4 Marine Steam Engineering

International Maritime Institute, Greater Noida
CHAPTER I (STEAM ENGINES)
CARNOT CYCLE
T-S DIAGRAM P-V DIAGRAM
• Carnot cycle is considered to be most efficient cycle in which all the heat is supplied at a
fixed temperature and all the heat is rejected at a lower fixed temperature. The cycle
thus consists of two isothermal processes joined by two adiabatic processes.
• As all the processes are reversible, the adiabatic processes are also isentropic and the
cycle can be conveniently represented on Temperature (T) – Entropy (s) diagram as
shown in the sketch.
• Process 1 to 2 is isentropic expansion from T1 to T2.
• Process 2 to 3 is isothermal heat rejection.
• Process 3 to 4 is isentropic compression from T2 to T1.
• Process 4 to 1 is isothermal heat supply.
• ȠCarnot = 1 - T2 / T1.
• The pressure of the gas changes continuously from p4 to p1 during isothermal heat
supply and from p2 to p3 during isothermal heat rejection.
• In practice it is more convenient to heat a gas at constant pressure or volume, hence

Carnot cycle remains a theoretical cycle.
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• From the P-V diagram, the net work output of the cycle can be given by the area 12341
which is very small in comparison to large work outputs of expansion process given by
area 412BA4 and compression process given by area 234AB2.
• The ratio of net work output to the gross work output called the work ratio is low. The
Carnot cycle despite of having high thermal efficiency has low work ratio is thus not
practicable.
APPLICATION OF CARNOT CYCLE FOR STEAM PLANT

• If Carnot cycle is used for steam plant, then as per T-s diagram the condition of steam at
state point 3 is wet corresponding to temperature T2.
• It is difficult to stop the condensation at point 3 and then compress to state point 4. It is
more convenient to allow the condensation process to proceed till completion.
• This is the deviation point from Carnot cycle to Rankine cycle which is shown in the next
slide.
• The working fluid is water at new state point d which can be conveniently pumped to
boiler which makes the cycle practical.
RANKINE CYCLE FOR SATURATED STEAM
• Process dd’ shown on T-s diagram is exaggerated.
• The temperature of water is raised in the boiler corresponding to its pressure which is
shown by the process d’a.
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• The completed Rankine cycle is represented by the diagram abcdd’a on T-s diagram.
• The P-V diagram shows two cycles as given below.
• The work done in the engine or turbine is represented by the area FBCE.
• The area EDAF is representing the work of feed pump which is negative because the
work must be put into the pump.
• Hence Work done / cycle = Area ABCD
• Using the steady flow equation and neglecting changes in potential and kinetic energy,
we get
• Specific work = Area FBCE = hb-hc
• Feed pump work / unit mass = Area EDAF = (PB-PC) νD
• Net work done per cycle = (hb-hc) - (PB-PC) νD
• Heat transfer required in the boiler to convert the water from state point d’ to state
point b = hb - hd’.
• Total energy of water entering the boiler at d’ = Enthalpy of liquid at d + Work of feed
pump, thus hd’ = hd + (PB-PC) νD
• Thus, heat transfer required in the boiler = hb – [hd + (PB-PC) νD]
• = (hb – hd) - (PB-PC) νD
• Thermal efficiency of the cycle = Work done per cycle / Heat received per cycle = [(hb-hc)
- (PB-PC) νD]/ [(hb – hd) - (PB-PC) νD]
• Neglecting the small work done on pump, Ƞ = (hb-hc) / (hb – hd)
• Thus Rankine cycle is a mechanical cycle which is used to convert the pressure energy of
steam into mechanical energy using turbines.
• In a Rankine cycle the components used are the turbine, condenser, pump and the
boiler.
• The water is heated up in the boiler and converted to super heated steam and sent to
the turbine.
• The exhaust from the turbine is converted to liquid in the condenser and is pumped
back to the boiler for heating up again.
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MODIFIED RANKINE CYCLE
• In steam plants, mainly using steam engines, the steam is not completely expanded
down to condenser pressure. There is a pressure drop at constant volume down to
condenser pressure as shown by AB on P-V diagram and as ab on T-s diagram.
• This early release causes a drop in thermal efficiency because energy received is the
same but the work done is reduced.
• The extra volume of the cylinder required for producing small amount of extra work
shown by the area ABC on the P-V diagram is not justifiable. This is achieved by
shortening the piston stroke thereby reducing the cycle time but the engine can
produce more power by increasing the number of strokes per minute and having
increased mean effective pressure.
• The cycle with early release is called modified Rankine cycle.
RANKINE CYCLE FOR SUPERHEATED STEAM
• The figure represents the Rankine cycle

when superheated steam is used instead of
saturated steam.
• The difference between the two cycles is

the inclusion of superheat line bc and the
complete cycle is now represented by abcdee’.
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• The thermal efficiency has the same form as before.
• Rankine Ƞ = (hc-hd) / (hc – he)
• There is little gain in thermal efficiency as a result of using superheated steam instead of
using saturated steam. The main advantages of superheated steam are : -
• There is little or no condensation loss in transmission.
• There is greater potential for enthalpy drop and hence for the work done.
• By using superheated steam, Rankine cycle has an advantage over Carnot cycle as the
final temperature of steam is above the constant saturation temperature of the boiler.
• The Rankine will have a high work ratio because the net work done per cycle is very
close to positive work done per cycle as the feed pump work is very low in comparison
the work done by the steam engine or turbine.
• The Rankine cycle will have a higher work ratio than the Carnot vapour cycle.
REHEAT CYCLE
• A Reheat cycle is used to increase the efficiency of the same Rankine cycle by reheating
the exhaust steam from one turbine after part utilization of steam which is once again
heated and utilized in the second turbine.
• In modern steam turbine plants, the pressure ratio through the turbine is large, thus the
superheated steam supplied becomes wet after partial expansion.
• Wet steam passing over the turbine blades for long time periods causes corrosion and
erosion problems. To avoid this trouble, the superheated steam after partial expansion
in the turbine is passed back to the boiler for reheating at constant pressure but to high
temperature.
• It is then passed back to the second turbine for further expansion and this dry and
superheated steam largely eliminates the corrosion and erosion of turbine blades.
• Apart from preventing the damage to turbine blades, reheat cycle slightly improves the
plant efficiency also.
• In the reheat cycle the exhaust from the high pressure turbine (first stage turbine) is
reheated using a re-heater and sent back to the low pressure turbine (second stage
turbine). This in turn increases the efficiency of the cycle.
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• Regenerative condenser used in the system further improves the cycle efficiency by
heating the condensate using partly separated exhaust steam from the low pressure
turbine to an optimum level. Re-generation process requires less heat has to be applied
to the boiler & results in increased cycle efficiency.
• Referring to the
diagram, process 1-2
represents isentropic
expansion in high
pressure turbine and 6-7
represents isentropic
expansion in low pressure
turbine.
• The steam is
reheated at constant
pressure by returning the
steam to boiler and
heated is reheat tube
bank or separate reheater
near the turbine and
process is represented by
2-6.
• Heat supplied = Q451 + Q26
• Neglecting the feed pump work, Q451 = h1 – h3
• Q26 = h6 – h2
• Work output = -W12 - W67 where W12 = h1 – h2 and W67 = h6 – h7
• Cycle efficiency = (-W12 - W67)/(Q451 + Q26) =[(h1 – h2 ) + (h6 – h7)]/[(h1 – h3)+(h6 – h2)]
ADVANTAGES OF STEAM TURBINE

1. Steam turbine being a rotary heat engine, it is particularly suitable for driving rotary machine
like an electrical generator.
2. Thermal efficiency of a steam turbine is usually higher than that of a reciprocating engine.
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3. Very high power-to-weight ratio as compared to reciprocating engines.
4. Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines.
5. Steam turbines are suitable for large power plants.
6. Steam turbine can be statically & dynamically balanced with far less vibration than a
reciprocating engine.
7. Steam turbines have greater reliability and require limited maintenance in comparison to
steam engines.
DISADVANTAGES OF STEAM TURBINE

• Although 90% of electricity generation worldwide is by use of steam turbines, they also
have following disadvantages.
1. Relatively high overall cost.
2. Steam turbines are less efficient than reciprocating engines at part load operation.
3. They have longer startup time than reciprocating engines.
4. Less responsive to changes in power demand in comparison to reciprocating engines.
DISADVANTAGES OF STEAM ENGINES

• Due to following disadvantages, steam engines have lost their popularity in comparison
to steam turbines.
1. Maintenance is extensive due to more moving parts.
2. Steam engines are less efficient as compared to turbines.
3. They are more prone to vibration due to unbalanced reciprocating masses.
4. They have low power to weight ratio.
5. They are not suitable for very large power.
6. They are more prone to thermal distortion due to quick reversal of inlet and exhaust.
• However, they had advantages like slow speed operation, reversibility, shorter startup
time, efficient part load operation, quick response to change in load etc.
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CHAPTER II (LAYOUT OF PLANT)
SIMPLE STEAM CYCLE
• The cycle represents the steam plant of a steam ship where boiler mainly consumes
boil-off gas from LNG cargo as fuel to generate superheated steam which is supplied to
turbo-generator and main turbine.
• In some of the main turbines, exhaust steam from high pressure turbine is passed
through reheater before admitting in low pressure turbine.
• The exhaust steam from both the turbines goes to the main condenser maintained
under vacuum where it is condensed.
• When the main turbine is not in operation, exhaust steam from the turbo-generator is
led to auxiliary condenser.
• The condensate is extracted by condensate pump and sent to the deaerator and
supplied to boiler with feed pump through feed water heaters.
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LAYOUT OF STEAM SHIP
• The sketch shows the arrangement

of engine room on a steam ship.
• Two boilers are seen with their

force draft fans, de-aerating feed tank and
boiler uptake carrying exhaust gases.
• Steam passes from boiler to turbo-

generator and also to high pressure turbine
and then to low pressure turbine from
which it exhausts to the condenser below.
• High and low pressure turbine drive

the propeller shaft through reduction gear.
• Entry to the engine room is from the

main deck level and proceeds down the
ladder to the boiler room on the operating
flat forward of the boilers.
• The boiler room is at the topmost

engine room where boiler furnaces are
located. The ship is typically equipped with
two boilers.
• The fuel oil is stored in bunker tanks built into the ship's hull in several locations. It is
transferred daily from these bunker tanks to the FO settling tanks in the engine room by
the FO transfer pump. The transfer pumps are located at floor level.
• From the settling tanks, the fuel is delivered to the boiler furnaces by the FO service
pumps, via strainers and heaters.
• The air needed for combustion of the fuel is supplied to the furnaces by the forced-draft
fans, which are located above the boilers.
• Most of the steam produced in the boilers is passed to the propulsion turbines via the
throttle valves operated from the main console. The propulsion turbines are divided into
two separately encased units consisting of high-pressure (HP) turbine and the low-
pressure (LP) turbine, through which the steam passes in series.
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ELEVATION OF A TYPICAL STEAM SHIP
• From the settling tanks, the fuel is delivered to the boiler furnaces by the FO service
pumps, via strainers and heaters.
• The air needed for combustion of the fuel is supplied to the furnaces by the forced-draft
fans, which are located above the boilers.
• Most of the steam produced in the boilers is passed to the propulsion turbines via the
throttle valves operated from the main console.
• The propulsion turbines are divided into two separately encased units consisting of high-
pressure (HP) turbine and the low-pressure (LP) turbine, through which the steam
passes in series.
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PLAN OF STEAM SHIP AT OPERATING PLATFORM
• The turbine shafts spin too fast to drive an efficient propeller. The usual way to reduce
the turbine shaft speed is with a reduction gear, which also serves to combine the
power produced by the HP and LP turbines.
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• The power output of the reduction gear is provided to the propeller through thrust
bearing.
• The forward part of the propeller shaft is supported by several steady bearings. The
propeller forces the ship through the water by developing a thrust, which is transmitted
along the length of the shaft to the thrust bearing, and finally transferred to the hull of
the ship.
• Steam is supplied to turbo-generators which consists of a steam turbine, a reduction

gear, and an electric generator. The electricity produced is distributed through
switchboards to meet all of the ship's electricity requirements, including the motors,
lighting, and control equipment in the engine room.
• Exhaust steam from the propulsion turbines flows to the main condenser, below the LP
turbine, and exhaust steam from the turbo-generators flows to the auxiliary condensers.
• In the condensers, the steam is condensed on the outsides of tubes, which are kept cool
by seawater, supplied by the circulating pumps. These pumps draw the water from the
sea chests located at floor-plate level, which are open to the sea.
• The condensation of the steam is made to occur under vacuum, which is maintained by
the air ejectors provided on the operating level.
• The resulting condensate is drawn out of the condensers, against this vacuum, by the
condensate pumps.
• Miscellaneous drains, mostly from heaters, collect in the atmospheric drain tank, from
which it is drawn by the drain transfer pumps to join the flow from the condensate
pumps.
• This combined flow passes to the first-stage feed heater and then to the de-aerating
feedwater heater. From the de-aerating feed heater, the feedwater flows to the feed
pumps mounted on the lowest level, which pumps it to the boilers. The feed pumps are
often driven by steam turbines, rather than electric motors.
• All bearings require lubrication and cooling. Some bearings, like the steady bearing for
the propeller shaft is self contained. Propulsion turbine bearings, the main reduction
gear and thrust bearing are served through main lubricating oil system.
• Lubricating oil collects in a sump below the reduction gear from which it is drawn by the
LO service pumps and supplied to bearings and gear teeth through strainers and LO
cooler for lubrication. LO is also supplied for control / governing system. LO is also
pumped to a LO gravity tank from which the oil flows to the bearings and gears in
blackout condition to prevent their damage.
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PLAN OF STEAM SHIP AT FLOOR LEVEL
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• The LO purifier, LO settling tank, and the LO storage tank are all associated with this
system.
• Compressed air is used for many purposes onboard ship, including numerous control
systems supplied from the control-air compressor via the control-air receiver and dryer.
• Air for other purposes is supplied from the ship's-service air compressor and receiver.
Steam ship is equipped with a large sized diesel generator for starting up the steam
plant.
• The distilling plant / evaporator / freshwater generator / desalination plant is used to

produce freshwater from the sea. Some of the freshwater produced is stored in the
distilled water tank, for use as make-up feed to compensate for losses from the steam
cycle.
• The rest of the freshwater is stored in the potable water tanks, for washing, cooking,
and drinking. The potable water is distributed for use throughout the ship by
hydrophore system.
• Refrigeration and air-conditioning machinery comprising of compressors, receivers,

condensers with associated pumps and heat exchangers are fitted for provision
refrigeration and air conditioning for crew's quarters.
• The space at the bottom of engine room, below the floor plates are called bilges. Bilge
pumps are fitted to empty water which accumulates in these bilges. Bilge water is
passed through oily water separator before being discharged overboard.
• Ballast pumps are fitted to move water into and out of designated ballast tanks in order
to maintain the stability of the ship and to control its draft and trim. Bilge and ballast
systems are equipped with vacuum priming system.
• Fire pumps are fitted to supply seawater to hydrants throughout the ship.
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CHAPTER III (TYPES OF STEAM TURBINES)
STEAM TURBINE
• Steam turbine is very useful machine which can convert large fraction of heat energy
into mechanical work by expansion in the steam turbine. Steam turbines are widely
used where large power is required at steady speed.
• Steam turbines of large capacity operating at fairly high pressures have high thermal
efficiency.
• Turbine is ideal from mechanical view point as propelling force is directly applied to the
rotating element requiring very less components as against reciprocating engines.
• Being a rotary machine, it can be balanced both statically and dynamically, which is an
essential requirement as it rotates at very high RPM where a small out of balance mass
can cause huge vibration resulting in premature failure of turbine components.
• Turbine blades receive repeated impulses from the steam and thus the turbine is able to
provide a uniform torque and does not require a flywheel as in case of a reciprocating
engines.
• Steam turbines do not require any internal lubrication thus there is no risk of
contamination of feed water by lubricating oil and no filtering is required.
• As the steam turbines operate at high RPM, they are very compact and especially useful
on ships in reducing the dead weight of the ship thereby allowing more cargo capacity.
• As efficiency of steam turbine is much less than diesel engines, steam turbines do not
find much application on ships except on liquefied gas carriers where they provide a
unique advantage of consuming the cargo boil off gas in boilers for providing ships
propulsion and electric power generation applications.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF STEAM TURBINE

• Unlike steam engine, steam is partially expanded in nozzle where certain amount of its
heat energy is converted into kinetic energy due to this drop in pressure.
• The high velocity steam is made to impinge on the blades mounted on the disc. Steam
thus undergoes a change in direction and hence a change in momentum thereby
causing a force to drive the turbine disc.
• The drop of steam pressure may be in one stage as in simple impulse turbine or in many
stages as in compounded turbines.
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• If the steam pressure at inlet and outlet of blade is the same, such a machine is termed
as impulse turbine. When there is pressure drop across the blade caused by steam
expansion resulting in increased velocity providing additional propelling force, such
machine is called impulse/reaction turbine
SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE
• This type of turbine is termed as simple

impulse turbine because the expansion of steam
takes place in one set of nozzles only.
• Nozzles generally take the shape of

rounded entrance leading into the constriction
known as throat and having a diverging outlet or
mouth.
• The steam pressure falls from that in the

steam chest to the exhaust or condenser pressure.
Thus, the simple impulse turbine is practically
subjected to condenser pressure.
• These turbines are used for relatively small

powers and rotor diameter is fairly small but the
turbine may have very high rotational speed up to
30000 RPM.
• This type of steam turbine is used to drive a

cargo oil pump or boiler feed pump on a
conventional oil tanker.
• The casing supports the steam inlet

connection, steam chest, nozzles and exhaust
connection.
• The shaft is free to rotate in the casing and has small clearance which is sealed by gland
packing known as labyrinth seals.
• Bearings are located outside the casing to prevent the contamination of lubricating oil
by steam / condensate.
• When steam passes through the nozzle, its pressure is dropped to exhaust pressure.
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SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE
PRESSURE AND VELOCITY DIAGRAMS
• Decrease in pressure is associated

by increase in velocity.
• High velocity steam impinges on

the turbine blade which forces it to turn
and the subsequent blade comes in front
of nozzle to receive steam.
• In case of simple impulse turbine,

all the velocity energy is used up in single
stage.
• Slight drop in steam velocity may

be expected in moving blades due to
friction.
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VELOCITY COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE
• It comprises of a set of nozzles and a wheel fitted

with two or more rows of moving blades on the rotor.
• There are a number of guide blades suitably

arranged between the moving blades whose sole
purpose is to change the direction of steam without
changing the pressure or velocity of steam.
• Two row turbine is more efficient than three row

turbine. This is a common arrangement in small turbines
or used as first stage in large turbines.
• In impulse turbine, enthalpy is converted in the

nozzles and kinetic energy is increased. This kinetic
energy is shared by two or more rows of moving blades.
• Velocity compounded impulse turbine is

commonly called as Curtis stage.
VELOCITY COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINE

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• As seen from the pressure

diagram, inlet pressure drops to
exhaust pressure in the steam nozzle
and afterwards there is no further
drop in pressure.
• As seen from velocity diagram,

all the pressure energy is converted
into velocity energy in the steam
nozzle only.
• However, this energy is

utilized in stages equal to the number
of moving rows.
• Condition of steam is not

changed when the steam passes
through the fixed rows of blades. This
merely changes the direction of
steam so that it impinges correctly on
the next row of moving blade.
• There may be slight loss of

velocity energy due to friction when
steam passes from moving blades to
fixed and then again to moving blade.
PRESSURE COMPOUNDED IMPULSE TURBINES

• In this arrangement, the drop of steam pressure is split into various stages thus it is
termed as pressure compounded steam turbine.
• It is similar to arranging a number of simple impulse turbines in series.
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• The pressure compounding arrangement is also

called as Rateau Turbine.
• The nozzles are usually fitted in partition wall

called the diaphragm which separate one wheel
chamber from the next.
• The wheels are individually mounted on the

shaft and carry blades on their periphery.
• Expansion of steam takes place only in the

nozzles and the space between two diaphragms is at
constant pressure, the pressure on either side of
diaphragm is different. Maximum pressure difference
occurs in first stage thus it requires special measures to
prevent steam leakage.
• In these turbines, there is only a slight pressure drop in each nozzle with a
corresponding small enthalpy drop, giving a limited increase in kinetic energy.
• Similar to velocity compounding, there are rows of rotating blades separated by rows of
fixed blades, all stages keyed to the shaft in series.
• The rotating blades have a typical

symmetrical shape of impulse turbine.
The fixed blades will not only change the
direction of steam, but will also increase
its speed. Fixed blades in fact work as
nozzles.
• The kinetic energy at exit from the

first wheel is not lost but is carried over
to next row.
• As pressure gradually goes down,

volume will increase and thus the blade
height has to be increased towards the
low pressure side.
PRESSURE AND VELOCITY DIAGRAMS
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• Blade running clearances must be kept small in order to limit the loss of steam that
could pass the blades without performing useful work.
• It has been observed that for best economy, blade speed should be 0.23 of the steam
speed (280 m/s).
• Such a high blade velocity may present some difficulty which can be reduced by splitting
up the available energy in two or more velocity compounded turbines in series on the
same shaft.
• The total pressure is then used in as many steps as the number of wheels on the shaft.
Thus, the turbine is pressure as well as velocity compounded.
• Pressure and velocity compounding has the

advantage of allowing a bigger pressure drop in
each stage. Consequently, less stages are necessary
which results in a compact turbine for a given
pressure drop.
• The diagram shows a three stages of

pressure compounded and each stage has two
rows for velocity compounding.
• First stage nozzle is attached to the casing

whereas second and third staged nozzles are
mounted in diaphragms secured in the casing.
• Each moving disc secured to shaft carries

two rows of blades and the guide blade interposed
between them is secured in the casing. The
diaphragm and blade tips have small clearance with
shaft / casing.
• Usual practice in multistage impulse turbine is to have the first stage compounded for
velocity and have single row wheels for remaining stages.
• The use of velocity compounding in the first stage helps to achieve a large change in
enthalpy thus protecting the turbine casing and rotor from extreme conditions.
• In the remaining stages, pressure has much lower value than inlet thus there are no
chances of leakages and single wheels are preferred. The total pressure drop of steam is
divided into stages and the velocity obtained in each stage is also compounded.
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• Referring to the diagram, we can

observe that increase in velocity due to
expansion of steam in first stage nozzle is
utilized in two stages.
• Slight drop in velocity due to friction can

also be seen when steam passes through fixed
blades.
• In the second stage, steam pressure is

dropped to condenser pressure. Residual
velocity after first stage is added to velocity rise
in second stage.
• After utilizing the steam in second stage,

some velocity is lost in the condenser.
PRESSURE & VELOCITY DIAGRAMS
PURE REACTION TURBINE
• The operation of a pure reaction turbine is

described with the diagram shown.
• It consists of two nozzles mounted at the end

of the radial tube attached on a shaft through which
steam is supplied.
• As the steam expands through the nozzle,

reaction of steam leaving the nozzle starts to turn
the shaft.
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• Velocity of steam is represented by the vector AB. If CD represents the peripheral
velocity of nozzle, then ED will represent the velocity of steam relative to a fixed point at
a given instant.
• Due to change of velocity, a thrust or reaction occurs on the rotating tube in the
tangential direction. This reaction constitutes the driving force and thus such turbines
are called reaction turbines.
• This turbine was developed by Sir Charles A. Parsons, thus the reaction stage is also
called a Parsons stage. Reaction turbine is a development of pressure compounding.
AXIAL FLOW IMPULSE REACTION TURBINE
• Most of reaction turbines are actually

impulse reaction turbines where a joint
application of impulse and reaction principles
are used.
• There are a number of rows of fixed

blades attached to the casing which act as
nozzles.
• Steam undergoes a small drop in

pressure while passing through first row of
fixed blades and its velocity is somewhat
increased.
• It then enters the first row of moving blades where it suffers a change in direction and
momentum which gives an impulse on the blades.
• During its passage through the moving blades, the steam undergoes a further small drop
in pressure with a certain increase in steam velocity.
• When the steam leaves the moving blade, this velocity gives a thrust or reaction in a
direction opposite to the velocity. Thus the gross propelling force is the vector sum of
impulse and reaction.
• Thus a reaction turbine is never a pure reaction turbine but has mixed action of impulse
and reaction. The turbine is usually designed with a degree of impulse and reaction of
50% each. Both fixed and moving blades are similar in shape.
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• As seen from pressure diagram, enthalpy of

steam is partially converted into kinetic energy while
passing through steam nozzle and remaining while
passing through the turbine blades. The profile of the
blade is such that it acts as a moving nozzle.
• When steam passes through the blades, the

velocity of steam increases in relation to turbine
wheel which is not seen in velocity diagram as it
shows absolute velocities.
• When the steam leaves the blades, it still has

sufficient velocity which gives a push back / thrust to
the turbine wheel as reaction.
RADIAL FLOW DOUBLE MOTION REACTION TURBINE

• Most of the steam turbines used fall in the category of axial flow turbines where the
flow of steam is parallel to turbine axis.
• In radial flow steam turbine, the steam may be arranged to flow from the centre to
outwards or from outside towards centre and the blades are grouped in concentric rings
and attached to the side of separate discs.
• When the steam leaves the blades, it still has sufficient velocity which gives a push back
/ thrust to the turbine wheel as reaction.
• Most of the steam turbines used fall in the category are axial flow turbines where the
flow of steam is parallel to turbine axis.
• In radial flow steam turbine, the steam may be arranged to flow from the centre to
outwards or vice versa.
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• An impulse-reaction turbine requires large number of stages and the most economical
steam velocity from the blade in any stage is approximately equal to the peripheral
velocity of the blade in that stage.
• In radial flow steam turbine, the blades are grouped in concentric rings and attached to
the side of separate discs as shown in the sketch such that blades of one rotor act as
fixed blades or nozzles for the second rotor and vice versa.
• Referring to the diagram, disc A and B are attached to the shafts C and D respectively,
which operate in opposite directions. When such a turbine is used to drive electric
generators, each of the shaft C and D drives a separate alternator at the same speed
and both are run in parallel.
• Steam is admitted through steam chest E and exhausted through exhaust casing F, thus
forming the turbine casing to which bearings housing G is attached and support at the
end of both the shafts. Other end of the shafts are supported by outer bearings on the
alternators end.
• Steam enters the chest through two pipes and passes through a number of holes in the
rotor. Leakage of steam is prevented by shaft packing H (axial sealing) and labyrinth
packing J (radial sealing) respectively.
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PRESSURE AND VELOCITY DIAGRAM
• The first row of blades receives steam directly at inlet pressure as against from nozzles
as in a conventional arrangement, thus it does not receive any impulse. The velocity of
steam leaving this disc provides a reaction.
• Rest of the stages in both turbines experience both impulse and reaction forces which
rotate both the shafts uniformly.
• We can observe that pressure reduces gradually from inlet pressure to condenser
pressure in each stage with corresponding increase in velocity.
• After the first stage, velocity of steam leaving the disc gives a reaction and in
subsequent stages, velocity is used both for impulse and reaction. Velocity of steam
remaining at the end of last stage after providing thrust to last stage is lost in the
condenser.
DUMMY PISTON
• As the velocity of steam acts on the discs axially, large amount of axial thrust is
transmitted to the bearing supporting the turbine rotor.
• Dummy piston is an extension of the rotor provided in the reaction turbines for
balancing the axial thrust thereby reducing the axial loading on the journal bearings.
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• As shown in the diagram, it runs inside the dummy cylinder and packing rings are
grooved into the piston and cylinder to reduce the steam pressure acting on the cylinder
gland.
• Such a piston is usually fitted on the inlet side of the high pressure turbine and provides
a disc or collar on which Curtis stage is mounted.
• The steam acting on the reaction blades mounted on the drum shaped rotor exerts axial
thrust in the direction of steam i.e. towards the exhaust side.
• Steam after passing through the Curtis stage also acts on the collar as shown in above
sketch and balances the opposing thrust. Size of the collar is determined as per the
balance required.
27
DUMMY PISTON WITH EQUALISING PIPES
• As shown in the sketch, the objectives of these pipes is to balance the rotor axially so as
to relieve the rotor axial thrust caused by the steam force on the blades.
• This method is an alternative way to dummy piston arrangement explained earlier and is
not a very common arrangement on steam turbines.
• If pressures are equalized at forward and after ends by the connecting pipe and keeping
the areas approximately equal on which the steam acts, thrust provided by the steam
on both sides become balanced. Steam force P X A acts on both sides as pressure on
both sides is equalized by these pipes.
DOUBLE FLOW L.P. REACTION TURBINE
28
• In comparison of impulse turbines, reaction turbines produce more thrust and this is
one of the methods to balance it.
• Above sketch shows the schematic layout of a double flow turbine which is occasionally
seen on low pressure propulsion turbines which also carries astern turbine blading.
• This method is helpful in balancing the axial thrust of ahead turbine as exhaust steam
from HP turbine is supplied to the LP turbine through the crossover in the center of
turbine which is expanded on either side and discharged to the condenser from both
ends having equal pressure.
• Astern turbine is mounted on the drive end and a small thrust collar is provided on free
end to absorb the thrust produced by astern turbine. Exhaust of the astern turbine joins
the exhaust passage of ahead turbine.
• Such an arrangement is also helpful in reducing the steam leakage from forward end &
requires fewer labyrinth packings.
• LP turbines are usually of impulse type and have disc shaped rotor. Whenever reaction
turbine is used, double flow arrangement becomes necessary.
• In the following sketch, astern stages are mounted on either side of rotor which help in
equalizing the pressure on both sides and hence the thrust. Diaphragms are provided to
separate exhausts of ahead and astern turbines.
• Thrust bearing is provided to absorb thrust of astern blading.
29
DOUBLE CASING TURBINE
• Above sketch shows the schematic layout of a HP turbine which also consists of an
overhung astern turbine.
• Both the ahead and astern turbines have their separate and individual casings. Such an
arrangement is not very common in propulsion turbines as astern turbine is usually
attached on LP turbine shaft.
• When high temperature and pressure steam is used, HP turbines are usually equipped
with double casing arrangement as their design is associated with several problems and
double casing arrangement provides a solution to these problems. Such an arrangement
is shown below.
30
• As shown in above sketch, HP turbine consists of an inner and an outer casing. This is a
common arrangement in HP turbines.
• The outer casing has to be thick to resist high pressures and acts as main support girder
for turbine rotor.
• The inner casing is made to expand freely and has ability to absorb thermal stresses due
to large expansion caused by the high temperature steam.
• The inner casing is fully supported by the outer casing which acts as a support cradle.
• The inner casing is fully supported by the outer casing which acts as a support cradle.
• The outer casing is subjected to exhaust steam pressure and temperature and maintain
concentricity and alignment irrespective of expansions.
• Exhaust steam between the casings acts as a steam jacket and reduces heat losses from
the surfaces which improve thermal efficiency.
• Common arrangement of astern turbine is to have it mounted on the LP turbine shaft

both having the single casing.
31
REHEAT TURBINE
• Large capacity turbines consisting of HP, IP and LP stages usually have a reheat section.
• As shown in the sketch above, HP turbine exhaust is led to boiler for reheating and then
admitted to IP stage.
• IP stage exhaust is supplied to LP stage. Degree of reheat before IP stage is controlled so

that the dryness fraction in LP turbine is not below 88%.
• As seen in the figure, H.P and I.P. turbines are arranged as double flow turbine to
balance the little thrust produced by impulse turbine. A thrust bearing is additionally
provided.
• Large capacity turbines consisting of HP, IP and LP stages usually have a reheat section.
• As shown in the sketch above, HP turbine exhaust is led to boiler for reheating and then
admitted to IP stage.
• IP stage exhaust is supplied to LP stage. Degree of reheat before IP stage is controlled so

that the dryness fraction in LP turbine is not below 88%.
• As seen in the figure, H.P and I.P. turbines are arranged as double flow turbine to
balance the little thrust produced by impulse turbine. A thrust bearing is additionally
provided.
32
• The UST plant is a 2-stage feed water heating system based on the reheat cycle,
ensuring a simple configuration considering improved efficiency, operability and
maintainability.
• It consists of a high / intermediate pressure turbine, a low pressure turbine, a main

condenser and a reduction gear unit located in a single casing and on a single shaft.
• Contrary to a land turbine, a marine propulsion turbine requires start and stop
operation while maneuvering due to which HP/IP turbine casing is subjected to
repeated thermal loads causing severe difference between HP turbine inlet steam
temperature and LP turbine inlet steam temperature.
• This may result in uneven deformation of the casing. To prevent this, a thermal shield is
provided inside the turbine casing.
• The re-heater is designed to achieve a specified steam temperature by using the reheat
burner which stops automatically in low steam flow conditions so that the tubes are not
exposed to high temperature combustion gas.
• In this situation, there is no damaging effect on the reheater tubes because the
combustion gas temperature from the main furnace will be low. Therefore, the reheater
is thoroughly protected, simply by stopping the reheat burner. This boiler is more
reliable as there are no dampers in the gas path.
• In comparison to conventional plant where turbine operates at a pressure of 60 Kg/Cm2

and temperature 515oC, UST operates at 100 Kg/Cm2 and temperature of 560oC. There is
an intermediate pressure turbine attached between high and low pressure turbines.
33
SINGLE CYLINDER TURBINE
• This design provides a simple, low cost and economical unit with a good efficiency with
a single turbine. Ships using such an arrangement are usually twin screw.
• Above figure shows a single cylinder impulse turbine for propulsion plant.
• Reduction gear uses articulated arrangement with double reduction. The plant uses a
two pass condenser on which the turbine is mounted and discharges directly.
• Schematic layout of such an arrangement is given below.
34
SINGLE PLANE TURBINE
35
• Above sketches show the details of single plain turbine plant in which axis of the shafts,
turbines and condenser are arranged in one horizontal plane.
• This arrangement simplifies construction, reduces cost and reduces the weight to power
ratio by 35% in comparison to conventional multi plane arrangement.
• The low pressure impulse turbine exhausts axially in the condenser which minimizes
exhaust loss and increases efficiency and also reduces the plant height.
• Astern turbine mounted on the low pressure turbine also exhausts axially in the same
direction as ahead turbine. This arrangement avoids heating of the ahead blading when
running astern.
• High pressure impulse turbine consists of a large diameter first stage followed by eight
impulse stages.
• First stage has large diameter which provides high peripheral speed and high operating
efficiency irrespective load.
• The later stages are on small diameter rotor shaft due to which gland leakage is
reduced.
• Double reduction gear incorporates epicyclic planetary first stage reduction for both low
and high pressure turbine shafts.
• The condenser may have a double or single pass arrangement. Single pass arrangement
is used with scoop injection to minimise the resistance in flow.
CROSS COMPOUND TURBINE WITH GEAR & THRUST BEARING

• Most propulsion turbines are arranged as cross compound.
• Each of the high and low pressure turbine has a series of pressure compounded stages.
• High pressure turbine exhaust flows to the low pressure turbine through a crossover
pipe.
• The output of the two turbines is generally combined through gearing to drive a single
propeller.
• First stage of the high pressure turbine is called the control stage as the flow of steam is
controlled at this stage only.
• The astern stages are fitted in the low pressure turbine.
36
HP TURBINE FOR CROSS COMPUND PROPULSION SET
37
• Most of the HP and LP turbines used for propulsion set are pressure compounded
impulse turbines as shown above.
• Steam is admitted to the control stage of turbine through ahead control valve.
• Each of HP turbine disc has equalizing holes to ensure that no difference of pressure
exists across the blade row.
• The casing is rigidly fixed at the drive end while the free end is supported by a flexible
support plate to allow for the thermal expansion.
• Rotor is supported by tilted pad journal bearings and thrust bearing & overspeed
governor pump are provided on free end.
• Part of the steam is bled through extraction connection for use at other places in the
plant.
HP TURBINE WITH REACTION STAGES FOR CROSS COMPOUND PROPULSION
• HP turbine of a propulsion set may be equipped with reaction stages instead of impulse
stages as shown above.
• Two main differences being the pressure difference across the moving blades and the
control of turbine which is achieved through a Curtis stage.
38
• Passage between stationary blades act as nozzles which are attached on the inner side
of casing which is of double casing design. Casing has fixed support on free end and
flexible support on the drive end.
• Rotor of a reaction turbine is drum shaped in contrast to disk and diaphragm

construction as in case of impulse turbine.
• Rotor is supported by journal bearings and its thrust is absorbed by thrust bearing
mounted on the free end. Rotor also carries an overspeed governor pump on free end.
LP TURBINE FOR CROSS COMPOUND PROPULSION SET
• LP turbine receives exhaust steam from HP turbine through cross over. An emergency
connection is provided for operating the turbine if HP turbine is defective & isolated
from gear box.
• Astern steam is supplied to astern stage through astern control valve mounted on the
free end of the turbine.
• Rotor is supported by tilted pad journal bearings and its thrust is absorbed by thrust
bearing mounted on drive end. Rotor also carries an overspeed governor pump on the
free end.
• Grooves are provided for removal of water droplets, midway between stages as
superheated steam supplied to HP turbine may become saturated in the LP turbine.
• LP turbine is mounted on the condenser to avoid the large size exhaust pipes. Exhaust of
both ahead and astern stages is common, separated by a deflector.
39
TURBOGENERATOR
• Usually fitted on steam ships but often found on container vessels too.
• Steam for driving the turbo-generator is obtained from waste heat boiler which utilizes
the exhaust gas of main engine.
• Turbine for these generators will have fewer stages and work on low pressure of steam.
• The discs are arranged for pressure compounding.
• First stage nozzles are fitted in a plate, forming the exit of the steam chest whereas the
nozzles of the downstream stages are fitted into diaphragm attached to casing at the
periphery.
• These turbo-generators produce power in range from 500 KW ~ 2500 KW.
SHIP’S TURBOGENERATOR CIRCUIT

• Container vessels are usually equipped with a turbo-generator. The arrangement shown
has a turbo-generator and a power turbine to supply electrical power while at sea.
• Turbo-generator consists of a two stage steam turbine, utilizing high pressure

superheated steam at 6.5 Bar from HP separator and low pressure saturated steam at
3.5 Bar from LP separator.
• Gland steam to labyrinth packing is supplied at 0.5 Bar.
40
41
• Power turbine is supplied with the exhaust gas when main engine power is more than
50%. Gas turbine and steam turbine are connected through a reduction gear and clutch
and to the alternator which meets the ship’s electrical load while the ship is at sea.
• The exhaust steam leaves the turbo generator and is condensed in the turbo generator
vacuum condenser. The condenser is cooled by sea water which is supplied by two
dedicated cooling water pumps. The sea water pumps also supply the fresh water
coolers of condenser vacuum pumps.
• A flush chamber is connected to the turbo generator vacuum condenser. Steam and
condensate systems which flow to the flush chamber include:
• HP superheated dump valve (via a spray unit).
• Drain from the turbine casing.
• Drains from the turbine HP superheated steam supply line.
• Drain line from the LP steam supply line to the turbo generator.
• Drain line from the 7 bar steam main supply line to the turbo generator gland packing
system.
• Drain line from the gland packing steam receiver.
• Drain line from the main stop valve spindle seal, the regulating valve spindle seal and
the turbine shaft seals.
• The drain lines from the turbine casing and the turbine HP superheated steam supply
line are equipped with pneumatically-operated shut-off valves.
• The common drain line from the main steam stop valve spindle seal, the turbine steam
regulating valve spindle seal, and the turbine shaft seals is also equipped with a
pneumatically-operated shut-off valve.
• These shut-off valves are controlled by the turbine control system and are activated
during the turbine start and stop sequences.
• The turbo generator condensate pumps draw the water from the condenser hotwell and
discharge it directly to the feed filter tank. Normally, one pump will be in operation with
the second pump on automatic standby. The standby pump will be started by the
control system when the duty pump fails.
• The condensate pump discharge manifold is equipped with a pneumatically operated 3-

way flow control valve, which is controlled by a level sensor in the condenser hotwell.
42
The flow control valve directs the condensate to the feed filter tank or back to the
condenser to maintain the level in the condenser sump.
• This arrangement ensures that the condensate pumps do not lose suction.
• The condenser hotwell is also equipped with high and low level alarm float switches.
• A salinometer is located on the outlet line from the condenser hotwell and this will
continuously monitor the condition of the condensate as it leaves the condenser. The
salinometer will activate a high salinity alarm at the turbo generator control panel if the
salinity increases to the system set point.
• Any air leaking into the vacuum condenser system is removed by two vacuum ‘water
ring’ type pumps, which take suction from the condenser. The pumps are sealed and
cooled by fresh water which circulates from the tank through the pumps.
• Each pump system incorporates a sea water cooled heat exchanger to remove the
excess heat from the circulating fresh water. The sea water is supplied from the turbo
generator condenser sea water cooling pumps.
• The fresh water tank is equipped with a low level alarm switch and is filled via a float
operated valve from the hydrophore system.
• A condensate supply is also taken from the condensate pump discharge manifold to a
spray unit, which is located in the superheated steam dump line.
• In the event that superheated steam has to be dumped, feed water is sprayed into the
dump line spray unit in order to recover the heat from the superheated steam by
preheating the condensate.
• The condenser sea water pumps, condensate extraction pumps and the vacuum pumps
are normally set for remote operation at the pump starter panels. In this mode the
pumps are controlled from the steam turbine control panel, including the selection of
duty and standby pumps.
• Various turbo generator steam lines and condensate drains are led to the drain cooler
and these include:
• Steam from the LP dump valve.
• Condensate from the LP supply line drain separator (via a condensate trap).
• Drain from the LP supply line (via a condensate trap).
• Condensate from the HP superheated steam line drain separator (via a condensate
trap).
43
COFFIN TYPE TURBO FEED PUMP
• Single stage turbines are adequate for small applications such as turbo feed pump
where low efficiency is acceptable.
• Compared to electric motor driven feed pump, turbo feed pump will have less number
of pump stages as rotor speed is almost double.
• In this case we can obtain a variable speed and hence a variable discharge rate.
44
CARGO PUMP TURBINE
• On oil tankers the cargo pumps are often driven by steam turbines.
• A reduction gear between the turbine and pump keeps the pump’s maximum RPM
between 1700~1800 .
• Cargo pump is placed in pump room whereas steam turbine is in engine room.
• Steam turbine is connected to the pump with an intermediate shaft which is equipped
with bulkhead seal.
• Both the vertical and horizontal arrangements are possible.

45
CHAPTER IV (CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS)
TYPES OF BLADES
• Steam turbine blade material should be strong enough to resist against corrosion /
erosion and at the same time provides ease of manufacture which requires complicated
shapes to be imparted to the blade.
• Most turbine blades are ground to shape from bar stock or forge blanks with an integral
root and often an integral tenon for shrouding as shown in the sketch above.
• Blades may be produced and fixed individually or in a segment consisting of a group of

blades.
• Blades are subjected to very high centrifugal force thus they should be firmly secured to
the disc with a good root design.
• The blades are secured in the grooves machined in the rotor to a shape complementing
that of the root. They may be designed for insertion either axially or circumferentially.
• To prevent blade vibration, generally the tips of adjacent blades are attached to each
other by shrouding strip usually in groups of six or eight or by lacing ring.
STAGES OF STEAM TURBINE BLADE FABRICATION
46
• Steam turbine blades basically fall in two categories namely impulse and reaction
blades.
• Nowadays profile blading is used for impulse turbines which have replaced the old-
fashioned plate type blades.
• Profile blading is robust and efficient and they produce certain reaction effect in
addition to impulse from the steam coming from the nozzle which is achieved by non-
parallel blading pathway.
• Following sketch shows details of impulse blade.
THEORETICAL CONSTRUCTION OF IMPULSE TURBINE BLADE
• Entry and exit of steam inlet and outlet to and from the blade is symmetrical which is
equal to ϴ usually 30o.
• Draw a line from point A and B at an angle ϴ through vertical line so that they meet at
point C so that AC and BC are perpendicular to steam inlet and outlet.
• Arc AB is drawn with radius “R” from centre C which decides the inner profile of the
blade.
• Arc DE is drawn with radius “r” from centre C and lines DA and EB are joined to define
the outer profile of the blade.
47
MODERN IMPULSE BLADE
• Above sketch shows the profile of a modern impulse blade.
• Thickness of the blade inlet edge has been increased so that mechanical strength of the
blade is not impaired.
• This however causes difficulty in steam flow at inlet which is reduced by rounding the
edge and in turn improves the efficiency.
• Blade is extended at the exit which helps in guiding the steam when it leaves the blade
thereby again improving efficiency. Modern blades provide 5 to 15 % more efficiency
over symmetrical blade depending upon blade inlet angle.
REACTION BLADE PROFILE
48
• Above sketch shows the profile of a reaction blade which has an aerofoil shape. Both
fixed and moving blades have similar profile and act as nozzles.
• The path of steam between them is converging due to which there is fall in steam
pressure with a corresponding increase in absolute velocity which is used as impulsive
force to turn the moving blades in the direction of motion.
• When steam flows in moving blade, there is a fall in pressure. As the blades are moving,
a fall in absolute velocity will take place but relative velocity will increase. It experiences
a reaction due to the velocity leaving the blade which is a free nozzle effect.
THEORETICAL CONSTRUCTION OF REACTION BLADE PROFILE
• As shown above, reaction turbine blade profile can be drawn:
• Draw two parallel lines LM and PQ with perpendicular distance between them as unity.
• Draw line AC at angle ϴ2 (outlet angle about 15o) on line PQ.
• From point C, find point D such that CD = AB.
• Draw arc CE from centre D with radius AB.
• Extend BA to F, such that BF = 1.5 X AB.
• Draw line KG parallel to AE so that KB = 0.25 AB.
• Draw arc CG with radius = BF.
• Cut point H from G and E such that GH = EH = 0.5 X AB
• Draw arc GE with H as centre and 0.5 X AB as radius.

49
DETAILS OF STEAM TURBINE BLADES
• Turbine blades are made of corrosion resistant steel with integral root and integral
tenon for the shroud.
• Due to high centrifugal forces, root design is very complex.
TYPES OF BLADES ROOTS
• Blades may have various types of root fastenings which include serrated root, straddle
T, inverted T, fir tree or straddle fir tree, multi root etc. as shown in following slide.
• The tips of the adjacent blades are usually attached by a shroud in groups of 6~8 to
provide stiffness to blade against vibration.
• Blades may be mounted in segments or individually. In case of segmental blading, 8~12

blades are assembled together with distance pieces and shroud before fitting them on
the rotor.
• Number of blades are determined as per vibration consideration.
• The blade material should have good creep and fatigue resistance, high strength at high
temperature and good resistance to erosion and corrosion.
• Shrouding is helpful in reducing the tip leakage loss due to awkward shaped blades and
reducing the centrifugal stresses encountered on individual blade.
50
• Shrouding is not preferred in some turbines where blades are knife edged with small
radial tip clearance. If rubbing occurs, knife edge is worn down.
• Some of the large L.P. turbine blades are fitted with lacing wire in order to prevent
certain modes of vibrations.
• Damping wire which pass through clearance holes in the blades and have their free ends
peened over, minimize the certain vibration modes by friction between the vibrating
blade and the wire.
• Types of root design can also alter the fundamental frequencies of vibration.
METHODS OF BLADES FIXING

• Blades may be secured to the turbine rotors either circumferentially or axially.
• Circumferentially mounted blades are inserted through gateway into machined groves
on the wheel / disc as shown in the above sketch.
• Closing blade is fitted into the gate and riveted into position by an axial pin through root
and rotor.
• In this case if a blade requires renewal, several blades may have to be removed through
the gate and similar procedure is used for fixing up again.
CIRCUMFERENTIAL BLADE FIXING

51
AXIAL ENTRY BLADING
• In case of axially mounted blading, each blade is an entity, it has its own root and are
fitted singly as shown in the following slide.
• The blades are secured in the grooves, machined in the rotor to complement the shape
of the root.
• In this case, individual blade can be replaced without disturbing the other blades.
• However dynamic balancing becomes necessary whenever any repair is carried out
although routine rotor balancing is carried out at 5 year’s interval.
TYPES OF ROTORS
• Turbine rotors may be solid, hollow, built up or gashed.
• Gashed rotors are mainly used in modern turbines although some IP turbines utilize
built up construction.
• Gashed rotors are solid, allow expansion of rotor and casing and maintain closer axial
clearance as shown in above sketch.
• Inspection hole shown is not a standard feature on such rotors.

52
GASHED ROTOR
BUILT UP ROTOR
• For built up rotor, the shaft is stepped down from middle on either side and wheels are
shrunk on with keys as shown above.
53
DIAPHRAGMS
• Diaphragms provide separations between the discs and hold either nozzles or fixed
blades.
• In pressure compounded turbines, they maintain pressure difference between stages by

preventing steam leakage.
• Diaphragms are made in two parts to facilitate easy removal and fitting of turbine
casing.
• Lower half of diaphragm is supported in lower casing by two lugs resting in casing and
recessed in diaphragm.
• Upper half is supported by two plates slotting into upper joint and recessed into
diaphragm.
• Centering being done by radial keys. Adjusting screws may be provided in diaphragm for
their vertical adjustment.
• Allowance must be provided for the diaphragm in the casing for expansion and to
maintain concentricity for cold condition ask shown in the sketch.
• Present day diaphragms are of all welded construction. Nozzles are positioned by close
fitting bands which are then welded together to form a continuous structure.
54
STEAM NOZZLES
• To prevent mechanical damage to nozzles, steam entering the steam chest passes
through a strainer to trap any foreign object.
• In pressure compounded impulse turbines, nozzles rings are placed at subsequent

stages in the form of diaphragms.
• In reaction turbines, each fixed row of blades interposed as diaphragms between the
moving rows act as nozzle ring.
55
TIP SEALING ARRNAGEMENT
• To prevent the leakage of steam from a stage without its useful work, tip sealing
arrangement is provided to reduce the gap between blade tip / casing and diaphragm /
rotor.
• For tip sealing arrangement, grooves are machined on the inner side of casing for the
moving blades and on the outer side of the drum / rotor for the stationary blades.
• Sealing strips are then inserted in these grooves and caulked by inserting the caulking
strip.
• Sealing strips create resistance to the flow of steam due to fine clearance between the
two and prevent leakage on the same principle of labyrinth glands.
TURBINE GLANDS
• For preventing the steam leakage from turbine casing, glands used are always of
labyrinth type in which the steam is throttled through the passage by providing a small
clearance between stationary and rotary parts.
• The inward pointing circumferential ridges on the packing rings are not making a contact
with shaft but are separated by a small clearance.
• The series of sharp edges act as nozzles where pressure drops a little at each edge with
corresponding rise in velocity. The velocity is dissipated in eddy motion in between the
space of strips.
• Steam flow through the gland is in a zig-zag manner and the packing does not
completely stop leakage but limits it to tolerable amount.
56
• The sketch above shows the sealing arrangement of a H.P. turbine consisting of several
labyrinth packings.
• The labyrinth packing consists of sharp edges of metallic packing strips made from brass,
cupro-nickel or leaded bronze.
• In large turbines, the leak off steam along-with air is led to recovery condenser whereas
in small turbines on motor ships the steam is released to atmosphere.
• A single ring of labyrinth packing is used as inter-stage packing in the diaphragm of

impulse turbines.
57
• Rubbing between labyrinth packing and shaft can cause local surface heating which can
result in shaft bending.
• Such condition usually originates due to eccentricity of rotor causing uneven heating
specially during maneuvering.
• This can be avoided by using packing strips as thin as possible at the tips.
• Modern practice is to use spring backed gland strips as shown below.
• The sketch shown above is for an internal gland used for sealing inter-stage leakage in
impulse turbines.
• The packing strips are often in three segments which are usually caulked in and are in
two halves so that they can be removed for repair and machining without removal of
the diaphragms which are also in two halves.
• The labyrinth packing is held in the recess of the diaphragm and kept pressed by the
radial springs or leaf springs.
EXTERNAL TURBINE GLAND

• The sketch given below shows an external gland arrangement used on all turbines for
sealing the leakage between rotor and casing.
• The gland consists of a sleeve in two halves which carries the labyrinth packing strips.
• A sleeve length may carry about 15 packing rings and a HP turbine may contain up to 3
sleeves in series.
• Profiles of packing rings are similar to internal glands use the same backing
arrangement.
58
EXTERNAL TURBINE GLAND
59
• Above sketch showing the radial clearance was used in older impulse reaction turbine
for shaft gland and dummy piston on low pressure turbine end. The radial clearance
allows axial movement without affecting the clearance.
• Following sketch showing the facial or contact type of seals are used on impulse
reaction turbine for dummy piston gland seal on high pressure turbine end with end
tightened blading.
• Carbon rings glands used earlier (shown below) are rarely found in modern turbines due
to high speeds and high steam temperatures. Carbon ring are in three or four segments,
held together by garter or leaf springs and are prevented from rotation by dowel pins.
They have end clearance in the housing of 2.5 mm and radial clearance of 2.5 mm at
running temperature, should have free movement in casing and do not require
lubrication.
SPRING BACKED CARBON LABYRINTH PACKING
SELF ALIGNING JOURNAL BEARING

• Self-aligning journal bearings shown below are frequently used in marine turbines.
• The spinning shaft forces the oil between the journal and bearing shell so that the
journal floats on a thin film of oil, without metal to metal contact, thus minimizing wear
and friction.
• Babbit metal is cast into the shell.
• The spherical seating of the shell allows it to align itself with the journal even if slight
distortion has occurred.
60
• Lubricating oil is circulated by an external/attached pump from bottom to top.
• Oil deflector rings helps to maintain segregation of oil and steam.
• Most small turbines have journal bearing but without self-aligning feature.
MAIN BEARING
61
• Above sketch shows the high speed bearings used in steam turbines.
• Bearing shell is made up of bronze dovetailed to receive white metal consisting of 85%
tin, 7% copper and 8% antimony.
• 0.5 mm thick layer of white metal provides sufficient margin to bear the load and absorb
slight misalignment.
• If white metal is wiped out due to oil failure, the rotor shaft would run on safety strip
consisting of bronze specially provided for this purpose.
TURBINE JOURNAL BEARING
• The bronze shells lined with white metal is bedded with the journal and secured in
bearing housing.
• Lubricating oil is supplied through a hole in the side of bearing block to the annular
passage b from where it passes to rectangular opening c into space between journal and
bearing.
• Oil leaking from the side of the bearing is prevented by centrifugal thrower h while
baffle j serves the purpose of preventing leakage of oil to the outside and leakage of
steam inside the bearing.
• Bronze shell extends on either side of white metal lining thus forming a safety (rubbing)
strip. If white metal flows due to overheating of bearing, rotor will drop by a small
distance on the safety strip and remain supported until steam is stopped and would
prevent dangerous stripping of the blades.
62
THRUST BEARING
• Thrust bearing is designed to reduce friction by carrying thrust or axial loads. Thrust
bearings can be either plain or anti-friction bearings. The type of component supported
determines the type of thrust bearing used.
• Thrust bearing of Kingsbury or Michell type is used in small turbines and these are
termed as pivoted shoe thrust bearing.
• Thrust bearing can absorb thrust transmitted on either side from spinning of the thrust
collar mounted on the shaft through the shoes to the base ring which is rigidly
supported in the bearing housing.
• The pivots on the shoe support and leveling plates permit the shoes to tilt with respect
to collar to allow the oil wedge to be formed between the rotating thrust collar and
stationary thrust pads.
• Due to small segments, the pressure is uniformly distributed to each segment.
• This will allow a thin film of oil to be maintained between collar and babbit lining of the
shoe so that thrust is transmitted without metal to metal contact and with minimum of
friction and wear.
• The external/attached pump supplies the lubricating oil continuously.
• The clearance is obtained by jacking the shaft towards the bearing and gap is measured
between collar and the other side of segments.
63
THRUST BLOCK
• The thrust block transfers the thrust from the propeller to the hull of the ship and limits
the axial movement of shaft. Thus, it must be strongly constructed and mounted onto a
rigid seating to perform its task.
• Some axial clearance is essential to allow formation of an oil film between the collar and
the thrust pads. This clearance also allows for expansion as temperature increases
during engine operation. The clearance required depends upon dimensions of pads,
speed, thrust load & the type of oil used.
• High bearing temperature, power loss and failure can result if axial clearance is too
small. The usual method of checking thrust clearance, involves jacking the shaft axially in
one direction. Total movement of the thrust shaft is about 1 mm.
• Clearance is usually checked by measuring the shaft movement by dial gauge. Use of
feeler gauge can cause damage and may give a false reading.
• Thrust block is an independent unit of the main propulsion turbine. Both ahead and
astern thrusts must be catered for and the construction must be strong enough to
withstand normal and shock loads.
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• The casing of the independent thrust block is in two halves which are joined by fitted
bolts. The thrust loading is carried by bearing pads which are arranged to pivot or tilt.
The pads are mounted in holders or carriers and faced with white metal.
• One design has thrust pads around three/fourth of collar’s periphery and transmit all
thrust to the lower half of the casing whereas other designs employ a complete ring of
pads.
MICHELL THRUST PADS CIRCULAR THRUST PADS
• The thrust shaft is manufactured with integral flanges for bolting to the engine or
gearbox shaft and the intermediate shafting, and a thrust collar for absorbing the thrust.
• Pressurised lubrication from the engine lubricating oil system supplies oil to main
bearings. An oil scraper deflects the oil lifted by the thrust collar and directs it onto the
pad stops. The thrust of the collar is transmitted through the oil film and pads to the
casing. Excess oil overflows to sump.
• The pads are fitted radially in the inverted horse shoe castings for forward and astern
movement. These are secured circumferentially in position by a stop. Pads slightly tilt
and oil wedge is formed between collar & pads.
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CHAPTER V (LUBRICATION OF TURBINES)
FUNCTIONS OF LUBRICANTS IN STEAM TURBINES

• To entirely separate the two working surfaces in order to reduce the static and dynamic
friction to a minimum in order to prevent wear.
• To remove the heat generated within bearings or gears.
• To protect the metal against corrosion.
• To ensure cleanliness of lubricated components.
• To dampen the noise of sliding surfaces.
• Ability to perform under high stress level such as continuous / intermittent operation.
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF LUBRICANTS

• VISCOSITY
• Viscosity is the most important property which determines the flow of lubricating oil in
clearance space of the bearing surfaces. Lubricating oils should be able to retain its
viscosity within wide temperature range and should be available in various viscosity
ranges.
• ANTI OXIDATION
• This property is required to prevent deterioration of oil while in storage or in service.

During storage, process of oxidation is slow but becomes vigorous while in service.
Intensive oxidation changes the fundamental chemistry of oil and forms oxygenated
compounds like organic acids, resin, sludge, asphalt etc. Oxidation increases the
viscosity but the film strength is decreased.
• OILINESS
• It is the property of lubricating oil to adhere to the surfaces which promote the viscous
drag essential for fluid film and boundary lubrication. Under boundary lubrication the
influence of surface forces are vital.
• ALKALINITY
• To prevent the corrosion of lubricated components from acidic attack caused by

oxidized oil, lubricating oil must have reserve alkalinity to neutralize the acids formed.
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• DEMULSIBILITY
• This property denotes the ease with which an oil water emulsion can be separated.
• On ships, ingress of water can’t be completely avoided thus demulsibility is considered

to be an important property to keep oil free from contamination by water and maintain
its suitability for a long time.
• Heavy duty lubricating oils may have demulsification number 4 and may vary up to a
maximum of 8.
• FLASH POINT
• Flash point of lubricating oils should be high. This is required to prevent ignition of oily
vapours under certain faulty condition. Flash point of lubricating oils should be higher
than 200oC and they should be less volatile.
• HIGH THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
• A good lubricant should possess high thermal conductivity so that it can quickly and
efficiently dissipate the frictional heat generated due to shearing of lubricant.
• ANTIFOAMING PROPERTY
• The lubricating oils should have antifoaming property so that foam is not formed which
break down oil film strength. Foaming is caused when air mixes with oil and forms
bubbles.
• GENERAL PROPERTIES
• The lubricant should be inert and provide high degree of protection from corrosion
against environment.
• They should be cheap and easily available.
• They should have stable physical / chemical properties.
• They should be available in wide range of viscosity.
• They should have wide operational range for majority of applications.
• They should be miscible with various chemicals used as additives to provide special
property for specific application.
• They should be compatible with materials of seals/glands.
• They should be non toxic .
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SUITABLE LUBRICANTS FOR STEAM TURBINES
• ENERGOL THB 68, 100 (FROM BP MARINE)
• Energol THB is recommended for marine steam turbines and reduction gears. It is also
suitable for use in turbo-chargers. Additionally, Energol THB may be used for general
lubrication.
• MAIN PERFORMANCE FEATURES
• High oxidation stability for extended service life
• Rust inhibition
• Good demulsification properties
• Good anti-foam and air release properties
• Energol THB is fully approved by major marine steam turbine manufacturers world-
wide.
LUBRICATION OF STEAM TURBINE

• Modern trend of steam turbine lubrication is by pressure system which reduces size of
gravity tank, length of piping and reduction in oil quantity leading to considerable
economy.
• A safeguard must be provided to ensure that the bearings are not run out in the event
of oil pump failure. With gravity system, this is simple as the oil from gravity tank will
flow until turbine comes to rest.
• With pressure system, an auxiliary pump could start automatically, but this would not
be satisfactory in the event of total electrical blackout.
• A small gravity tank at a lower level may prove to be a better and safer arrangement.
GRAVITY LUBRICATION SYSTEM

• Oil is drawn from the sump via a suction/magnetic filter by pump and discharged via
filter and cooler to pressure distribution piping.
• Some amount of oil is continuously fed to gravity tanks which keep overflowing to
sump, thus keeping the gravity tanks filled up at all the time.
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• In the event of pump failure, standby pump will automatically take over. In case of
blackout, oil will flow to the distribution points through non return valve at 1.7 bar
pressure for about three minutes as emergency supply. Usual supply pressure being 3.1
bar
• Oil inlet temperature is maintained at about 46.5oC
PRESSURE LUBRICATION SYSTEM

• Oil is drawn up from sump by independent pumps.
• When turbine is started, attached pump starts building up pressure and independents
pumps are cut off.
• A small gravity tank in the top of gear case is kept always full.
• When turbine is stopped then one of the two independent pumps will start
automatically.
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• In the event of a black out when turbine RPM reduces, gravity tank supplies oil through
non return valve for about 30 minutes till then operator can start auxiliary pump or stop
the machinery.
REASON FOR FAILURE OF TURNINE BEARINGS

• Main reason for the failure of turbine bearings is loss of lubricating oil during blackout
condition when electrical pump is off and turbine speed is reducing. As a back-up, a
gravity tank is provided which supplies oil until turbine comes to rest.
• Other reason of failure may be due to contamination of lubricating oil either by water or
solids caused due to inefficient purification. Sea water in oil can damage the white metal
in bearings.
• Excessive water in oil results in emulsification of oil which increases the viscosity and
load bearing capacity of the bearings resulting in its damage.
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CARE AND TESTING OF LUBRICATING OILS
• Reliability of a machinery also depends on the quality of lubricating oil as the lubricating
oil gets contaminated continuously while in service.
• Wear debris are continuously discharged in service which may result in serious
breakdowns if oil quality is not monitored.
• Lubricating oil of large systems is continuously purified by centrifuges or filtration

whereas lubricating oil in small systems is renewed after specified operating hours as
recommended by the manufacturer.
• Condition of the lubricating oil is regularly evaluated for its continued use. Few easy
tests can be carried out on ship but for complete analysis, one has to depend on the
shore based laboratories.
• Following tests are considered necessary to check the important properties of

lubricants.
1 Viscosity which is a measure of the resistance of a liquid to flow, commonly known as

thickness of an oil.
2 Insolubles, a test carried out to find the contamination of lubricating oil by total solids
such as dirt, oxidation products and metal wear debris.
3 Base Number is a measure of the reserve alkalinity of an engine oil and its ability to
neutralize harmful acids.
4 Acid Number Tests the acidity of the oil. Certain oils have an inherent acidity level
related to their additive chemistry.
Increasing acidity may be indicative of the presence of organic acids derived from oil
oxidation. This test is usually carried out when reserve alkalinity is low.
5 Water percentage for the contamination by water which can lead to bearing failure and
formation of emulsion.
6 PQ Index which provides a quantitative assessment, for the amount of ferrous wear
debris in the sample.
7 IR Oxidation is an Infrared method to assess the oxidation by the change in molecular

structure which occurs during the oils ageing process.
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8 Elemental analysis in PPM for typical sources such as :-
Aluminium Bearings
Antimony Bearings
Calcium Lubricant derivative
Chloride Sea water contamination
Copper Bearings, gears, oil coolers etc.
Lead Bearings
Magnesium lubricant derivative
Nickel Bearings
Potassium Salt Water
Phosphorus Lubricant derivative
Silicon Dust, dirt, lubricant derivative
Silver Bearings
Sodium Salt water, coolant / fuel derivative
Tin Bearings
Zinc Lubricant derivative
• From the above listed tests, viscosity of used oil can be compared with a fresh sample of
oil on board.
• Percentage of water can also be measured by the onboard supplied kit.
• Rest of the tests are carried out in approved testing labs by sending the oil sample at
every three months interval.
• History of the oil is maintained in chronological order for the purpose of comparison.
72
CHAPTER VI (REDUCTION GEARS)
GEAR RATIO
• The gear ratio also known as speed ratio is the ratio of the angular velocity of the input
gear to the angular velocity of the output gear.
• The gear ratio can be computed directly from the numbers of teeth of the various gears
that engage to form the gear train.
• Gear ratio also define the torque ratio or the mechanical advantage of the gear train
which is inversely proportional.
TYPES OF GEARS
SPUR GEARS
• Spur gears are the most common type of gear.
• Spur gears have teeth that run perpendicular to the face of the gear.
SPUR GEARS HELICAL GEARS
HELICAL GEARS
• Helical gears are similar to spur gears except that the teeth are not perpendicular to the
face but at an angle to the face, giving more tooth contact in the same area.
• Helical gears can also be used on non-parallel shafts to transmit motion and tend to run
quieter and smoother than spur gears due to the increased number of teeth in constant
contact at any one period of time.
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HERRINGBONE GEARS
• Herringbone gears resemble two helical gears that have been placed side by side and
are often referred to as "double helicals".
• One benefit of herringbone gears is that it helps to avoid issues related to side thrust
created with the use of helical gears.
HERRINGBONE GEAR BEVEL GEARS
BEVEL GEARS
• Bevel gears are used mostly in situations that require power to be transmitted at right
angles.
• Bevel gears can have different angles of application but tend to be 90°.
WORM GEARS
• Worm gears are used to transmit power at 90° and where high reductions are required.
• The worm resembles a thread that rides in concaved or helical teeth.
WORM GEARS FACE GEARS SPROCKET
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FACE GEARS
• Face gears transmit power at right angles in a circular motion and are not very common
in industrial application.
SPROCKET
• Sprockets are used to run chains or belts. They are used where the drive shaft is at a
considerable distance away from driven shaft which otherwise will require several idler
gears.
HUNTING TOOTH
• The term hunting tooth is used to represent a non-exact gear ratio. This arrangement is
helpful in providing a uniform wear of gear teeth.
• The concept of timing belt is also similar as the number of teeth in a toothed or timing
belt in a mechanical drive system is independent of the numbers of teeth on the gears
with which it is meshing and is preferably a prime number.
• With this relationship, every tooth on the belt will engage every tooth on a gear while in
operation in a progressive repeating series thus equalizing wear and minimizing damage
to the belt from repetitive engagement with any deformed or defective gear tooth.
• It is useful in drive systems to eliminates intermediate or idler gears required to mesh

gears at distance as shown below.
TIMING BELT
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GEARING ARRANGEMENTS
• Various gearing arrangements as described below are used in marine steam turbines
depending on type and size of machinery.
SINGLE REDUCTION GEARING

• These are mainly used for turbine driven alternators and cargo oil pumps where turbine
RPM is low to moderate.
• Single reduction gearing have a restriction of gear ration of 30 : 1 for limiting the size of
gear.
• Following sketch shows the arrangement of single reduction gearing.
DOUBLE REDUCTION GEARING

• Double reduction gearing is commonly used where turbine speeds go up to 7000 RPM. A
typical double reduction gear ratio could be 66 : 1 having turbine RPM of 6600 with
propeller RPM of 100.
• However, for slow speed propulsion using large propeller, triple reduction gearing is
employed for turbine RPM of 6000 or above.
• Double reduction gear can have articulated, interleaved and locked train arrangements.
Two arrangements of interleaved design are shown below.
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INTERLEAVED DOUBLE REDUCTION GEARING
• In interleaved gearing, primary wheels straddle the secondary wheels which makes
them compact.
• However, such an arrangement makes the gearing inspection and fitting / alignment
difficult.
• On the other hand, articulated gearing allows easier removal of individual trains and
gives greater flexibility in carrying out alignment.
• Following sketch shows an articulated arrangement.
ARTICULATED DOUBLE REDUCTION

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TRIPLE REDUCTION GEAR
• This system is used with large diameter slow running propellers (80 to 95 RPM) as they
have high propulsion efficiency which however is partially offset by slight reduction in
gearing efficiency.
• Stal-Laval turbine using this system had HP turbine had star gear for first reduction
(6000/1400), planetary for second reduction (1400/400) and parallel shaft pinion to bull
gear for third reduction (400 / 80 RPM).
• LP turbine had double reduction from 4200/700 and 700/80 as shown in the following
sketch.
• sk
TRIPLE REDUCTION GEARING
EPICYCLIC GEARING
• Main difference between parallel shaft gears and epicyclic is of the axis whether fixed or
movable.
• In parallel shaft gears, the axis are fixed whereas in the epicyclic at least one axis moves
relative to another fixed axis.
• An epicyclic gear consists of a sun wheel on the central axis, an internally toothed ring
called the annulus, planet or star wheel carrier and planets or star wheels which revolve
on spindles attached to the carrier.
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STAR GEAR PLANETARY GEAR
• Various gear ratios are possible with same basic arrangement when different items are
used as input, output and fixing.
• This arrangement can give speed reductions of 3:1 to 12:1 depending upon relative gear
wheel dimensions.
GEARING CONSTRUCTION
• In earlier designs, main gear wheel was of cast iron fitted onto the shaft taper, keyed
and secured by a large nut. Wheel rims were shrunk on and secured axially by screws or
keys.
• Modern gear wheels consist of steel web plates welded to gear wheel tyre and hub.
Automatic electro-slag welding technique is used on preheated tyre and webs. After
welding the structure is stress relieved and inspected by X-ray and magnetic crack
detection process. The steel gear wheel centre is and butted against the shaft collar nut
without any taper.
• The wheel tyre or rim is fabricated of hardened steel with composition :- Carbon – 0.4%,
Silicon 0.3%, Manganese – 1.5%, Molybdenum – 0.3% having UTS of 780 MN/M2.
• Pinions could be of forged with composition :- Carbon – 0.15%, Silicon 0.2%, Manganese
– 0.6%, Nickel – 3%, Chromium – 1%. Molybdenum – 0.15% having UTS of 1000 MN/M2
and case hardened to a depth of about 2 MM.
GEAR DEFECTS
• Defects in gears can arise due to improper alignment, inadequate running in period,
poor quality of lubricating oil, incorrect heat treatment, shock loading, vibration, bad
surface finish etc.
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PITTING
• New gear teeth have surface roughness of

which high and hard spots carry the initial load.
Local intense cyclic loading results in sub surface
fatigue cracks. Lubricating oil entered can create
intense hydraulic pressure resulting in removal of
metal particles from the surface of gears leaving
pits on gear surface.
• SCUFFING OR SCORING
• Breakdown of oil film between the teeth

results in metal to metal contact leading to local
fusion or welding. It is caused by high temperature
generated by the friction. As the sliding continues,
welded metal torn apart and tooth surface is
damaged. It is usually found on the softer of the
two gears in contact.
• Scuffing can be easily identified by the dull

and rough surface in comparison with the
unaffected surface.
INTERFERENCE WEAR
• If the roots and tips of the gear teeth do not have clearance, then the tip of harder gear
can dig into the root of the softer gear causing the wear of the root.
• ABRASIVE WEAR
• Solid particles in the lubricating oil can get embedded in the teeth surface and cause
scoring of the meshing teeth. Grooving of the tooth surface in the direction of sliding
can be observed in this defect.
• FLAKING
• This defect is restricted to the case-hardened gears and is caused due to poor heat
treatment together with excessive stress beyond the yield point. Flakes of the hardened
metal break away from the surface due to high load.
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• PLASTIC FLOW
• Local stresses tend to form a wave in the metal which rolls ahead of the point of contact
resulting in sub surface fatigue failure resulting in forming ridges or removal of flakes
sheared from the surface.
FLEXIBLE COUPLING
• Flexible coupling is used to prevent transmission of axial movement to pinion caused by
temperature changes.
• Flexible coupling also allows for slight misalignment between drive & driven shafts
caused by the wear of bearing or change in position of their pedestals.
• The main purpose of these couplings is to keep the turbine rotor at correct axial position
relative to the casing.
GEAR / CLAW TYPE FLEXIBLE COUPLING
• These couplings are mainly of claw or gear type although gear type is more preferred
due to more number of teeth in contact.
• The meshing teeth have very limited relative movement. To prevent their wear caused
by metal to metal contact, extreme pressure lubricant is used.
• Excessive lubrication can cause damage to turbine by providing axial movement to the
shaft hydraulically.
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MEMBRANE TYPE FLEXIBLE COUPLING
• Membrane type flexible coupling are simple in construction, reliable and less expensive
than the gear type.
• These are easy to assemble, require no lubrication and thus increasingly used.
• They allow considerable axial movement and give reduced gear tooth loading for equal
transverse misalignment compared to tooth type.
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QUILL SHAFT
• Above sketch shows the construction of quill shaft which is helpful in reduction of
weight, provides greater flexibility in absorbing misalignment and is also useful in
altering the shaft stiffness due to hollow tube thus construction and changes the
vibration characteristics at various speed ranges.
• The gear teeth have involute profile and its several features are similar to gear type
flexible coupling.
• Quill shaft coupling is used in locked trains and articulated gear sets. This design offers a
gearing efficiency of 98 % at full power.
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CHAPTER VII (CONDENSERS)
CONDENSER
• A condenser is a vessel in which the vapour’s latent heat is removed so as to change to
its liquid state, usually by cooling at constant pressure.
• In surface condensers, steam enters at an upper level, passes over the tubes in which
cold sea water circulates, falls as condensate to the bottom and is removed by a pump.
• The construction of condensers is similar to that of other tubular heat exchangers, with
size variation extending up to the very large regenerative condensers for main
propulsion steam turbines.
• Some smaller condensers may have U tubes arrangement for a two-pass flow and free
expansion and contraction of tubes.
TUBE EXPANSION ARRANGEMENT
• The cooling water for straight tube condensers, circulates in one or two passes, entering
at the bottom and leaving the top. In scoop injection system, cooling water has single
pass flow. A cast iron or steel water box is fitted at each end of the shell.
• Between the flanges of the shell and water boxes, tube plate of admiralty brass (70% Cu,
29% Zn, 1% Sn) is sandwiched. Holes are drilled in the tube plate to accommodate
cupro-nickel (70% Cu, 30% Ni) or Aluminium brass (76% Cu, 22% Zn, 2% Al) tubes of 16-
20 mm outside diameter.
• Straight tubes can be expanded into the tube plates at both ends or expanded at the
outlet end and fitted with soft packing at the other end, or fitted with soft packing at
both ends. An expansion allowance is provided where tubes are expanded into tube
plates at both ends, may take the form of a shell expansion joint. Tubes are prevented
from sagging by a number of mild steel tube support plates.
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SHELL EXPANSION ARRANGEMENT
• A baffle plate at the entrance to the steam space, prevents damage from the direct
impact of steam on the tubes.
• Access doors are provided in the water box end covers of very large condensers for
routine inspection and cleaning, with one or more manholes in the shell bottom for the
same purpose.
• Corrosion by galvanic action is inhibited by zinc or mild steel sacrificial anodes or

alternatively, impressed current protection may be used. Dezincification of brasses may
be prevented by additives, such as 0.04% arsenic, to the alloy.
• Tube failure is likely to be caused by corrosion / erosion arising from entrained air in, or
excessive speed of, circulating water. Failure could otherwise be from stress / corrosion
cracking or dezincification of brass tubes. Defective tube can be temporarily plugged.
SAFE ASSEMBLY PACKING FOR CONDENSER TUBES
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• Condensers are generally designed to withstand low pressure and are liable to burst in
case of failure of the coolant.
• To prevent the rupture of condenser, its shell is equipped with a safety device in the
form of a safety valve or bursting disc which will release the excessive pressure.
• Waste pipe is led to atmosphere through the funnel which otherwise could fill engine
room with steam.
• Safety valve is considered superior to bursting disc, as the operation of condenser can
be resumed automatically once the coolant supply is restored. In case of bursting disc,
the ruptured disc has to be renewed before resuming the operation. Bursting disc also
needs periodic inspections as the material can lose its strength due to fatigue and may
fail at lower force than designed.
• Steam is expanded through the turbine to the lowest pressure in order to extract the
maximum work by maintaining vacuum in the condenser.
• Function of the condenser is to condense exhaust steam from low pressure end of the
turbine to as low a pressure as possible.
• The effective operation of a condenser requires that the sea water is colder than the
saturation temperature of the exhaust steam which results in under cooling of
condensate. Degree of under-cooling should be minimum to reduce the fuel
consumption and improve efficiency.
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• To avoid this thermal loss, condensers are built with regenerative ability in which part of
the steam is led below the tube banks. Steam then flows up between the tubes and
meets the condensate from the main part of the exhaust, dripping from the tubes.
• Condenser shell is maintained under vacuum in order to extract the maximum work
from steam.
• Usually air ejectors are used to create vacuum in the condenser however in small units
vacuum pump can also be used.
• Air extraction line between the condenser and air ejector is equipped with a swing
check valve whose purpose is to prevent the backflow of extraction fluids. In case the
swing check valve remains stuck in open position, vacuum can’t be created.
• The under-cooled condensate falls through this steam atmosphere and heat transfer
occurs resulting in negligible under-cooling in the final condensate.
• The condensate, dripping from the tubes, may be below the saturation temperature
corresponding to the vacuum, by as much as 5°C, initially.
• The de-aeration in the condenser is also related to under-cooling. The amount of oxygen
which can remain in water droplets below the saturation temperature is dependent on
the degree of under-cooling.
• Theoretically at the saturation temperature, no gas will remain in the condensate. One
method of reducing the degree of under-cooling when sea water temperature is low is
to re-circulate and operate the condenser at the design point.
LOCATION OF CONDENSER
CONDENSER ARRANGEMENTS
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• Regenerative condenser of the underslung or hung type of one or two pass is usually the
integral of L.P. turbine. Condenser is supported from L.P. turbine by combination of
beams and spring type chocks from below.
• Alternatively, the condenser may be completely hung from the support beams which
also support the weight of the L.P. Turbine. In this type of arrangement, drainage of
condensate into the well located at the bottom causes a little problem.
• In case of single plain turbines, single or double pass axial flow type condenser
supported on four points is used which allows for expansion without affecting the
turbine. Drainage is a serious trouble in this design.
• Modern condensing plants use a dry bottom which does not have water well at the
bottom. In such a case condensate will get sub-cooled and extraction pump should be
capable of running dry for some period.
AXIAL PLANE CONDENSER
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TUBE CLEANING
• The most important item in the care of condenser is to keep it clean from inside.
• Best condenser efficiency is found when sea water temperature difference is about 6oC
or condensation temperature starts increasing above 30oC.
• For cleaning the dirty condenser, sea water is isolated and water boxes are removed.
• Tubes are cleared of marine growth and cleaned by brushing through the tubes and
then rinsing with water.
• At the same time sacrificial anodes are inspected / renewed if found wasted to protect
the system from galvanic corrosion.
• Water boxed are fitted back and flow of cooling water is started to check for any
leakage.
LEAKAGE DETECTION
• A leak in the condenser is indicated by high salinity measured in the condensate and a
rapid drop in pH of boiler water. One of the following three methods are used for leak
detection.
• ULTRASONIC METHOD
• An ultrasonic generator placed in condenser floods it with ultrasonic sound. By using a

headset and probe, leakage can be easily identified as the leaky Thinned (leaky) tube
will vibrate and produce sound.
• FLUORESCENT METHOD
• Condenser shell is filled with water containing a dye which will penetrate into the leaky
tube and a minute leakage can be detected clearly in the presence of ultra violet light.
However large leakage can be seen visually.
• VACUUM METHOD
• Shell is kept under vacuum and tube ends are covered by plastic sheets. A leaky tube
will pull the sheet indicating a leakage. Alternately froth can be applied at the tube ends.
Froth will be sucked and will not stay at on the leaky tube thus revealing of the leakage.
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• CONVENTIONAL MEHOD
• Usual method adopted on the ship is to remove the water boxes on both sides revealing
the tubes ends at the tube plates. Condenser is then completely with water and slight
pressure is applied. Application of pressure on the water in the shell will force it to
penetrate into the leaky tube. Leakage can be easily viewed from the tube ends which
can be easily arrested by fixing tube plugs at both the tube ends.
PLUGGING OF A CONDENSER TUBE

• A leaky or ruptured condenser tube is isolated from the intact tubes by plugging them.
Plugging of a tube results in loss of condenser efficiency however up to 20 % of the
condenser tubes can be plugged as per classification society rules.
• Brass taper plugs are provided by manufacturer or can be made on ship from brass rod.
• For putting a plug, inside of the tube ends is thoroughly cleaned with a steel brush or
emery paper so that no deposits are present in the tube. Plugs are then inserted into
the tube ends and hammered in lightly without damaging tube plate.
• After the repair shell is filled up and slightly pressurized to check the leakage.
• End covers are then fitted and operation resumed.
CONDENSER TUBES RENEWAL

• Classification society require that tube renewal is essential when more than 20% of a
type of tubes have been damaged. Until then the damaged tubes can be plugged and
condenser operation resumed.
• Tube renewal is a specialized job and is beyond the scope of ship’s crew. When plugged
tubes are in excess of 15%, planning is made in advance to procure the tubes and
renewal job is synchronized with ship’s drydock or repair lay-up and classification
society is accordingly informed.
• Technicians are called for tube renewal. Old tubes are drifted and new tubes are
secured by expansion and bell mouthing.
• Condenser is tested for leaks in the presence of surveyor and after his satisfaction,
condenser is taken into service.
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NEED FOR MAINTAINING VACUUM IN CONDENSER
• As per Rankine cycle, condition for maximum efficiency is to have maximum steam
temperature / pressure at inlet and minimum at exhaust.
• Thus, when we want to obtain mechanical work from steam, steam should be supplied
to the turbine at highest pressure and temperature.
• Maximum attainable steam pressure is 221 Bar at critical point which is practically not
suitable for operation of steam engine. Usual steam operating pressure is about 100 Bar
at which saturated steam temperature is 311oC.
• Saturated steam is not suitable for use in turbine as it causes erosion and corrosion of
blades and casing respectively, steam is thus superheated to a temperature of 550oC. In
the steam turbine, only the sensible heat can be utilized to produce work.
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• After expansion in turbine, steam is exhausted in condenser to recover the water for
reuse.
• Referring to the diagram, saturated steam at 100 Bar is superheated to 550oC along the
line AB.
• Steam may be expanded in atmospheric condenser along the line BC’ or in vacuum
condenser along the line BC. Ordinates CD and C’D’ respectively indicate of the enthalpy
remaining in steam when expanded to atmospheric pressure or vacuum.
• The difference DD’ indicates about the extra utilization of steam when it is expanded
below atmospheric pressure. Thus, lower the exhaust pressure, more will be the plant
efficiency.
• Thus, we must aim to maintain the lowest pressure in the condenser. Usually 95%
vacuum can be easily maintained in condenser which is also dependent on sea water
temperature.
• Quantity of circulating sea water is dependent on maximum sea water temperature

(35oC) which also lowers the maximum attainable vacuum (90.4%) and the
corresponding condensate temperature (44.6oC).
• Usually sea water inlet temperature is maintained at 21oC by recirculation to prevent

under-cooling at which 95.6% vacuum can be maintained. Condenser outlet
temperature is 28oC and corresponding condensate temperature is 30.8oC.
• Velocity of cooling water is restricted to 2.5 m/sec to prevent the possibility of

impingement attack. Cooling water velocity below 1.0 m/sec should be avoided which
provides laminar flow in the tubes and thus reduces the heat transfer.
FACTORS INFLUENCING CONDENSER EFFICIENCY

• Plate type heat exchanger consisting of Titanium plates should be considered for
increasing heat transfer rates by providing turbulent flow and yet preventing the
erosion of metal.
• Tube dimension is important as smaller diameter tubes provide large heating surface
area but are prone to fouling. A typical size could be 19 mm outside diameter with 18
wire gauge.
• Regenerative condenser prevents under-cooling & improve efficiency.
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CAUSES FOR LOSS OF VACUUM IN THE CONDENSER
• Vacuum in condenser will drop if drain valves are left open or are partially leaking.
• Drop in gland steam pressure will result in ingress of atmospheric air and loss of
vacuum.
• Drop in vacuum may also be due to low steam pressure at the air ejector/ dirty nozzle or
a faulty vacuum plant. A stuck non return valve, specially provided to prevent back flow,
will also result in loss of vacuum.
• Vacuum may also be low due to leaky safety valve or a partly ruptured bursting disc.
• Failure of cooling water in the condenser will result in instant loss of vacuum and safety
valve or bursting disc may operate.
• Rise in cooling water temperature is also responsible for reduction of vacuum.
• Leaking condenser water box division plate causing by-pass in two pass condensers.
• Rise in level of condenser due to failure of extraction pump or level control system.
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CHAPTER VIII (OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE)
TURBINE DRAIN SYSTEM

• Draining the condensate from steam turbine during stoppage and before its operation is
most essential. Accumulation of condensate in the casing, steam chest, governor valve
or exhaust can cause corrosion of blades, nozzles, valve components or the casing.
• For the purpose of draining condensate, turbine is equipped with several drains valves
which should be left open after stopping the turbine and before it is restarted. Low
pressure turbine without reheat connection also suffers problem of condensation which
must be removed from the drains provided within the casing.
• On steam ships, the quantity drained condensate is large thus there exists a complete
system with a drain transfer pump to recover the drained condensate for reuse.
However, the quantity of drained condensate on motor vessel is considerably small thus
the drains are led to bilges.
ASTERN TURBINE DRAIN SYSTEM

• Astern movement of the turbine is used either during manoeuvering or during crash
astern.
• As such there is no separate astern turbine however two rows of astern blading are
mounted on low pressure turbine.
• During the normal operation of ahead steaming, astern blading is just idling with a
possibility of condensate accumulation in its casing which can cause corrosion of the
casing and damage to turbine blades/rotor.
• Thus, there is a need to keep the astern casing drained during its idling operation.
• Drains pipes are equipped with orifices so that drain remains clear and there is no loss
of the steam. This can alternately be achieved by using steam traps.
GLAND SEALING STEAM ARRANGEMENT

• Sketch given below shows the gland sealing steam arrangement of a propulsion turbine
whose purpose is to prevent the steam leakage from turbine to atmosphere and
prevent entry of air in turbine at all times.
• High pressure end of HP turbine has three inner gland pockets and one sealing pocket.
All other glands have one inner pocket and one sealing pocket.
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• While maintaining vacuum in condenser, sealing steam is supplied through control valve
“A” at 1.35 bar to inner gland pockets.
• Under running up condition, steam leaks from the inner pockets of HP turbine and
forward inner pocket of LP turbine.
• At full load there is an excess of steam from the inner pockets which is bled off through
the overflow valve, automatically operating at a pressure of 2.2 bar.
• Excess steam then passes to gland steam condenser to remove the air. Steam is
condensed by feed water thus absorbing the latent heat of steam.
• Steam leakage from inner pockets to outer sealing pockets also passes to gland steam
condenser.
• Sealing steam is gradually opened and adjusted such that steam leakage from the
turbine just ceases.
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WARMING UP OF PROPULSION TURBINE
• Warming up depends on age and design of turbine & type of ship.
• All main valves between boiler and HP turbine up to main warming valves are opened
while gland steam, auxiliary heating and manoeuvring valves are shut.
• Heating rate should be controlled so that inlet temperature of the LP turbine reaches to
75oC after one hour. If the turning gear was in use then now it may be disengaged.
• Gland steam of pressure 0.35~0.5 bar is used and vacuum is raised rapidly, turbine may
be turned a few revolutions on steam. This must be done in ahead direction unless
astern becomes essential to prevent mooring difficulties.
• The warming through valve is now closed and ahead manoeuvring valves opened
slightly. Turbine should be turned under steam at two minutes intervals for 15 minutes.
Vacuum should be maintained at 0.34 bar.
• Drainage is very important to avoid distortion. All drains must be kept clear and should
not be closed until the turbine has been rotating for several minutes.
• Auxiliary exhaust steam entering main condenser should be reduced to minimum at

stand by periods.
• During prolonged astern running, LP turbine expansion indicators should be closely

watched and its casing temperature should not exceed 250oC and exhaust space should
not exceed 120oC.
STARTING PROCEDURE OF CARGO OIL PUMP TURBINE

• Before starting the cargo oil pump turbine, the auxiliary boilers should be operating in
automatic mode with one boiler selected as master and the other as slave. One main
feed pump operating and the other main feed pumps selected for standby.
A. Ensure that the adequate number of generator engines are running and connected to
the switchboard.
B. Check the vacuum condenser sea water system valves are set up correctly and start the
vacuum condenser sea water pump. Vent the condenser at the inlet casing and note the
electrical load, suction and discharge pressures.
C. Start one condensate pump and select standby for the other.
D. Check the cooling water for the air ejector condenser.
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E. Check the steam & condensate valves for the air ejector & open the steam inlet valve to
the vacuum condenser air ejector.
F. Ensure the COPT main steam line, governor, turbine casing and gland steam line drain
valves are open.
G. Open the gland steam inlet valve to the COPT, adjust the manual valve as required to
achieve a pressure of 0.4-0.5 bar.
H. Open the COPT exhaust valves to the condenser and check all automatic drain trap
valves are open.
I. Close all manual drain valves except for the COPT casing when draining of any
condensate is over.
J. Switch on the COPT control panels and accept all alarms and reset trips.
K. Check the COPT sump oil levels and start the COPT LO pumps in automatic control.
L. Check cooling water supply to lubricating oil coolers.
M. Check that the speed controls for the pumps in the cargo control room are in the
MINIMUM speed positions.
N. Confirm that there is a vacuum in the condenser.
O. Open the main steam to vacuum condenser dump valve isolating valves and set the
dump pressure controller to 15.0 bar.
P. Gradually open the COPT steam inlet valve until the turbine is just rotating.
Q. Check the turbine for abnormal noise and vibration.
R. Close the turbine manual drain valves after making sure that any condensate has been
completely discharged from each drain line.
S. Continue to open COPT steam inlet valve until the steam control valve becomes
operational. The minimum governor setting should regulate the turbine speed to 100-
200 rpm. Test the emergency trip operation and restart the turbine.
T. Again, check the turbine for abnormalities and continue to run at minimum speed; allow
the turbine to warm through for 15 minutes.
U. Open the COPT steam inlet valve fully, the control valve should maintain the speed level
at approximately 700 rpm.
V. Adjust the gland steam pressure to maintain 0.4 to 0.5 bar using the minimum required
to prevent visible outward leakage.
W. Check that the electric lubricating oil pump has stopped.
X. The boiler IG mode should be selected 15 minutes before cargo discharge commences.
Confirm that the master boiler is firing at a minimum of 30% load with any excess steam
being dumped to the vacuum condenser. The O2 content of the gas delivered to the
deck main should be less than 5%.
Y. Confirm with the chief officer that the cargo control room has control of the turbines.
Cargo pump turbines are controlled from the console in the cargo control room, but
operation of the turbines must also be monitored by engine room staff to ensure that
they are operating correctly under remote control, without undue leaks and vibrations.
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• The duty engineer is also responsible for the correct operation of the boilers and the
inert gas system.
• When the plant is in service a full IG and Cargo Plant Log should be taken at regular
intervals.
• Although the operation of the emergency trip for each COPT is tested each time the
turbine is initially started.
• It remains good practice to test the activating devices for the trip valves at frequent
intervals.
STARTING PROCEDURE OF TURBOGENERATOR

• When the vessel is at Full Away on Bridge Control, exhaust gas economiser is cold with
exhaust gas inlet valve closed and bypass valve open.
• Ensure there is a cooling sea water supply to turbo-generator condenser/vacuum pump

coolers
• Supply cooling water to the economiser HP and LP circulating pumps.
• Ensure economiser feed water pumps are in service, supplying HP and LP drums.
• Ensure one set of circulating pumps (HP and LP), are running and other pumps as
standby.
• Check that steam is being supplied to both the HP and LP drum heating coils.
• Ensure that the steam dump valve is ready for operation.
• Set auxiliary boiler control system to economiser back-up.
• As main engine load increases above 30%, check that exhaust inlet and bypass valves
change over.
• As engine load increases, so will economiser output and boiler load will reduce.
• General service steam is being supplied by the exhaust gas economiser.
• Start turbo-generator auxiliary lubricating oil pump, supply LT cooling water to LO

cooler.
• Start turning gear and open gland steam to the turbine.
• Start turbo-generator vacuum pumps, gland condenser fan and condensate pumps.
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• Ensure that the steam dump valve is ready for operation.
• Warm-through the turbo-generator in line with the manufacturer’s instructions.
• Start the turbo-generator and confirm the operation of all trips and safety devices.
• Restart the turbo-generator, increase speed to normal and connect to switchboard.
• Connect the turbo-generator in parallel with the diesel generators.
• Allow load sharing system to adjust load and stop extra diesel generator.
• Turbo-generator is now on operating on steam and sharing load with diesel generator.
• When main engine load is above 50%, the gas valve to the power turbine may be
opened.
• Open the gas valve and allow the governor to raise speed as programmed.
• When operating speed is attained, clutch to steam tubine shaft should automatically
engage.
• Engine management system will control gas flow to power turbine.
• Power management system will transfer load to turbo-generator.
• When turbo-generator is providing full electrical load, the diesel generator will be
stopped.
• Excess steam will be dumped to the drain cooler.
• When conditions are stable, the auxiliary boiler may remain on back-up or shut down.
• Check that steam is being supplied to the auxiliary boiler water drum heating coil.
• Diesel generators are in standby mode under control of PMS.
• Vessel is at Full Away on Bridge Control Turbo-Generator in Service.
GOVERNING OF STEAM TURBINES

• The speed of the turbine is controlled either by varying the steam pressure or by varying
steam flow.
• The speed of turbine may be controlled by throttling, which is the simplest method.
• Throttling is associated by reduction of pressure at constant enthalpy.

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THROTTLE CONTROL NOZZLE CONTROL
• The flow of steam may be controlled by grouping of nozzles and each group is controlled
by its valve.
• Hybrid control is a combination of throttle valve control and nozzle valve control. One
nozzle group is controlled by throttle valve and remainder by nozzle valves.
• Bypass control is used for obtaining extra power when full pressure is applied to the first
stage.
• The bypass valve takes steam from first stage to the later stage where area is large and
extra power can be obtained.
• Steam pressure is controlled from the governor valve.
• In the simplest form the turbine may have just one nozzle.
• In extreme case nozzles may be arranged all around in which case the turbine will
provide balanced and high torque.
EMERGENCY OPERATION
• Cross compound turbines are fitted with arrangements for bypassing a turbine in case of
problem with the turbine or its gear train. By isolating a turbine, less than 50% of rated
power can be achieved.
• Typical arrangements require blank flanges for the throttle, crossover, condenser inlet,
connecting piping and orifices to limit steam flow. If H.P turbine is bypassed, ahead
throttle is connected directly to crossover with an orifice and H.P. exhaust is blanked.
H.P. turbine is disconnected from the gearing. In this case astern power will be available.
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• When L.P. turbine is bypassed, crossover is directly connected to condenser inlet and
blank inserted at L.P. turbine inlet. An orifice is inserted after ahead throttle valve. L.P.
turbine is disconnected from the gearing. In this case astern power will not be available
and astern control valve should be blanked off.
TROUBLE SHOOTING & REMEDIAL ACTION

• Troubles in steam turbines can be attributed to the following categories :-
1 Lubricating oil system
2 Safety systems
3 Steam condensing system
4 Manoeuvring system
5 Gland sealing system
6 Noise and vibrations
7 Engine loading
LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM

SYMPTOMS CAUSES
High bearing oil temperature Abrasion of bearing due to :
High L.O. inlet temperature
Low L.O. inlet pressure
Dirt in oil
Improper bearing clearance
Improper temperature setting
Inadequate cooling water
Air pocket in cooling water & oil
Low lubricating oil pressure Plugged strainer
Pump failure
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SYMPTOMS CAUSES
Loss of main pump pressure Low L.O. level in sump
Plugged lube oil supply line
Excessive leakage
Improper operation of pump safety valve
Main L.O. pump drawing air from sump
Oil flowing out from equipment Leakage in the system due to :

or smoke from hot lines Cooler tube leakage
Drain from cooler or strainer
Oil deflector leakage
Gradual lowering of oil from tank Loose flange bolts
Abnormal deformation of parts
Oil in turbine gland drain Gland exhaust fan suction / vacuum too high
Oil in gland leak-off condenser Closed gear case vent
High or low oil level in sump Water in oil due to :
Cooler tube leakage
Improper purifier operation
Oil deflector leakage
Ingress from storage tank
Oil leakage from supply system
Abnormal trim or heel
High differential pressure between Dirt in the system

strainer inlet and outlet Bearing failure
Damage of tooth surface or rotating parts
Copper coating on tooth surface of pinion
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CONDENSING SYSTEM TROUBLES
SYMPTOMS CAUSES
Low reading of vacuum gauge Air leakage
Exhaust temperature rising Failure of vacuum pump or ejector steam

pressure low.
Ejector nozzle dirty or blocked
High condensate level
Improper gland seal
High vacuum reading Extremely low cooling water
FEED SYSTEM TROUBLES

SYMPTOMS CAUSES
High level of water in condenser Failure of condensate pump
Improper operation of condensate make

up valve.
Air leakage into condensate pump suction
Improper operation of condensate

recirculation valve
MANOEUVRING SYSTEM TROUBLES

SYMPTOMS CAUSES
Engine revolution not properly Sticking of valve stem

responding to manoeuvring handle
Loss of control oil pressure.
Loss of spring force
Improper operation of control system
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TURBINE TROUBLES
SYMPTOMS CAUSES
Increase in rotor position indicator from Failure of thrust bearing

previous reading at similar load Damage to rotor position indicator
Steam blowing from shaft end Low gland steam supply pressure
Hunting of controller Packing steam controller defective
Low packing steam pressure Gland exhaust steam not working

properly
Low condenser vacuum Wear down or turbine packing rings.
NOISE / VIBRATION TROUBLES

SYMPTOMS CAUSES
Excessive vibrations on the turbine Rubbing of internal parts
Rotor temporarily bowed
Permanent unbalance of rotor due to

damage
Sudden change in noise of turbine Loss of flexibility of coupling teeth due to

damage or foreign body
Damage of bearing
Improper drain system operation
Change in alignment, turbine to gear
Periodical recurrence of abnormal Changes in steam condition such as :

vibrations on turbine rotor Condenser vacuum
Bleeding line valve setting
Failure of control system
Steering / Rudder
Damage to propeller
Sea condition change
Scale accumulation in turbine

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TURBINE TRIPS
SYMPTOMS CAUSES
Trip device operation Bearing lube oil low pressure
Control oil low pressure
Low condenser vacuum
L.P. turbine overspeed
Rotor excessive axial movement
Rotor vibration high
Hand trip (Bridge/ECR/Local)
Turning gear engaging trip
Boiler water drum level very high
Boiler trip (both)
Thrust bearing axial movement high
REMOTE CONTROLS FOR PROPULSION TURBINE

• Propulsion turbine is remotely controlled by using the manoeuvring valve and
emergency trip gear which are installed in front of the HP turbine.
• The maoeuvring valve is operated by hydraulic oil servo via valve actuator through a
signal from ECR or Bridge.
• In abnormal condition, main turbine is rapidly stopped by closure of the manoeuvring

valve by the action of emergency trip gears.
• Following diagram shows the control of propulsion turbine.
• The ahead and astern valves are operated through pilot valve as per the command from
ECR or Bridge.
• The maoeuvring valve is operated by hydraulic oil servo via valve actuator through a
signal from ECR or Bridge.
• Turbine remote control is achieved by a CPU which constantly monitors the operation of
the turbine and shuts down the turbine if an abnormal condition is observed.
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107
• These blocks show various inputs / outputs to / from CPU to components used for the
operation and control of turbine.
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• Critical parameters required for safe operation of the turbine are constantly measured
and fed to the control unit which decides to take the required action.
• Open / close indication of various valves are provided to CPU for automatic warming up
the turbine.
• Input of critical parameters of the turbine are fed to the CPU which actuates either an
alarm or shout down to safeguard the turbine.
• Operation of various controls and safety equipment used in steam turbines are
discussed below. These equipment were used in earlier turbines with pneumatic /
hydraulic controls. Modern turbines are making use of electronic controls.
CONTROLS FOR STEAM TURBINE

• For safeguarding the steam turbine against damage, certain controls are essential which
are listed and discussed below.
SELF CLOSING EMERGENCY STOP VALVE

• This valve closes the steam turbine automatically and shuts off the steam supply to the
turbine in the following abnormal cases.
1. Loss of lubricating oil pressure
2. Overspeeding of turbine
3. Excessive axial movement of the rotor
4. Low condenser vacuum
• In addition, this valve can be manually closed by the local handwheel, emergency hand
control or deck manual control.
• Modern practice is to include this valve in the common chest with the ahead steam.
Astern master valve is for emergency use and astern supply is not affected with this
valve.
• Valve can be opened when lubricating oil pressure is normal and condenser has
adequate vacuum.
• To open the valve, supply valve lever is depressed, which allows the steam to enter
through ball and supply valves to the left chamber of the piston. The piston is a loose fit
in cylinder and allows the steam to pass to the right side.
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• Piston is now balanced under the equal steam force on both sides, turning the hand-
wheel anticlockwise opens the valve. Valve is held in the open position by the catch of
the supply valve lever and the control valve keeps the steam supply on through ball
valve and supply valve.
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• The valve closes if the drain is opened by control valve or low vacuum control,
automatically or by manual action.
• As piston’s right side steam is drained, left side force overcomes the force of steam
acting on valve thereby releasing the catch closing the ball and supply valves & valve
snap shuts.
• Steam control valve is kept seated by the oil pressure. If the oil pressure is released or
reduced due to pump stoppage, governor overspeed action or operation of hand
emergency control valve, steam control valve opens and connects the steam pressure to
drain and closing the emergency stop valve.
• Low vacuum operation, emergency hand action from deck or condenser pressure
directly also opens the drain connection thereby closing the emergency stop valve.
Closing from deck is activated by compressed air.
LOW VACUUM TRIP
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• Condenser pressure acts on the diaphragm, which remains balanced under force of
springs.
• If condenser pressure increases, diaphragm will be pressed down and linkage will open
the valve inwards, thereby draining the steam and closing the emergency stop valve.
• This valve is also used to trip the turbine from deck using an air connection. This valve
has also a gagging gear to operate the valve manually.
OVERSPEED & EXCESSIVE AXIAL MOVEMENT TRIP
• Marine turbines for main propulsion operate almost at constant load thus the governor
is of an overspeed trip type. Overspeed trip and excessive axial movement trip are
usually built together in the control system.
• Sketch of a combined overspeed and excessive axial movement trip is shown on the
next slide. Trip mechanism uses system lubricating oil pressure for its operation.
• Oil supply passes through a restricting orifice to index bush E and then through annulus
G and ports L into annulus D around the catch spindle C.
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• The governor valve A is offset from the centre of the shaft so that it remains unbalanced
during rotation. It is held in position by the spring.
• When the turbine overspeeds, the unbalanced weight overcomes the spring force and
valve moves out until catch spindle C can move into the notch in the valve and hold the
valve open.
• In this position, the oil is in annular space D is allowed to discharge through ports J
which releases the oil pressure and steam valve shuts. The tripping speed can be
adjusted by nut B.
• To reset the valve, catch spindle is pulled out by knob K allowing the valve to spring
back.
• When axial movement of rotor occurs, the control bush N moves with it but the index
bush E remains stationary. In case of excessive axial movement, oil escapes from
annulus G to the discharge annulus H. Oil pressure is again released and the steam valve
shuts. Eccentric F is used for this adjustment.
GOVERNOR FOR SPEED CONTROL
• The diagram shows the arrangement of speed control governor.
• It consists of a stationary oil supply tube carrying turbine lubricating oil for the controls.
End of the tube has a rotating assembly which is supported by two cantilever arms
attached to the H.P. turbine rotor.
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• Free ends of cantilever arms hold ball valves whose opening and closing is dependent on
the turbine speed. If load on the turbine reduces, as a result turbine speed increases,
free ends of cantilever arms move out and release the oil from the ball valves which
goes to drain.
• The reduced oil pressure now acts on the steam supply valve and throttles the steam
flow to reduce the steam supply thereby bringing the speed to equilibrium position, as
per the set value. Opposite will happen in case of increase in load.
HYDRAULIC GOVERNOR
• A simple mechanical governor must overcome friction in the linkages and exert a
controlling force. These forces act in different directions depending upon whether the
load is increasing or decreasing. The effect of this friction is to create a deadband.
• In hydraulic governors this effect is negated by having oil pressure act as the controlling
force. This simple system has inherent stability due to the on/off nature of oil being
supplied to the system control due to the control land just covering the outlet ports.
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Oversizing the land would create stability but at the expense of reintroducing a
deadband
• Servo system with feedback is an alternative to lead the outlet oil to a servo system. The
servo piston can be either spring return or differential.
VIBRATIONS IN MARINE STEAM TURBINES

• Vibrations are undesirable for efficient and reliable operation of the machinery.
However, all machinery have some degree of vibrations caused by unbalanced forces.
When exceeded beyond their limits, vibration can cause serious damage to machines.
• Steam turbines are high speed machines where slight imbalance can cause excessive
centrifugal forces resulting massive damage. Thus, steam turbines need dynamic
balancing to prevent vibrations related problems.
• Vibrations are caused by imbalance / misalignment / worn out machine components,

looseness of machine parts and resonance.
• Hull vibration can also be caused due to different loading conditions which may result in
resonance due to unbalanced forces of turbine / propeller or other periodic disturbance.
HEAT BALANCE OF STEAM TURBINE & METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT
We can see that only 32%

heat is available for useful
work.
Remaining 68% goes as

waste, of which 57% goes in
condenser and 11% in
boiler.
• Following methods may be applied to reduce losses:-
• Use of cross compound turbine plant.
• Use of complex cycle with regenerative feed heating and reheating.
• Scoop intake of condenser cooling water.
• Improved automation, leading to online control.

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CHAPTER IX (ALIGNMENT CHECKING)
EXPANSION OF STEAM TURBINES
• The expansion arrangement shown above is for a high pressure turbine. This allows the
casing to expand axially from the gear box end and radially.
• Two sliding feet support below the casing centre line have axial keys for location.
• Four support palms are provided of which two aft do not permit axial movement
whereas two forward allow axial movement and are connected to horizontal extensions
of the casing joints.
• Rotor position relative to casing is controlled by the thrust bearing at the forward end.
• Internal rings correctly dimensioned and fitted in thrust bearing ensures no further
adjustment.
TURBINE CLEARANCE GAUGES

• For smooth operation of turbines, clearances have to be maintained within close
tolerances.
•
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• Finger piece gauge along-with feeler gauge is used to measure the wear of thrust
bearing which will be reflected as the shaft’s excessive axial movement. This is checked
when the turbine is stopped.
• Poker gauge also measures the wear of thrust bearing and excessive axial movement of
shaft. This can be used when the turbine is at rest and also when it is running. The
reading is given on a fixed scale.
• Casing axial position indicator describes about the expansion of casing directly on a
scale.
• Bridge gauge is used to measure the wear of journal bearing or the drop of rotor.
• This is obtained after removing the upper half of bearing and placing the depth gauge
on top of rotor.
• Wear will be obtained by comparing present reading with original reading.
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STATIC BALANCING
• To balance a rotor, the rotor is mounted with its shaft and allowed to roll on two hard
but smooth rollers or knife-edges. The rotor rolls such that heavy spot roll to the bottom
due to gravity.
• A weight is then added opposite to the heavy spot or some amount of material is
removed at the heavy spot either by drilling or grinding.
• The amount of unbalance of mass is unknown, but location of unbalance is known.
• By trial and error, material is added or removed until no spot on the rotor favours the
bottom position. The balanced rotor could be rolled into any position and released, it
would remain stationary there.
• Static balancing is still widely practiced today. It is very effective for thin disks and slow
speed rotors.
• Static balancing of rotor can be performed either when the rotor is removed from the
machine or in its place. In the first approach, the rotor along with its shaft is rolled over
horizontal, smooth, and hard supporting rollers or tandem rollers as described above.
• The gravity moves the heavy spot to the bottom. In the second approach, the rotor is
disconnected from belts or gears and rolled. If any heavy spot is there, it rolls to the
bottom.
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DYNAMIC UNBALANCE
• Any rotating body may be considered as composed of large number of thin disks
mounted on the shaft with their centre of gravity not perfectly coincident with the
rotational axis.
• This is something like that disks are drilled with holes not at their centers but each is
offset to a different extent from the center and all are mounted on shaft.
• Such a rotor has a combination of static and couple unbalance present in varying
degrees. This is called dynamic unbalance, where the principal mass axis and the
rotating shaft axis do not coincide.
• The axial distribution of disks will cause bending forces in the shaft, in addition to a
static unbalance on each disk. A rigid rotor will not bend but the cumulative effect of
unbalance couple will cause a turning moment trying to topple the rotor.
• This turning force causes vibration at the bearings. To properly detect the couple
component of unbalance, the rotor must be rotating.
• The vibration measured on the left and right side bearings are generally unequal in
amplitude, and the phase difference is neither 0° nor 180° exactly, but somewhere in-
between them.
• Dynamic unbalance can be corrected on rigid rotors by two weights in two separate
planes. The two weights are not exactly 180° apart because they must also compensate
for static unbalance.
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BALANCING OF TURINE ROTORS
• To obtain vibration free service from a steam turbine, its rotor should be statically and
dynamically balanced and turbine should be operated within first and second critical
speed.
• Rotor is said to be statically balanced when the centre of mass of the rotor is on the axis
of rotation hence the rotor does not have any out of balance rotating force. Though
rotor may be statically balanced yet it may be dynamically unbalanced due to couple
formed by equal opposing forces in different planes.
• Natural frequency of transverse vibration for a balanced rotor depends upon flexibility
of rotor and bearings. Thus, a stiff rotor will have its critical speed at very high RPM. In
modern turbines, it is not practicable to have critical speed beyond normal running
speed.
• Operational speed range of the turbine is adjusted within the first and second natural
fundamental critical speeds so that excessive vibrations are not experienced during
operation. During run up of turbine, critical speed is quickly run through to prevent
excessive vibration and associated damage.
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CHAPTER IX (SELECTION OF MATERIAL)
SELECTION OF TURBINE MATERIALS

FACTORS GOVERNING SELECTION OF MATERIALS
• Creep resistance
• Strength at high temperature
• Erosion resistance
• Working at high temperature
MATERIAL RESPONSIBLE FOR STRENGTH
• Nickel increases strength & erosion resistance.
• Chromium increases resistance to corrosion & erosion
• Molybdenum increases strength at high temperatures
• Vanadium increases strength and fatigue resistance.
• Manganese provides hardness.
MATERIALS USED FOR STEAM TURBINES

• H.P. casing 3% Molybdenum cast steel or
0.5% Molybdenum, 0.3% Vanadium cast steel.
• L.P. casing Cast steel or mild steel
• Rotors Forged chrome – molybdenum steel or
0.5% molybdenum steel
• Blading 0.12% carbon, 12% chrome, 1% nickel stainless iron
or 12% chrome stainless steel
or 12% chrome, 36% nickel steel

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• Nozzle Stainless iron or 67% Nickel, 28% copper monel metal
• Glands Cupro nickel or leaded nickel bronze (65% copper)
• Diaphragms Mild steel or 0.5% molybdenum steel
• Gears / pinion Forged steel & rims case hardened with 0.15~0.4% carbon,
0.2~0.3% silicon, 0.6~1.5% manganese
and 0.15~0.3% molybdenum
122

4 Marine Steam Engineering

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4 Marine Steam Engineering

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International Maritime Institute, Greater Noida

CHAPTER I (STEAM ENGINES)

T-S DIAGRAM P-V DIAGRAM

• Process 1 to 2 is isentropic expansion from T1 to T2.

• Process 2 to 3 is isothermal heat rejection.

• Process 3 to 4 is isentropic compression from T2 to T1.

• Process 4 to 1 is isothermal heat supply.

• In practice it is more convenient to heat a gas at constant pressure or volume, hence

APPLICATION OF CARNOT CYCLE FOR STEAM PLANT

RANKINE CYCLE FOR SATURATED STEAM

• Process dd’ shown on T-s diagram is exaggerated.

• The P-V diagram shows two cycles as given below.

• Hence Work done / cycle = Area ABCD

• Specific work = Area FBCE = hb-hc

• Feed pump work / unit mass = Area EDAF = (PB-PC) νD

• Net work done per cycle = (hb-hc) - (PB-PC) νD

• Thus, heat transfer required in the boiler = hb – [hd + (PB-PC) νD]

• = (hb – hd) - (PB-PC) νD

• Neglecting the small work done on pump, Ƞ = (hb-hc) / (hb – hd)

• The cycle with early release is called modified Rankine cycle.

RANKINE CYCLE FOR SUPERHEATED STEAM

• The figure represents the Rankine cycle

• The difference between the two cycles is

• Rankine Ƞ = (hc-hd) / (hc – he)

• There is little or no condensation loss in transmission.

• Heat supplied = Q451 + Q26

• Neglecting the feed pump work, Q451 = h1 – h3

• Work output = -W12 - W67 where W12 = h1 – h2 and W67 = h6 – h7

ADVANTAGES OF STEAM TURBINE

4. Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines.

5. Steam turbines are suitable for large power plants.

DISADVANTAGES OF STEAM TURBINE

1. Relatively high overall cost.

3. They have longer startup time than reciprocating engines.

4. Less responsive to changes in power demand in comparison to reciprocating engines.

DISADVANTAGES OF STEAM ENGINES

1. Maintenance is extensive due to more moving parts.

2. Steam engines are less efficient as compared to turbines.

3. They are more prone to vibration due to unbalanced reciprocating masses.

4. They have low power to weight ratio.

5. They are not suitable for very large power.

SIMPLE STEAM CYCLE

• The sketch shows the arrangement

• Two boilers are seen with their

• Steam passes from boiler to turbo-

• High and low pressure turbine drive

• Entry to the engine room is from the

• The boiler room is at the topmost

ELEVATION OF A TYPICAL STEAM SHIP

PLAN OF STEAM SHIP AT OPERATING PLATFORM

• Steam is supplied to turbo-generators which consists of a steam turbine, a reduction

PLAN OF STEAM SHIP AT FLOOR LEVEL

• The distilling plant / evaporator / freshwater generator / desalination plant is used to

• Refrigeration and air-conditioning machinery comprising of compressors, receivers,

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF STEAM TURBINE

SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE

• This type of turbine is termed as simple

• Nozzles generally take the shape of

• The steam pressure falls from that in the

• These turbines are used for relatively small

• This type of steam turbine is used to drive a

• The casing supports the steam inlet

SIMPLE IMPULSE TURBINE

PRESSURE AND VELOCITY DIAGRAMS