
methodology adopted to address the research questions within the related literature. The study
seeks to leverage the drivers, overcome the barriers, and implement strategies to enhance health
and safety in the construction industry.

30
 CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter details the methods and processes utilized in investigating the research problem.
Firstly, the research, which outlines the comprehensive approach adopted to carry out this study
from start to finish is discussed. This involves the identification of research methods and
measurements, both qualitative and quantitative, that are applicable, and their connection to the
study's objectives. Secondly, the target population, sampling frames, and sampling units are clearly
defined. Thirdly, the calculation of the sample size for the study which is determined based on the
research objectives and target population characteristics, and it must be appropriate to ensure
accurate and representative results. Fourthly, the chapter delves into the nature of study data and
data collection methods, which encompass the sources of data, instruments of data collection, and
a summary of research tools used. The fifth element is concerned with the unit of analysis and
observation, as well as data analysis tools, such as data presentation tools and study methods. The
chapter concludes with a concise summary of all the points discussed.

3.2 Research Design

According to Barnett-Page (2009), research design is a strategic framework for action that serves
as a bridge between research questions and the execution or implementation of the research. He
emphasizes that the study's aim, the researcher's theoretical framework, and the setting in which
the research will be conducted should all be taken into consideration when choosing a study design.
This study employed a quantitative approach and using this study the study ultimately sought to
infer population attributes from sample attributes. These attributes were leveraging H&S drivers,
countering H&S barriers, and leveraging H&S strategies as key contributors to enhanced
construction site health and safety. Sample attributes in this study were established from data
collected from the respondents’ using questionnaires. Questionnaires may use fixed alternative
questions and close ended questions and/or open-ended questions (Kothari, 2004). The exploration
of these perspectives from construction workers was done through structured questionnaires using
a combination of fixed alternative, closed-ended and open-ended questions. The information

31
gathered from the respondents, was used to generalize the findings on the larger population which
is the Kenyan construction industry within the set limits of sampling error.

A longitudinal study is a type of research design in which a group of subjects is followed over a
period of time to examine changes or trends in their behavior or characteristics. Longitudinal
studies involve repeated measures of the same variables at different time points. On the other hand,
a cross-sectional study is a type of research design that involves collecting data at a single point in
time. In a cross-sectional study, researchers gather information on a group of subjects at a
particular time, without following them over time (Kothari, 2004). In this case, the information
presented makes no mention of any long-term follow-up with construction workers or
stakeholders. As a result, it is possible to conclude that the study was cross-sectional. The
researchers' decision to perform a cross-sectional study was most likely influenced by their aim to
collect data quickly and efficiently, without the need to track participants over a lengthy period of
time. Furthermore, cross-sectional studies can provide a picture of the current situation of a certain
population or issue, which can better inform immediate interventions or solutions

3.3 Target Population, Sampling Units and Sampling Frame

Population refers to as an aggregate or totality of all the objects, subjects or members that follows
a set of specifications (Mbokane, 2006). The target population for this study was design and
construction phase stakeholders in the Kenyan construction industry. The sampling units,
components of the population, for this study, were construction workers and other stakeholders
including architects, electrical engineers, mechanical engineers, quantity surveyors and site
managers in Kenya. This was informed by the fact that they have an active role in ensuring
construction site safety and health. Lastly, the sampling frame was defined as being the list of
design and construction phase workers and stakeholders in construction sites registered by their
respective professional bodies or associations, which are responsible for regulating and promoting
the standards and best practices in their respective fields. Some of the associations that register
design phase stakeholders in Kenya include: The Architectural Association of Kenya (AAK), The
Institution of Engineers of Kenya (IEK), The Institute of Quantity Surveyors of Kenya (IQSK),
and The Association of Construction Managers of Kenya (ACMK). The geographical scope of this

32
study was Nairobi City County being the county where the researcher had the closest proximity to
during the course of this study.

Additionally, the study sampling frame was set to have the sample to be drawn design and
construction phase stakeholders working in ongoing construction projects (residential and
commercial. This ensured that the respondents were currently and actively practicing bearing in
mind the limited study time and financial resources. The researcher engaged architects, quantity
surveyors, mechanical engineers, site managers and electrical engineers at the construction sites
in Kenya. A total of 1000 projects registered by the National Construction Authority having the
stated stakeholders as identified as a result. Out of the 1000 only 146 were in Nairobi City County.
The 854 sites were dropped since they were outside the selected geographical scope. Secondly, the
study sought to ensure that the sampling frame did not have repetition as to the design and
construction phase stakeholders involved. Consequently, the researcher ensured that each of the
sites identified was only represented once and close to the researcher. This resulted in 17 sites in
Dagoretti North constituency and 11 sites in Roysambu constituency. Key design and construction
phase stakeholders were to be selected from the registered sites. As such, the target population as
drawn from the 28 projects was 140 respondents as five stakeholders were selected from each site.

3.4 Sampling
Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative part
of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole
population (Mugo, 2002). The Slovin formula, also known as "Slovin's formula," developed by
Slovin in the year 1960 to calculate the appropriate sample size when the population's behavior is
uncertain was used. The formula involves two variables, N which represents the total population
size, and e, which represents the margin of error (0.05) allowed in selecting a representative sample
from the population. To find the sample size, n, the formula below was applied as it provides a
reliable method for determining the necessary sample size for the study in order to achieve a
desired level of precision, even when the population's behavior is uncertain (Altares, 2003).

𝑵
𝒏=
𝟏 + 𝑵(𝒆)𝟐

33
Sample size calculations for the study:

i. n = Sample size = Calculated below;

ii. N = 140 Design and construction phase stakeholders;
iii. e = (0.05); and
iv. Assumption = 95% confidence level

Calculated sample size = n = (140) / ((1+140(0.05) ^2))

The calculation is as follows:

n = 140 / (1 + 140 * (0.05) ^2)

n = 140 / (1 + 140 * 0.0025)

n = 140 / 1.35

n = 103.7

So, the sample size would be approximately 104 stakeholders.

The population is heterogeneous in nature with 5 distinct categories of construction stakeholders.
The nature of the sample is as outlined in Table 3.1 below:

Table 3.1: Nature of Sample Size

Workers on Site Sample size (Respondents)

Architects 20
Electrical Engineers 14

Mechanical Engineers 20

Quantity Surveyors 25
Construction Site Managers 25

Total 104

Source: Author (2022)

34
3.5 Data and Data Collection
Data in statistics refers to a collection of information that is used to answer questions or test
hypotheses. It can be numerical (such as measurements or counts) or categorical (such as names
or categories) (Lane, 2003). Primary data are original data collected for the specific research
problem at hand using procedures that fit the research problem best while secondary data are those
which were originally collected for a different purpose and reused for another research question
(Hox, 2005).This study used both primary and secondary data in an effort to answer the research
questions identified. A questionnaire is a research instrument used to gather data from a sample of
individuals through their responses to a series of questions. It is a standardized format for collecting
data from a large number of individuals in a systematic and efficient manner (Lewis-Beck et al,
2003). Design and construction phase stakeholders, were the primary providers of the primary
data. Utilizing a mix of fixed response, closed-ended, and open-ended questions, structured
questionnaires were used to collect the data. Books, websites, journals, research theses, and
projects—both published and unpublished—were some of the scholarly sources from which
secondary data was gathered. Data from earlier studies on occupational health and safety in the
context of the construction sector helped shape this investigation. Furthermore, data collection and
analysis were informed by this earlier work. Collectively, the resulting data was primarily
quantitative in nature.

Planning and organization is a crucial stage in any research process, and the same is applied in this
study. To ensure a successful data collection process, the researcher had to take several measures
in planning. Firstly, the researcher requested approval from the University and the designated
University supervisor. This was necessary to ensure the study was carried out in accordance with
the regulations set by the governing bodies. Once the researcher had the necessary approvals, the
next step was to identify suitable subordinate researchers who would be responsible for
administering the questionnaires. These selected researchers were chosen based on their
availability and ability to carry out the task effectively. The researcher then provided the
subordinate researchers with the necessary instructions on how to administer the questionnaires.

The structured questionnaire with four parts was employed as the instrument for gathering data in
this research. The first section of the questionnaire aimed to collect respondents' information. The
second section sought to determine the key drivers influencing health and safety performance in

35
the Kenyan construction sector. The third section sought to identify the barriers preventing the
development and implementation of health and safety measures on construction. Identifying
strategies adopted to enhance health and safety performance in the Kenyan construction industry
was the subject of the questionnaire's final section.

In summary, the researcher used a variety of research tools to gather, process, and analyze data in
order to draw useful and insightful conclusions. The library was one of the resources used to gather
secondary data for this study. As a second research tool, computers and computer software were
employed. Using Microsoft Excel 2013 and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)
software version 21 (v21), the researcher calculated descriptive statistics. Thirdly, statistics were
employed as a tool for research. Descriptive statistics was used in part to categorize, enumerate,
and explain data. In addition, population attributes were derived from sample attributes using
inferential statistics. Lastly, the study used the researcher's thinking as a research instrument by
requiring them to interpret the data and analyze the outcomes in order to draw logical conclusions.

3.6 Data Analysis and Presentation

Data analysis is a systematic process of discovering meaningful patterns and relationships within
data. It involves cleaning, transforming, and modeling data to uncover valuable insights, identify
trends and patterns, and support decision-making. Data analysis is a critical step in the research
process that helps to provide the basis for making valid conclusions and developing actionable
recommendations (O’Gorman & Macintosh, 2015). It requires the use of appropriate statistical
and data analysis techniques, as well as an understanding of the underlying data and the research
question being addressed. The data approach adopted in this study was descriptive statistics. Since
descriptive analysis only pertains to a certain sample of data, the conclusion can only make
reference to that sample. In other terms, describe sample characteristics and summarize the
findings. The descriptive statistics implemented the use of mean and percentages. Calculations and
analyses were done using Microsoft Excel Professional 2013 and presentations were made through
tables, charts, and graphs to display the survey's findings.

36
3.7 Conclusion
In order to better understand the impact of leveraging Health and safety drivers, countering health
and safety barriers and leveraging H&S strategies as major contributors to enhanced H&S in the
Kenyan construction industry, a quantitative approach was used in the study. Additionally, the
study can be classified as cross-sectional in nature as it provides a glance at the present condition
of a particular population. The target population was different design and construction phase
stakeholders in the Kenyan construction industry's registered firms. The pool of architects,
mechanical engineers, quantity surveyors, electrical engineers and site managers in the firms in
Nairobi City County registered by their respective professional bodies or associations including
The Architectural Association of Kenya (AAK), The Institution of Engineers of Kenya (IEK)
etcetera, were chosen as the sample frame. The respondents for each category were drawn from
this sampling frame to create the sample size of 104 respondents constituting of Architects (20),
Electrical engineers (14), Mechanical Engineers (20), Quantity Surveyors (25) and Construction
Site Managers (25). Their opinions on several areas of construction H&S were sought after by the
study using structured questionnaires. For the purpose of conducting a descriptive statistics
analysis, the received raw data was imported into the Microsoft Excel application. Descriptive
statistics was calculated using means, standard deviations, frequencies, and percentages. In the
next chapter, the analysis and results are presented through tables, charts, and graphs.

37
 CHAPTER 4

DATA ANALYSIS, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Introduction
This chapter puts into discussion the findings from the analyzed data as collected from the study
sample discussed in chapter 3. The findings are presented and interpreted. This chapter comprises
five sections: Introduction, respondent information, key drivers of construction site health and
safety, barriers facing the implementation of construction site health and safety, and strategies for
enhanced implementation of construction site health and safety. The introduction provides an
overview of the contents of the chapter. The section on respondent information provides relevant
demographic data about the study participants, including their occupation, experience, and
previous project involvement. The sections on key drivers and challenges identify the factors that
motivate the implementation of health and safety measures on construction sites in Kenya and the
barriers that hinder effective implementation of these measures. The section on strategies proposes
solutions to overcome these challenges through implementation of health and safety measures on
construction sites in Kenya. 104 questionnaires were distributed among the respondents with the
aim of obtaining valuable insights into the topic under investigation from which 88 were returned
and analyzed using descriptive statistics and findings presented using tables, graphs, and charts.
The analyzed data provided information, which has carefully been curated and presented in this
chapter. The expected chapter output is a detailed analysis of the drivers, barriers, and strategies
related to the implementation of construction site health and safety in Kenya.

4.2 Respondents Information

The targeted respondents for this study were 104 participants as the sample size and comprised of
20 architects, 14 electrical engineers, 25 quantity surveyors, 20 mechanical engineers and 25
construction managers. Out of the 104, 88 responded accurately and were valid. This included 17
architects, 12 electrical engineers, 21 quantity surveyors, 17 mechanical engineers and 21
construction managers. This was equivalent to a response rate of 85 percent. This is illustrated in
table 4.1 below:

38
Table 4.1: Respondent’s Response Rate

Nature of Responses Frequency Percentage

Valid Responses 88 85 %
Did not reply 16 15 %
Total Respondents 104 100 %
Source: Field Survey (2023)

Groves (2011) provides a comprehensive overview of survey methodology and note that response
rates of at least 60% are generally considered to be good, but caution that response rates should
not be the only criterion for evaluating survey quality. Therefore, the 88 (85 %) illustrated response
rate represents adequate responses.

4.2.1 Respondents Occupation in the Construction Industry

The construction industry is a complex ecosystem that involves a variety of stakeholders, each
playing a crucial role in the successful completion of a project. This study selected stakeholders
who are actively involved in construction sites. Through the sampling frame identified in chapter
3 of the study the typical roles of the respondents were established to ensure that the required
construction professionals responded to the questionnaire. This is as shown in table 4.2 below:

Table 4.2: Respondent’s Occupation in the Construction Industry

Occupation of Respondents Frequency Percentage

Architects 17 19 %
Electrical Engineers 12 14 %
Quantity Surveyors 21 24 %
Mechanical Engineers 17 19 %
Construction Project Managers 21 24 %
Total Respondents 88 100 %
Source: Field Survey (2023)

39
This investigation findings encompasses a comprehensive range of respondents, with an equitable
distribution among various categories of construction stakeholders. It is worth highlighting that
the research exclusively concentrates on the designated categories of construction stakeholders,
demonstrating the study's specificity and practical significance for the industry.This is illustrated
in Figure 4.1 below:

Figure 4.1: Respondents Occupation in the Construction Industry

Construction Architects
Project 19%
Managers
24%
Electrical
Engineers
14%
Mechanical
Engineers
19% Quantity
Surveyors
24%

Source: Field Survey (2023)

4.2.2 Respondents Experience in Construction Projects

In order to assess the level of expertise of the respondents in managing construction projects in
Kenya, they were required to indicate their years of experience in the industry from a range of
provided options. By analyzing this data, valuable insights into the current state of the construction
industry in Kenya can be gained. Out of the 88 responses, 5 (6 %) had less than a year of
experience, 20 (23 %) had between 1-5 years of experience, 45 (51 %) had between 6-10 years of

40
experience and 18 (20 %) had more than 10 years of experience in construction related projects.
This is illustrated in Table 4.3 and Figure 4.2 below:

Table 4.3 Respondents Experience in Construction Projects

Years of Experience Frequency Percentage

< 1 year 5 6%
1-5 years 20 23 %
6-10 years 45 51 %
> 10 years 18 20 %
Number of Respondents 88 100
Source: Field Survey (2023)

Figure 4.2: Respondents Experience in Construction Projects

50
Years of Experience

40
30
20
10
0
< 1 year 1-5 years 6-10 years > 10 years
Frequency 5 20 45 18
Percentage 6% 23% 51% 20%

Source: Field Survey (2023)

As illustrated above, the study included respondents with prior experience in the construction
industry, which allowed for their valuable input regarding construction site health and safety in
the Kenyan construction industry. These individuals likely possess knowledge regarding the
factors that influence the implementation of health and safety measures, as well as the challenges
and potential strategies that needed to be implemented. Therefore, the respondents' expertise

41
enhances the study's overall understanding of construction site health and safety in the Kenyan
context.

4.2.3 How Respondents Keep Themselves Updated with the Latest Developments in their
Field
In order to assess how respondents keep themselves updated with the latest developments in
construction, they were required to indicate the contemporary methods they use to stay informed
from a range of provided options. By analyzing this data, valuable insights into the current state
of knowledge acquisition practices in the construction industry in Kenya can be gained. Out of the
88 responses, 25 (28 %) indicated that they attend conferences or seminars, 30 (34 %) indicated
that they read industry publications, 18 (20 %) indicated that they conduct online research, and 15
(17 %) indicated that they network with colleagues to stay updated with the latest developments
in the construction industry. This is illustrated in Table 4.4 and Figure 4.3 below:

Table 4.4: How Respondents Keep Themselves Updated with the Latest Developments in
their Field

Methods by Respondents to keep them Frequency Percentage

Updated
Attend conferences or seminars 25 28 %
Read industry publications 30 34 %
Online research 18 21 %
Network with colleagues 15 17 %

Other 0 0
Total number of respondents 88 100 %
Source: Field Survey (2023)

Figure 4.3: How Respondents Keep Themselves Updated with the Latest Developments in
their Field

42
 Network with
Colleagues Attend
17% Conferences or
Seminars
28%
Online Research
21%

Read Industry
Publications
34%

Source: Field Survey (2023)

4.2.4 Value of Construction Projects Handled by Respondents

In order to assess the value of construction projects handled by the respondents, they were required
to indicate the range of the value of projects they have been involved in from a range of provided
options. By analyzing this data, valuable insights into the current state of construction project
values in the construction industry in Kenya can be gained. Out of the 88 responses, 25 (28 %)
indicated that they have handled construction projects with a value of less than KES 10 million,
28 (32 %) indicated that they have handled construction projects with a value between KES 10
million and KES 50 million, 20 (23 %) indicated that they have handled construction projects with
a value between KES 50 million and KES 100 million, 15 (17 %) indicated that they have handled
construction projects with a value of more than KES 100 million. This is illustrated in Table 4.5
and Figure 4.4 below:

Table 4.5: Value of Construction Projects in KES

43
 Value of Construction Projects in KES Frequency Percentage
< 10 Million 25 28 %
10 Million – 50 Million 28 32 %
50 Million – 100 Million 20 23 %
> 100 Million 15 17 %

Total Number of Respondents 88 100 %

Source: Field Survey (2023)

Figure 4.4: Value of Construction Projects in KES

> 100 Million

17%
< 10 Million
28%

50 Million – 100
Million
23%

10 Million – 50
Million
32%
Source: Field Survey (2023)

4.3 Construction H&S Drivers

This study aimed at identifying the key factors that further and enhance health and safety
performance in the construction industry. The respondents were required to rate the categories of
H&S drivers as illustrated in Section 2.3. A 5-point Likert scale with effectiveness of the various
categories in enhancing health and safety rated using mean scores and standard deviation was
employed. This was done to come up with an overall score for each category of the drivers. The
findings of this study provide valuable insights into the factors that are essential for promoting

44
health and safety in construction, which can inform the development of effective policies and
practices to improve H&S performance in the industry. The results are indicated in Table 4.6 and
illustrated by Figure 4.5.

Table 4.6: Construction H&S Drivers

Responses Mean %
Construction H&S Drivers
1 2 3 4 5
Safety Training for the stakeholders and 2 4 21 47 14 3.761 22 %
those actively involved in the construction
site
Employee Participation, including 2 31 26 26 3 2.966 17 %
characteristics such as peer review, safety
empowerment, adequate supervision,
compliance with safety rules, and safety
perception

Regulatory Framework Compliance- 0 6 20 29 33 4.011 24 %

regulatory frameworks, collaboration
with health and police agencies, and legal
frameworks
Effective Planning which includes well- 6 9 28 33 12 3.409 20 %
structured safety programs and risk
assessments
Financial Aspects – includes the required 7 27 29 20 5 2.875 17 %
financial resources
Grand Mean 3.404

Source: Field Survey (2023)

As per the table above, the average mean for the respondents is outlined as (Mean=3.404) for the
construction health and safety drivers i.e. Safety training, employees, regulatory framework

45
compliance, effective planning and financial aspects. Regulatory framework compliance had the
highest rating as a driver for construction health and safety with a mean score of 4.011 (24%)
followed by safety training with a mean score of 3.761 (22%). Third-placed effective planning
received a mean score of 3.409 (20%). Next was employee participation having a mean score of
2.966 (17%) and the driver with the lowest rating was financial aspects with a mean score of 2.875
(17%).

The findings of this study indicate that the construction health and safety drivers generally align
with the literature reviewed, with regulatory framework compliance being consistently identified
as crucial. This finding is consistent with the emphasis placed on legal and regulatory compliance
in ensuring workplace safety. Safety training, the second most important driver in this study, may
have received varying levels of emphasis in the literature possibly due to the specific context and
focus of the studies examined in the literature, which might have emphasized other drivers more
prominently. Effective planning was rated higher in this study compared to some of the literature
reviewed likely due to the emphasis placed on proactive risk assessment and hazard mitigation
through effective planning in the specific sample population or study area. Employee participation
received a slightly lower mean score in this study compared to the literature possibly due to
variations in the organizational culture, management practices, or worker involvement observed
in the specific sample population. Financial aspects was rated relatively lower as compared to the
literature and may reflect the specific priorities and resource allocation strategies of the
construction companies in the study area, can influence the extent to which investments are made
in health and safety initiatives. The data above is shown in Figure 4.5 below:

46
Figure 4.5: Construction H&S Drivers

47
50
45
40 32 33 33
29 28 2729
Frequency

35 2626
30 21 20 20
25 14
20 12
15 6 6 9 7 5
10 2 4 2 3 0
5
0
Safety Training

Employee Participation

Effective Planning

Financial Aspects
Regulatory Framework
Compliance

Construction Health and Safety Drivers

Source: Field Survey (2023)

4.4 Construction H&S Barriers

This inquiry aimed at identifying the major obstacles that hinder health and safety performance in
the construction industry. Participants were asked to rate the H&S barrier categories indicated in
Section 2.4. A 5-point Likert scale was used to grade each barrier category's effectiveness in
impeding health and safety, with mean scores and standard deviation calculated to create an overall
score for each barrier category. The study's findings offer essential insights into the factors that
hinder health and safety in the construction industry. These insights can inform the development
of effective policies and practices aimed at improving H&S performance in the sector. The table
below showcases the key variables impeding a safer and healthier construction industry. It
provides a detailed understanding of the critical roadblocks that need to be overcome to achieve
optimal health and safety outcomes. These findings are of great significance to policymakers,
industry professionals, and stakeholders, and can be utilized to develop evidence-based strategies
that prioritize health and safety in the construction sector. Therefore, this corroborates the

47
construction health and safety barriers within this the study area. The results are indicated in Table
4.7 and illustrated by Figure 4.6 below:

Table 4.7 Construction H&S Barriers

Responses
Construction H&S Barriers 1 2 3 4 5 Mean %
Political Sway/Influence – Changes 11 23 32 16 6 2.807 14%
in regulation including updates or
revisions to existing laws or the
introduction of new regulations,
availability of government funding
for construction projects, especially
in the public sector and political
instability, or uncertainty.
Bribery and Corruption through 6 26 31 20 5 2.909 15%
bribes for permits or licenses,
kickbacks for contracts,
subcontractor fraud.
Insufficient Legislation i.e. through 4 21 10 34 19 3.489 18%
not setting clear safety standards and
guidelines for construction, lack of
enforcement and insufficient
penalties
Lack of Awareness for example 8 19 24 27 10 3.136 16%
brought by insufficient information
and lack of communication leading to
ineffective communication
Negligence by Contractors - 0 8 13 29 38 4.102 21%
contractor negligence caused by non-
compliance

48
 Management Barriers in terms of 2 28 17 26 15 3.273 16%
poor equipment maintenance,
communication barriers, and
ignoring inspection schedules
Average Mean Score 3.286

Source: Field Survey (2023)

As per the table above, the average mean for the respondents is outlined as (Mean=3.286) for the
construction health and safety barriers for example lack of awareness, negligence by contractors,
management barriers, insufficient legislation, bribery and corruption and political sway.
Negligence by contractors had the highest rating as a construction health and safety barrier with a
mean score of 4.102 (21%) followed by insufficient legislation with a mean score of 3.489 (18%).
Management barriers came in third and received a mean score of 3.273 (16%). Next was lack of
awareness having a mean score of 3.136 (16%). The fifth ranked barrier was bribery and corruption
with a mean score of 2.909 (15%). The driver with the lowest rating was political influence with a
mean score of 2.807 (14%).

The findings of this study on construction health and safety barriers generally align with the
literature reviewed in Chapter 2. Negligence by contractors was identified as the most significant
barrier, both in the findings and in the literature, highlighting the critical role of contractor
compliance in ensuring a safe work environment. Insufficient legislation was also recognized as a
significant barrier in both the findings and the literature, emphasizing the need for robust
regulatory frameworks. The literature review also identified management barriers and lack of
awareness as obstacles to construction health and safety, which are consistent with the study's
findings. While the findings generally align with the literature on construction health and safety
barriers, some variations exist. The study's findings rate political sway/influence and bribery and
corruption as relatively lower barriers, possibly due to the specific context and sample population.
Further research is needed to explore these variations and better understand their implications. The
data above is shown in Figure 4.6 below:

49
Figure 4.6: Construction H&S Barriers

38
40 34
35 32 31
29 28
30 26 27 26
23 24
Frequency

25 20 21
19 19
20 16 17
15
13
15 11 10 10
8 8
10 6 6 5 4
5 2
0
0
Political Sway/Influence .

Bribery and Corruption t

Insufficient Legislation

Lack of Awareness

Negligence by Contractors

Management Barriers i
Construction Health and Safety Barriers

Source: Field Survey (2023)

4.5 Construction H&S Strategies

The purpose of this investigation was to identify the most effective strategies that can be employed
to enhance health and safety performance in the construction industry. To achieve this, participants
were requested to evaluate the various Construction H&S Strategies outlined in Section 2.5. Using
a 5-point Likert scale, participants rated the effectiveness of each strategy in promoting health and
safety, with mean scores and standard deviation being computed to generate an overall score for
each strategy category. The findings of this study offer essential insights into the measures that
can be adopted to ensure optimal health and safety outcomes in the construction industry. These
insights can guide policymakers, industry professionals, and stakeholders in the development of
evidence-based policies and practices that prioritize the well-being of workers in the sector. The
presented table below highlights the various strategies that can be utilized to promote H&S in the

50
construction industry and offers a comprehensive understanding of the most effective approaches
that can be adopted to improve health and safety performance. The results are indicated in Table
4.8 below:

Table 4.8: Construction H&S Strategies

Responses
Construction H&S Strategies 1 2 3 4 5 Mean %
Economics of Safety in the context 1 3 10 36 38 4.205 18%
of committing sufficient funds and
resources towards safety measures
Devising a Safety Culture in terms 0 5 14 42 27 4.034 17%
of shared values, perceptions,
attitudes, and behavioral patterns
related to safety, as well as a high
level of concern and commitment to
the prevention of accidents and
injuries
Innovative Technology such as 3 6 20 37 22 3.784 16%
building information modeling,
smart wearables, unmanned aerial
vehicles, and virtual reality
Risk Assessment and 0 1 4 28 55 4.557 19%
Management through identifying
hazards on site, assessing the
likelihood and consequences of each
hazard, and implementing controls
to mitigate or eliminate the risk
Regular Site Inspections and 2 5 16 41 24 3.909 16%
Audits - primarily used to help

51
 ensure the controls in place are
working as they should.

Incident Reporting and Analysis - 7 12 29 23 17 3.352 14%

establishment of a reporting and
analysis system for incidents and
near-misses through data collection
and analysis
Average Mean Score 3.974

Source: Field Survey (2023)

As per the table above, the average mean for the respondents is outlined as (Mean=3.974) for the
construction health and safety strategies for example economics of safety, devising a safety culture,
innovative technology, risk assessment and management, regular site inspections and audits,
incident reporting and analysis. Risk assessment and management had the highest rating as a
possible strategy to be implemented for construction health and safety with a mean score of 4.557
(19%) followed by economics of safety with a mean score of 4.205 (18%). Third-placed devising
a safety culture received a mean score of 4.034 (17%). Next was regular site inspections and audits
having a mean score of 3.909 (16%) followed by innovative technology with a mean score of 3.784
(16%) and the strategy with the lowest rating was incident reporting and analysis with a mean
score of 3.352 (14%).

The findings suggest that there is a common agreement between the literature and the data
regarding effective construction health and safety strategies. Both sources emphasize the
importance of investing in safety management, establishing a safety culture, leveraging innovative
technology, and conducting regular risk assessments and management. The respondents in the data
recognize and value these strategies, indicating a consistent understanding of the significance of
these approaches in promoting construction site safety. The literature and the data support that
innovative technology has the potential to enhance construction site safety. The literature
emphasizes the benefits of leveraging technologies and the respondents in the data recognize the
importance of innovative technology and its potential in promoting safety on construction sites,

52
This alignment accentuates the acknowledgment of the positive impact that technological
advancements can have on construction health and safety practices. The data above is illustrated
in Figure 4.7 below:

Figure 4.7: Construction H&S Strategies

60 55
50 42 41
3638 37
Frequency

40 29
27 28
30 24 23
20 22 17
14 16
20 10 12
7
10 13 0
5 36 01
4 25
0
Risk Assessment and
Devising a Safety

Inspections and Audits

Incident Reporting and

Economics of Safety

Innovative Technology

Management
Culture

Regular Site

Analysis
Consruction H&S Strategies

Source: Field Survey (2023)

4.6 Conclusion
In conclusion, this chapter presented the results of data analysis conducted on valid responses
received from the 88 participants. The response rate for the study was 85%. Out of the 104
respondents, 88 provided valid responses, while 16 did not reply. This comprised of 17 architects,
12 electrical engineers, 21 quantity surveyors, 17 mechanical engineers and 21 construction
managers. The respondents' profile in this study comprised professionals from various construction
occupations, with diverse experience levels, active knowledge acquisition practices, and
involvement in projects of different amounts, enhancing the understanding of construction site
health and safety in Kenya. The study findings indicate key drivers of implementing construction

53
site health and safety generally align with the existing literature but there are variations in the
emphasis on safety training, effective planning, employee participation, and financial aspects due
to various factors. H&S barriers align with the literature but there are slight variations, possibly
due to the characteristics of the sample population of the study. The findings show agreement
between the literature and data on strategies for enhanced implementation of construction site
health and safety in Kenya. These findings can be used to inform future research, policy-making,
and interventions aimed at addressing the issues highlighted in the study. Chapter 5 will provide a
summary of the key findings from the preceding chapters, present a conclusion for the study and
recommendations for future research.

54
 CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction
Chapter 5 of this research presents a comprehensive summary of the study's findings, conclusions,
recommendations, and suggestions for future research. The primary objective of the study was to
examine the impact of construction drivers, barriers, and strategies on construction site health and
safety in Nairobi City County. The goals and aims of the study are addressed by identifying the
key drivers for implementing construction site health and safety, investigating the barriers faced
during implementation, and proposing strategies for improving its effectiveness. The study's
findings shed light on effective strategies, potential drivers, and barriers that impact the
implementation of health and safety measures in the construction industry. Stakeholders can
therefore identify critical areas for improvement and develop comprehensive safety regulations
and policies to address barriers and create a safer working environment. By leveraging these
insights, they can prioritize safety investments, implement effective strategies, and foster a strong
safety culture, resulting in reduced incidents and enhanced well-being in the construction industry.
The chapter highlights areas that require further research and exploration to deepen the
understanding of construction site health and safety practices. The recommendations put forth in
this chapter serve as valuable input for future research endeavors and can inform the development
of policies and strategies aimed at promoting health and safety in the construction industry.

5.2 Summary of Findings

In accordance with the study's three objectives, the findings are presented in a structured summary
as follows:

5.2.1 Construction H&S Drivers

The findings of this study on construction health and safety drivers in the Kenyan construction
industry can be summarized as follows. The most significant drivers, with mean scores above 3,
were regulatory framework compliance, safety training, and effective planning. Regulatory
framework compliance emerged as the most influential driver, highlighting the importance of

55
government policies and regulations in promoting safety practices. Safety training was identified
as the second most significant driver, emphasizing the need for proper training and education of
workers. Effective planning was recognized as crucial in proactively assessing and mitigating
risks. On the other hand, the drivers with mean scores below 3, indicating relatively less
significance, were employee participation and financial aspects. Although employee participation
and financial considerations were still important, they had a slightly lower impact in the specific
context of the Kenyan construction industry. This study highlights the key drivers that should be
prioritized to create a safe and productive work environment in the Kenyan construction industry.
The findings presented in section 5.2.1 suggest that a multi-faceted approach is necessary to enable
construction site health and safety in the Kenyan construction industry. This includes a
combination of regulatory compliance, safety training, effective planning, employee participation,
and cost considerations. By implementing these drivers effectively, the construction industry in
Kenya can create a safe and productive work environment for its workers.

5.2.2 Construction H&S Barriers

This section presents a summary of the findings on construction health and safety barriers in the
Kenyan construction industry. The study aimed to identify the most influential factors that
hindered the promotion of safety practices at construction sites, ranking them based on their mean
scores. The most significant barriers, with means above 3, were negligence by contractors,
insufficient legislation, lack of awareness, and management barriers. Negligence by contractors
emerged as the most influential barrier, reflecting the prioritization of profit over safety.
Insufficient legislation highlighted the need for stronger safety regulations more effective
legislation to ensure that construction companies are held accountable for their safety practices.
Lack of awareness underscored the importance of increasing understanding and knowledge among
workers and stakeholders. Management barriers emphasized the need for improved supervision
and communication. On the other hand, barriers with means below 3, indicating relatively lower
significance, were bribery and corruption and political sway/influence. While still important,
addressing these barriers requires targeted efforts. By focusing on these key barriers, the
construction industry in Kenya can work towards creating a safer and healthier work environment.

56
Addressing these barriers effectively will require a concerted effort from industry stakeholders and
policymakers to ensure that safety measures are properly implemented and enforced.

5.2.3 Construction H&S Strategies

The study's findings on construction health and safety strategies revealed the most significant
approaches for enhancing safety practices in the Kenyan construction industry. These strategies
were ranked based on their influence and deemed significant as all of them had a mean score above
3. Risk assessment and management is identified as the most influential strategy. This highlights
the importance of identifying potential hazards and effectively managing risks to ensure a safe
working environment. Economics of safety, emphasizes the economic benefits that can be derived
from investing in safety measures, such as improved productivity and cost reduction. Devising a
safety culture underscores the need to establish a work environment that values and prioritizes
safety. This can be achieved through training, effective communication, and strong leadership.
Regular site inspections and audits enable ongoing monitoring and evaluation of safety practices,
ensuring compliance and identifying areas for improvement. The findings emphasized the
significance of innovative technology in promoting construction health and safety. Technological
advancements, such as sensors and monitoring systems, were recognized for their potential to
identify hazards and enhance communication and collaboration among workers. Lastly, incident
reporting and analysis were identified as important strategies. Establishing a system for reporting
and analyzing incidents can help identify root causes, develop preventive measures, and improve
overall safety performance. By incorporating these strategies, construction companies and
policymakers can enhance health and safety practices in the industry.

5.3 Conclusion
In conclusion, this research project has provided valuable insights into the drivers, barriers, and
strategies for enhancing construction site health and safety in the Kenyan construction industry.
The findings from Sections 5.2.1 to 5.2.3 align with the feedback received regarding the drivers,
barriers, and strategies identified. The most influential drivers for implementing construction site
health and safety include regulatory framework compliance, safety training, effective planning,
employee participation, and financial aspects. These factors highlight the need for prioritizing

57
training, planning, employee engagement, and compliance with regulations to create a safe
working environment. However, several barriers were identified, including negligence by
contractors, insufficient legislation, lack of awareness, management barriers, bribery and
corruption, and political sway/influence. These barriers underscore the importance of addressing
contractor accountability, strengthening legislation, raising awareness, improving management
practices, and combatting corruption to ensure effective implementation of safety practices.
Moreover, the study identified effective strategies such as risk assessment and management,
economics of safety, devising a safety culture, regular site inspections and audits, innovative
technology, and incident reporting and analysis. Implementing these strategies will contribute to
improved safety conditions, enhanced productivity, reduced costs, and a better industry reputation.
In conclusion, by addressing the identified barriers and prioritizing the recommended strategies,
policymakers and construction companies can foster a safer working environment and achieve
significant improvements in construction site health and safety in the Kenyan construction
industry.

5.4 Recommendations
Based on the findings of the research project, it is recommended that:

i. Regulators and construction stakeholders in Kenya should prioritize the alignment of legal
frameworks and regulations with international standards. This will ensure consistent
implementation of driver-related factors such as regulatory compliance, safety training, and
effective planning, enhancing construction health and safety performance.
ii. To address challenges in implementing construction site health and safety, there is a need
to strengthen legislation and enforcement mechanisms in Kenya. Regulators, in
collaboration with industry stakeholders, should strengthen legislation and enforcement
mechanisms by developing explicit regulations, conduct regular inspections, and impose
strict penalties to tackle barriers such as contractor negligence, insufficient legislation,
management challenges, and lack of awareness.
iii. Construction H&S stakeholders should highlight the adoption of comprehensive safety
management strategies by fostering a strong safety culture, leveraging innovative
technologies, and conducting regular risk assessments and management. Emphasis should

58
 be placed on promoting ongoing safety training, proactive planning, and active employee
involvement in safety initiatives.
iv. In order to enhance construction site health and safety in Kenya, construction H&S
stakeholders should adopt a synergistic approach that combines drivers, barriers, and
strategies by promoting collaboration, communication, and shared responsibility among
regulators, contractors, workers, and other industry stakeholders. Through implementing a
unified framework, stakeholders can effectively address the identified drivers, overcome
barriers, and implement coordinated strategies. This holistic approach will lead to
improved construction site health and safety outcomes.

5.5 Areas of Further Research

This study proposes the following recommendations for areas of further research.

i. Investigation of the impact of political influence and corruption on construction site health
and safety practices: This research can explore the extent of political sway and corruption
in the construction industry and its implications for health and safety measures. It can also
examine the effectiveness of existing anti-corruption measures and propose strategies to
mitigate these challenges.
ii. Evaluation of the effectiveness of safety training programs: Further research can assess the
effectiveness of different safety training programs in improving workers' knowledge,
attitudes, and behaviors towards health and safety practices on construction sites. This can
help identify best practices and areas for improvement in safety training initiatives.
iii. Examination of the role of technology in enhancing construction site health and safety:
This research can explore the implementation and impact of innovative technologies, such
as Building Information Modeling (BIM), drones, virtual reality, and smart wearables, on
improving safety practices in the construction industry. It can assess the effectiveness of
these technologies in identifying hazards, enhancing communication, and facilitating
proactive risk management.
iv. Analysis of the financial implications of health and safety investments: Further research
can investigate the economic impact of investing in construction site health and safety. It
can assess the cost-effectiveness of different safety measures, evaluate the return on

59
investment in terms of reduced accidents and improved productivity, and explore strategies
for overcoming financial constraints and promoting a culture of safety within
organizations.

60
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 APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Research Authorization Letter

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Appendix 2: Questionnaire to Respondents
Section 1: Respondent’s Information

1. What is your current occupation in the construction industry?

Quantity Surveyor
Construction Site Manager
Mechanical Engineer
Electrical Engineer
Architect

2. How many years of experience do you have in your current occupation?

Less than 1 year
1-5 years
6-10 years
More than 10 years

3. How do you stay up to date with the latest developments in your field?
Attend conferences or seminars
Read industry publications
Online research
Network with colleagues
Other (please specify): _______________

4. What is the average value of construction projects you have worked on in Kenya?
Please select one of the following:

Less than KES 10 million

KES 10 million to KES 50 million

KES 50 million to KES 100 million

More than KES 100 million

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Section 2: Construction H&S Drivers

Please rate the extent of the following drivers in enhancing and furthering health and safety
performance in the construction sector based on your experience in your last five projects on a
scale of 1 to 5?

Use the key: 1= not at all, 2= small extent, 3= moderate extent, 4=large extent, 5= very large
extent

Responses
Construction H&S Drivers 1 2 3 4 5

Safety Training for the stakeholders and those actively

involved in the construction site
Employee Participation, including characteristics such
as peer review, safety empowerment, adequate
supervision, compliance with safety rules, and safety
perception
Regulatory Framework Compliance- regulatory
frameworks, collaboration with health and police
agencies, and legal frameworks
Effective Planning which includes well-
structured safety programs and risk assessments
Financial Aspects – includes the required financial
resources

Section 3: Construction H&S Barriers

1. Please rate the extent of the following barriers in impeding health and safety performance in
the construction sector based on your experience in your last five projects on a scale of 1 to 5?

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Use the key: 1= not at all, 2= small extent, 3= moderate extent, 4=large extent, 5= very large
extent

Responses
Construction H&S Barriers 1 2 3 4 5

Political Sway/Influence – Changes in regulation

including updates or revisions to existing laws or the
introduction of new regulations, availability of
government funding for construction projects, especially
in the public sector and political instability, or
uncertainty.
Bribery and Corruption through bribes for permits or
licenses, kickbacks for contracts, subcontractor fraud.
Insufficient Legislation i.e. through not setting clear
safety standards and guidelines for construction,
lack of enforcement and Insufficient penalties
Lack of Awareness i.e. brought by insufficient
information and lack of communication leading to
ineffective communication
Negligence by Contractors - contractor negligence
caused by non-compliance
Management Barriers in terms of poor equipment
maintenance, communication barriers, and ignoring
inspection schedules

Section 4: Construction H&S Strategies

1. Please rate the extent to which the following strategies are adopted in construction site
H&S performance in the construction sector based on your experience in your last five
projects on a scale of 1 to 5?

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Use the key: 1= not at all, 2= small extent, 3= moderate extent, 4=large extent, 5= very large
extent

Responses
Construction H&S Strategies 1 2 3 4 5

Economics of Safety in the context of committing

sufficient funds and resources towards safety
measures
Devising a Safety Culture in terms of shared
values, perceptions, attitudes, and behavioral
patterns related to safety, as well as a high level of
concern and commitment to the prevention of
accidents and injuries
Innovative Technology such as building information
modeling, smart wearables, unmanned aerial
vehicles, and virtual reality
Risk Assessment and Management through
identifying hazards on site, assessing the likelihood
and consequences of each hazard, and implementing
controls to mitigate or eliminate the risk
Regular Site Inspections and Audits - primarily
used to help ensure the controls in place are working
as they should.
Incident Reporting and Analysis - establishment of
a reporting and analysis system for incidents and
near-misses through data collection and analysis

Thank you for taking the time to complete this questionnaire.

Your input is greatly appreciated.

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