Contents

2 Differentiation 32
1 The Derivative as a Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.1 Derivative of a function at a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.6 Differentiation on an Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.11 Differentiation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.17 Curves Defined by Parametric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

1
Chapter 2

Differentiation

1 The Derivative as a Limit

We introduce and study in this chapter, the notion of derivative of a real-valued function
and some of the application of derivative.We start by defining the derivative as a limit.

1.1 Derivative of a function at a Point

Definition 1.2 (Derivative as a Limit). Let f be function and x0 be a point at which f

is defined. We say f is differential at x0 if

f (x) − f (x0 )
lim exists
x→x0 x − x0

In this case we write

f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim .
x→x0 x − x0
We also say that f 0 (x0 ) is the derivative of f at x0 .
Example 1. Let f (x) = x2 − 8x + 9. Find f 0 (2). From the definition, we evaluate the
following limit
f (x) − f (2)
lim .
x→2 x−2
Now f (2) = −3 and therefore f (x) − f (2) = x2 − 8x + 12 = (x − 6)(x − 2). Hence

f (x) − f (2) (x − 6)(x − 2)

f 0 (2) = lim = lim = lim (x − 6) = −4.
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x→2

Thus the derivative of f at x = 2 is −4.

32
Definition 1.3. Let f be a function and x0 a point at which f is defined.

1. We say f is left differentiable at x0 if

f (x) − f (x0 )
lim− exists
x→x0 x − x0

and we write
f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x−
0 ) = lim−
x→x0 x − x0

2. We say f is right differentiable at x0 if

f (x) − f (x0 )
lim+ exists
x→x0 x − x0

and we write
f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x+
0 ) = lim+
x→x0 x − x0

Theorem 1.4. Let f be a function and x0 a point at which f is defined. Then f is

differentiable at x0 if and only if f is right and left differentiable at x0 and

f (x) − f (x0 ) f (x) − f (x0 )

lim+ = lim−
x→x0 x − x0 x→x0 x − x0
Remark 1.5. From Definition (1.2), if we let h = x − x0 = ∆x, then ∆y = f (∆x + x0 ) −
f (x0 ) and thus

f (x) − f (x0 ) f (h + x0 ) − f (x0 ) ∆y

f 0 (x0 ) = lim = lim = lim .
x→x0 x − x0 h→0 h ∆x→0 ∆x

∆y
The quotient ∆x is called the average rate of change of y with respect to x and
∆y
lim∆x→0 ∆x is called the instantaneous rate of change.

1.6 Differentiation on an Interval

Definition 1.7. Let f be a function. Then we say

1. f is differentiable on the interval [a, b) if f is differentiable at each point of (a, b)

and f if right differentiable at a.

2. We say f is differentiable on (a, b] if f is differentiable on (a, b) and left differentiable

at b.

33
 3. We say f is differentiable on [a, b] if f is differentiable on (a, b), f is right differen-
tiable at a and left differentiable at b.

In general, f is differentiable on a set E if f is differentiable at each point of E.

Example 2. Where is the function f (x) = |x| differentiable? We first suppose that
x > 0. Then |x| = x and we can choose h small enough that x + h > 0 and hence
|x + h| = x + h. Therefore, for x > 0, we have

|x + h| − |x| x+h−x h
f 0 (x) = lim = lim = lim = 1
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

and so f is differentiable for any x > 0. Now suppose x < 0. Then |x| = −x and h can
be chosen small enough that x + h < 0 and so |x + h| = −(x + h). Therefore, for x < 0,
we have

|x + h| − |x| −(x + h) − (−x) −h

f 0 (x) = lim = lim = lim = −1
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h

and so f is differentiable for any x < 0. For x = 0, we have

(
f (0 + h) − f (0) |0 + h| − |0| |h| 1 , h>0
f 0 (0) = lim = lim = lim = .
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h −1 , h < 0

Thus the limit does not exist at x = 0. Hence f is not differentiable at x = 0. Therefore
the function is differentiable everywhere except at x = 0.
Remark 1.8. Other Notations: If we use the traditional notation y = f (x) to indicate
that the independent variable is x and the dependent variable is y, then some common
alternative notations for the derivative are as follows;

dy d
f 0 (x) = y 0 = = f (x) = Df (x) = Dx f (x).
dx dx
d
The symbols D and dx are called differentiation operators because they indicate the
operation of differentiation which is the process of calculating a derivative. We can thus
rewrite the definition of derivative in Leibniz notation in the form

dy ∆y
= lim .
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
dy
If we want to indicate the value of a derivative dx
in Leibniz notation at specific number
a, we use the notation  
dy  dy
or
dx x=a dx x=a

which is the same as f 0 (a).

34
 √
Example 3. If f (x) = x − 1, find a formula for f 0 (x) and state the domain of f 0 (x).
Using the definition of derivative, we have
√ √
0 f (x + h) − f (x) x+h−1− x−1
f (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
1 1
= lim √ √ = √
h→0 x+h−1+ x−1 2 x−1

which exists whenever x > 1. Hence the domain of f 0 (x) = {x ∈ R : x ∈ (1, ∞)}.

Two desirable properties for a function to have are continuity and differentiability. The
following theorem shows how these properties are related.

Theorem 1.9. If f is differentiable at x0 , then f is continuous at x0 .

Proof. Suppose f is differentiable at x0 . Then we have that

f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim exists.
x→x0 x − x0

Now for x 6= x0 , we can write

f (x) − f (x0 )
f (x) − f (x0 ) = (x − x0 ).
x − x0

Therefore
 
f (x) − f (x0 )
lim f (x) − f (x0 ) = lim · lim (x − x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ) · 0 = 0.
x→x0 x→x0 x − x0 x→x0

Now

lim f (x) = lim (f (x) − f (x0 ) + f (x0 ))

x→x0 x→x0
= lim (f (x) − f (x0 )) + lim f (x0 ))
x→x0 x→x0
= 0 + f (x0 ) = f (x0 ).

Hence f is continuous at x0 .
Remark 1.10. Note that the converse of this theorem is not true. For example, the
function f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0 i.e.

lim f (x) = lim |x| = |0| = f (0) = 0

x→0 x→0

but as we saw earlier, f is not differentiable at x = 0

35
How can a function fail to be Differentiable?

1. A function can fail to differentiable at x0 if the graph the function has a corner or
a kink in it at x0 . for example the function f (x) = |x| has a corner at the origin.

f (x) = |x|

the corner

2. Theorem (1.9) also says that if f is discontinuous at x0 , then the function is not
differentiable at x0 .

3. A third possibility is that the curve has a vertical tangent at x0 . That is the function,
f, is continuous at x0 and
lim |f 0 (x)| = ∞.
x→x0

y = f (x)

x0

1.11 Differentiation Rules

Derivative of a Constant Function

Let y = f (x) = c for some constant c. Then by definition

f (x + h) − f (x) c−c
f 0 (x) = lim = lim = 0.
h→0 h h→0 h

Therefore the derivative of a constant is always zero.

36
Derivative of Power Function

Let f (x) = xn , n ∈ Z and consider the geometric series

Sn = xn−1 + xn−2 a + xn−3 a2 + · · · + xan−2 + an−1

with common ratio r = xa . Then the sum is

a n



xn−1 1 − x x n − an
Sn = = .
1 − xa x−a

Therefore

xn − an = (x − a)Sn = (x − a)(xn−1 + xn−2 a + xn−3 a2 + · · · + xan−2 + an−1 ).

From the definition of derivative, differentiating f (x) at a, we have

f (x) − f (a) x n − an
f 0 (a) = lim = lim
x→a x−a x→a x − a
n−1
= lim (x + x a + xn−3 a2 + · · · + xan−2 + an−1 )
n−2
x→a
n−1
= a + an−2 a + an−3 a2 + · · · + aan−2 + an−1 {we add n-times}
= nan−1

In fact by using Binomial expansion, it can be shown that for all n ∈ R

d n
(x ) = nxn−1 .
dx

We leave it to the student to explore this.

Constant Multiple Rule

Let c be a constant and f differentiable. Then cf (x) is differentiable and moreover,

d d
(cf (x)) = c f (x).
dx dx

37
Proof. Let g(x) = cf (x). Then by definition,

d d g(x + h) − g(x) cf (x + h) − cf (x)

(cf (x)) = g(x) = lim = lim
dx dx h→0
 h h→0
 h
f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim c ·
h→0 h
 
f (x + h) − f (x)
= lim c · lim = c · f 0 (x)
h→0 h→0 h

exists by the differentiability of f (x) and c is a constant. Thus g is also differentiable.

Sum Rule

If f and g are differentiable, then f (x) + g(x) is differentiable and moreover

d d d
(f (x) + g(x)) = f (x) + g(x).
dx dx dx

Proof. Let f and g be differentiable and let F (x) = f (x) + g(x). Then

d F (x + h) − F (x)
(F (x)) = lim
dx h→0 h
f (x + h) + g(x + h) − f (x) − g(x)
= lim
h→0
 h  
f (x + h) − f (x) g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim + lim
h→0 h h→0 h
0 0
= f (x) + g (x)

which is finite since f and g are differentiable.

This rule can be extended to any number of differentiable functions. That is if fi (x) is
differentiable for all i = 1, 2, ..., n then
n n n
d X X d X
fi (x) = fi (x) = f 0 (x).
dx i=1 i=1
dx i=1

Also by writing f (x) − g(x) = f (x) + (−1)g(x), we get

d d d d d d d
(f (x)+(−1)g(x)) = f (x)+ (−1)g(x) = f (x)+(−1) g(x) = f (x)− g(x).
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx

Therefore
d d d
(f (x) − g(x)) = f (x) − g(x)
dx dx dx
by the sum and constant multiple rules.

38
Exponential Function

Let f (x) = ax , a 6= 1. Then by definition of derivatives

f (x + h) − f (x) ax+h − ax
f 0 (x) = lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
h h
a −1 a −1
= lim ax · = ax · lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= ax · f 0 (0).

That is the rate of change of any exponential function is proportional to the function
itself. Here the constant of proportion of f 0 (0). Now let e satisfy equation (??). Then
f (x) = ex and
eh − 1
f 0 (x) = ex · lim = ex .
h→0 h
x
We have thus shown that if y = e , then

d x
e = ex . (2.1)
dx

We shall talk more about the derivative of the exponential function later.

The Product Rule

Let f and g be differentiable. Then h(x) = f (x)g(x) is differentiable and moreover

d d d d
h(x) = f (x)g(x) = f (x) g(x) + g(x) f (x).
dx dx dx dx

Proof. Suppose f and g are differentiable at x0 . Then

f (x) − f (x0 ) g(x) − g(x0 )

f 0 (x0 ) = lim and g 0 (x0 ) = lim
x→x0 x − x0 x→x0 x − x0

exist. From the definition of derivative of a function,

h(x) − h(x0 ) f (x)g(x) − f (x0 )g(x0 )

h0 (x0 ) = lim = lim
x→x0 x − x0 x→x0 x − x0
f (x)g(x) − f (x0 )g(x) + f (x0 )g(x) − f (x0 )
= lim
x→x0 x − x0
(f (x) − f (x0 ))g(x) (g(x) − g(x0 ))f (x0 )
= lim + lim
x→x0 x − x0 x→x0 x − x0
(f (x) − f (x0 )) (g(x) − g(x0 ))
= lim g(x) · lim + lim · lim f (x0 )
x→x0 x→x0 x − x0 x→x0 x − x0 x→x0

Since f and g are continuous, limx→x0 g(x) = g(x0 ) and limx→x0 f (x0 ) = f (x0 ) and

39
therefore

(f (x) − f (x0 )) (g(x) − g(x0 ))

h0 (x0 ) = lim g(x) · lim + lim · lim f (x0 )
x→x0 x→x0 x − x0 x→x 0 x − x0 x→x0
(f (x) − f (x0 )) (g(x) − g(x0 ))
= g(x0 ) · lim + f (x0 ) · lim
x→x0 x − x0 x→x0 x − x0
0 0
= g(x0 )f (x0 ) + f (x0 )g (x0 ).

Thus h0 (x) exists and since x0 is arbitrary, we get h0 (x) = g(x)f 0 (x) + f (x)g 0 (x) and the
product rule is established.

The Reciprocal Rule

1
Ig g is differentiable, the h(x) = g(x)
, g(x) 6= 0 for all x, is differentiable and moreover,

g 0 (x)
h0 (x) = − .
(g(x))2

Proof. Suppose g(x) is differentiable at x0 . Then

1 1
0 h(x) − h(x0 ) g(x)
− g(x0 ) g(x0 ) − g(x) 1
h (x0 ) = lim = lim = lim .
x→x0 x − x0 x→x0 x − x0 x→x0 g(x)g(x0 ) x − x0

Hence by the laws of limits

g(x0 ) − g(x) 1 g 0 (x0 )

h0 (x0 ) = lim lim =−
x→x0 x − x0 x→x0 g(x)g(x0 ) (g(x0 ))2

by continuity and since x0 is arbitrary, the result is established.

The Quotient Rule

Let f and g be differentiable. Then h(x) = fg(x)(x)

, g(x) 6= 0 for all x, is differentiable and
moreover,
f 0 (x)g(x) − f (x)g 0 (x)
h0 (x) = .
(g(x))2

Proof. Let f and g be differentiable and h(x) = fg(x)

(x)
, g(x) 6= 0 for all x. Writing h(x) as
1
a product, h(x) = f (x) · g(x) , we apply the product rule to get
   0
0 0 1 1
h (x) = f (x) · + f (x) ·
g(x) g(x)

40
and by the reciprocal rule

g 0 (x)
   
0 0 1
h (x) = f (x) · + f (x) · − .
g(x) (g(x))2

Simplifying this gives the result.

The Chain Rule

If f and g are differentiable and F (x) is the composite function defined as F (x) =
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)), then F (x) is differentiable and moreover,

F 0 (x) = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x).

In Leibniz notation, if y = f (u) and u = g(x) are both differentiable functions, then

dy dy du
= · .
dx du dx

Proof. Let ∆x be change in x. Then the corresponding change in y is ∆y = f (a + ∆x) −

f (a). According to the definition of derivative, we have

∆y
f 0 (a) = lim .
∆x→0 ∆x

∆y
Let  = ∆x
− f 0 (a). Then
 
∆y 0 ∆y
lim  = lim − f (a) = lim − f 0 (a) = f 0 (a) − f 0 (a) = 0.
∆x→0 ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x

∆y
i.e.  → 0 as ∆x → 0. Also  = ∆x − f 0 (a) =⇒ ∆y = f 0 (a) · ∆x +  · ∆x. Hence for any
differentiable function f, we can write

∆y = f 0 (a) · ∆x +  · ∆x where  → 0 as ∆x → 0. (2.2)

Now suppose u = g(x) is differentiable at a and y = f (u) is differentiable at b = g(a).If

∆x is the increment in x and ∆u and ∆y are the corresponding increments in u and y
then be equation (2.2), we can write

∆u = g 0 (a) · ∆x + 1 · ∆x = (g 0 (a) + 1 )∆x where 1 → 0 as ∆x → 0. (2.3)

∆y = f 0 (b) · ∆u + 2 · ∆u = (f 0 (b) + 2 )∆u where 2 → 0 as ∆u → 0. (2.4)

41
Substituting equation (2.3) into equation (2.4), we get

∆y = f 0 (b) · ∆u + 2 · ∆u = (f 0 (b) + 2 )(g 0 (a) + 1 )∆x (2.5)

so that
∆y
= (f 0 (b) + 2 )(g 0 (a) + 1 ).
∆x
Now 1 , 2 → 0 as ∆x → 0. Therefore

∆y
F 0 (a) = lim = lim (f 0 (b) + 2 )(g 0 (a) + 1 )
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0
= lim (f (b)g (a) + f 0 (b)1 + g 0 (a)2 + 1 2 )
0 0
∆x→0
= lim f 0 (b)g 0 (a) + lim f 0 (b)1 + lim g 0 (a)2 + lim 1 2
∆x→0 ∆x→0 ∆x→0 ∆x→0
0 0 0 0
= f (b)g (a) + f (b) lim 1 + g (a) lim 2 + lim 1 lim 2
∆x→0 ∆x→0 ∆x→0 ∆x→0
= f 0 (b)g 0 (a) + 0 = f 0 (g(a))g 0 (a)

which establishes the chain rule.

2
Example 4. Differentiate y = ex . We see that F (x) = f (g(x)) where f (x) = ex and
g(x) = x2 . We have seen that f 0 (x) = ex therefore by the chain rule

2
F 0 (x) = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) = ex · 2x.

Remark 1.12. Recall that for a > 0, we have a = eln a . Hence by the chain rule

d x d x ln a dy du
a = e = ·
dx dx du dx
dy du
where y = eu and u = x ln a. Now du
= eu and dx
= ln a. Therefore

d x
a = eu ln a = ex ln a ln a = ax ln a.
dx

We have therefore shown that if y = ax , then

dy
= ax ln a.
dx

More generally, suppose that f is differentiable and y = af (x) , a > 0. Then one can show
that
dy d
= y ln a f (x).
dx dx
Indeed, following the same process as above,

d f (x) d f (x) ln a dy du
a = e = ·
dx dx du dx

42
 dy du d
y = eu and u = f (x) ln a. Now du
= eu and dx
= ln a dx f (x). Therefore

d f (x) d d
a = eu ln a = ef (x) ln a ln a f (x) = y ln a f (x).
dx dx dx

Hence if a = e, then y = ef (x) and then

dy d
= y f (x).
dx dx

Corollary 1.13. If f is bijective and differentiable at a point x0 , then f −1 (the inverse

of f ), is differentiable at x0 and moreover

1
(f −1 )0 (x0 ) =
f 0 (f −1 (x 0 ))

provided f 0 (f −1 (x0 )) 6= 0.

Proof. We have that f (f −1 (x)) = x. Differentiating both sides we get

d
f (f −1 (x)) = 1.
dx

We apply chain rule to the left side to get

d
f (f −1 (x)) = f 0 (f −1 (x))(f −1 (x))0 = 1
dx

and the result follows by dividing both sides by f 0 (f −1 (x)).

Remark 1.14. We can also proof the power rule by using the chain rule for n a rational
number. Indeed, let n be a rational number. i.e. n = pq , p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0. We note that
in this form q can be chosen to be positive but p can have either signs. We observe that
 p q
xp = x q

and therefore differentiating both sides, and applying the chain rule, we get

p−1 d p d  pq q  p q−1 d  p 
p− pq d  pq 
px = x = x =q x q · x = qx
q · x .
dx dx dx dx

Hence
p d  pq  d  pq  p pq −1
pxp−1 = qxp− q · x ⇐⇒ x = x
dx dx q
which proofs the power rule when n = pq .

43
Logarithmic Functions

dy 1
Let y = f (x) = loga x. Then dx
= x ln a
for a > 0.

Proof. We recall that if y = loga x then x = af (x) . We then differentiate both sides, by
applying remark (1.12) to get

d d f (x) d
(x) = a = af (x) · ln a · f (x).
dx dx dx

Therefore substituting x = af (x) , we get

d
1 = x · ln a · f (x)
dx

and hence
1 d dy
= f (x) = .
x ln a dx dx

Remark 1.15. If a = e, the Euler number, then f (x) = ln x and sine ln a = ln e = 1 we

get that
1 d
= f (x).
x dx
More generally, if y = loga (g(x)) where g is differentiable function, then g(x) = ay .
Therefore by the same procedure as above,

d d y dy dy
(g(x)) = g 0 (x) = a = ay · ln a · = g(x) · ln a · .
dx dx dx dx

Thus
g 0 (x) dy
=
g(x) ln a dx
and when a = e, we get y = ln(g(x)) and then

g 0 (x) dy
= .
g(x) dx

Example 5. Find f 0 (x) if f (x) = ln |x|. Hence or otherwise show that

1 eh − 1
lim (1 + x) x = e, x 6= −1 and lim =1
x→0 h→0 h

where e is the Euler’s number.

44
We see that
( ( (
1 1
ln(x) , x > 0 , x>0 , x>0
f (x) = =⇒ f 0 (x) = x
−1
= x
1
ln(−x) , x < 0 (−x)
, x<0 x
, x<0

Thus f 0 (x) = x1 for all x ∈ R.

Now f 0 (1) = 1 and by definition and the fact that f (x) = ln |x+1|, x 6= −1 is continuous,

f (x + 1) − f (1)
1 = f 0 (1) = lim
x→0 x
ln |x + 1| − ln |1| ln |x + 1| − 0 ln |x + 1|
= lim = lim = lim
x→0 x  x→0 x x→0 x
1 1
= lim ln |x + 1| x = ln lim |x + 1| x
x→0 x→0

We then exponentiate both sides to get the first result. We observe that if n = 1/x, then
n → ∞ as x → 0+ . Hence
 n
1 1
lim (1 + x) x = lim 1 + = e.
x→0+ n→∞ n

It is also evident from the proof that

ln |x + 1|
lim = 1. (2.6)
x→0 x

For the second result, if we make the substitution x = eh − 1 in equation (2.6), we have
that h → 0 as x → 0 and hence

ln |x + 1| ln(eh ) h
1 = lim = lim h = lim h .
x→0 x h→0 e − 1 h→0 e − 1

Thus
eh − 1
lim =1
h→0 h
and problem is solved.
Quick Practice 1. 1. Show that for x > 0, it is true that
 x n
lim 1+ = ex
n→∞ n

2. Differentiate y with respect to x in the following;

(a) y = ln(x3 + 1)
3 +1
(b) y = ex

(c) y = log10 (x3 + 1)

45
 (d) y = ln(ln x + x)

(e) y = log2 (ln x + x)

Logarithmic Differentiation

We illustrate this with an example. The basic idea is to take logarithm of both sides
of the equation, apply rules of logarithms to write the complicated function as sums of
logarithm functions and use the results above to obtain your derivative.
Example 6. Differentiate
3√
x 4 7 x2 + x − 5
y= .
(3x + 2)5
Taking loge of both sides, we obtain

3 1
ln y = ln x + ln(x2 + x − 5) − 5 ln(3x + 2).
4 7

We then differentiate to get

y0 3 2x + 1 3
= + − 5 ·
y 4x 7(x2 + x − 5) 3x + 2

and therefore
3√
x 4 7 x2 + x − 5 3
   
0 3 2x + 1 15 2x + 1 15
y =y + − = + −
4x 7(x2 + x − 5) 3x + 2 (3x + 2)5 4x 7(x2 + x − 5) 3x + 2

Derivative of Trigonometric Functions

The functions f (x) = sin(x) and g(x) = cos(x) are differentiable and moreover

d d
(sin(x)) = cos(x) and (cos(x)) = − sin(x)
dx dx

Proof. By definition

df f (x + h) − f (x) sin(x + h) − sin(x)

= lim = lim
dx h→0 h h→0 h
sin(x) cos(h) + cos(x) sin(h) − sin(x)
= lim
h→0 h
sin(h) cos(x) cos(h) − 1
= lim + lim sin(x)
h→0 h h→0 h
= cos(x)(1) + sin(x)(0) = cos(x)

In a similar way, we can differentiate cos(x) to get − sin(x) and we leave that as an

46
exercise to the reader.
Remark 1.16. All the other trigonometric functions are derived from these two. Hence
their derivatives can also be obtained from these two. For instance since y = tan(x) ⇐⇒
sin(x)
y = cos(x) , we can use the quotient rule to differentiate y = tan(x) to get y 0 = sec2 (x)
Quick Practice 2. 1. Show that
d
(a) dx
(csc(x)) = − csc(x) cot(x)
d
(b) dx
(sec(x)) = sec(x) tan(x)
d
(c) dx
(cot(x)) = − csc2 (x)

2. Differentiate
tan(x) − 1
y=
sec(x)

Implicit Differentiation

An example of implicit function is x3 + y 3 = 6xy. Here we can think of y as a function of

x. To differentiate implicit functions, we use the chain on y. Lets illustrate this with an
example. If y 2 + x2 = 25, find y 0 . We differentiate both sides of the equation

d 2 d
(x + y 2 ) = 25 = 0
dx dx

and by the chain rule

d 2
(x + y 2 ) = 2x + 2yy 0 = 0.
dx
0 0
Solving for y , gives us y = − xy .
Quick Practice 3. 1. If x3 + y 3 = 6xy, show that

2y − x2
y0 =
y 2 − 2x

2. Find y 0 given that sin(x + y) = y 2 cos(x).

Derivative of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

We recall that y = sin−1 (x) ⇐⇒ sin(y) = x when y ∈ [− π2 , π2 ]. We shall use implicit

differentiation to find y 0 . Using the chain rule, we differentiate both sides of sin(y) = x
to get y 0 cos(y) = 1. Therefore
dy 1
= .
dx cos(y)

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We are not quite done yet. Observe that since sin(y) = x, we have that
q √
cos(y) = ± 1 − sin2 (y) = ± 1 − x2 .

Now since cos(y) ≥ 0 for y ∈ [− π2 , π2 ], we can only take the positive so that cos(y) =
√
1 − x2 . Hence
d 1
(sin−1 (x)) = √ .
dx 1 − x2
In the same way we can show that

d 1
(cos−1 (x)) = − √ .
dx 1 − x2

More generally, suppose f (x) is differentiable on its domain. Then y = sin−1 (f (x)) ⇐⇒
sin(y) = f (x) when y ∈ [− π2 , π2 ] and thus y 0 cos(y) = f 0 (x). Hence

d f 0 (x)
(sin−1 (f (x))) = p .
dx 1 − (f (x))2

Quick Practice 4. 1. Let f (x) be a differentiable function and let y = tan−1 (f (x))
for y ∈ (− π2 , π2 ). Show that
dy f 0 (x)
= .
dx 1 + (f (x))2

2. Find the derivatives of the the following

1 √
y= −1 and y = x tan−1 ( x).
sin (x)

Higher Derivatives

If f (x) is differentiable, then f 0 (x) is also a function which may be differentiable. If 0 (x)
has a derivative of its own, we denote it by f 00 (x). This new function is called the second
derivative if f (x) because it is a derivative of the derivative of f (x). In Leibniz notation,
the second derivative is written as

d2 y
 
d dy
= 2.
dx dx dx

Another notation is f 00 (x) = D2 f (x). If y = f (x), we write

dn y
y (n) = f (n) = n
= Dn f (x)
dx

as the n-th derivative , n ∈ Z+ .

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Quick Practice 5. 1. If f (x) = x1 , show that

(−1)n n!
f (n) =
xn+1

2. Find the second derivative of x4 + y 4 = 16

3. Find D27 cos(x)

4. Find y 00 if y = xecx

5. Find y 0 and y 000 of y = arctan(x cos(x))

1.17 Curves Defined by Parametric Equations

Consider the curve, C(t), below.

y

C(t) = (x, y) = (f (t), g(t))

x = sin(t) + 12 cos(5t) + 14 sin(13t)

y = cos(t) + 12 sin(5t) + 14 cos(13t)

It is impossible to describe the curve C by an equation of the form y = f (x). But the
x, y-coordinates of the curve are functions of t so we can write x = f (t) and y = g(t).
Definition 1.18 (Parametric Equations/Curve). Suppose that x and y are both given
as functions of a third variable t, (called a parameter), by the equation

x = f (t) and y = g(t)

called parametric equations. As t varies, the point (x, y) = (f (t), g(t)) varies and
traces out the curve C(t) which we call parametric curve.

For the curve C(t), its parametric equations are the functions x and y to the right.
Example 7. The graph of the parametric equations x = t − sin(t) and y = 1 − cos(t) for
0 ≤ t ≤ 2π is

49
 y

This curve is called the Cycloid. The general form of a parametric equation of a cycloid
is x = r(t − sin(t)) and y = r(1 − cos(t)) where r is some positive number.
Remark 1.19. Normally the parameter t is restricted. In generally, the curve with
parametric equations

x = f (t) and y = g(t); a≤t≤b

has initial point (f (a), g(a)) and terminal point (f (b), g(b)).
Quick Practice 6. 1. Identify the curve whose parametric equations are

x(t) = t2 − 2t; y(t) = t + 1.

2. Find a parametric equation to the curve x = y 4 − 3y 2 .

Derivative of Parametric Equations

Let x = f (t) and y = g(t) be parametric equations of a curve. Let y = F (x) be the curve
when the parameter is eliminated. Then substituting x = f (t) and y = g(t), we obtain

g(t) = F (f (t)).

So by the chain rule, we have

g 0 (t) = F 0 (f (t))f 0 (t).

Dividing through by f 0 (t), we get

g 0 (t)
F 0 (f (t)) = .
f 0 (t)

We have thus derived the derivative of the parametric equation as

dg dy
dy dt dg dt dy dt dy dt
= df
= · or = dx
= ·
dx dt
dt df dx dt
dt dx

provided that f 0 (t) 6= 0.

Remark 1.20. In passing we see that the curve will have a horizontal tangent when

50
dy dx
dt
= 0 and a vertical tangent when dt
= 0. We say more about this in later sections.
dy
If we now replace y by dx
in the above, we get

d dy
 
 
d dy dt dx d dy dt
= dx
= ·
dx dx dt
dt dx dx

Therefore the second derivative of a parametric equation is given by

d2 y
 
d dy dt
2
= ·
dx dt dx dx

dy d y 2
Example 8. Find dx and dx 2 for the cycloid x = r(θ − sin(θ)) and y = r(1 − cos(θ)).
dx dy
Now dθ = r(1 − cos(θ)) and dt = r sin(θ). Therefore

dy r sin(θ)
= .
dx r(1 − cos(θ))

Also    
d dy d sin(θ) 1
= =−
dθ dx dθ 1 − cos(θ) 1 − cos(θ)
and therefore

d2 y 1 1 1
2
=− · =−
dx 1 − cos(θ) r(1 − cos(θ)) r(1 − cos(θ))2

Quick Practice 7. For the parametric equations x = t2 ; y = t3 − 3t, show that

d2 y 3(t2 − 1)
=
dx2 4t3

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