FINAL EXAMINATION

1. If human development is the study of how people change throughout their lives, how and
when does this development happen? Many scientists and psychologists have studied
various aspects of human development, including ego psychologist Erik Erikson. 
Stage 1 — Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust
In the first stage of human development, infants learn to trust based on how well their
caregivers meet their basic needs and respond when they cry. If an infant cries out to be
fed, the parent can either meet this need by feeding and comforting the infant or not
meet this need by ignoring the infant. When their needs are met, infants learn that
relying on others is safe; when their needs go unmet, infants grow up to be less trusting.

Stage 2 — Toddlerhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

In addition to autonomy versus shame and doubt, another way to think of the second
stage is independence versus dependence. Like in the first stage, toddlers go through
this stage responding to their caregivers. If caregivers encourage them to be
independent and explore the world on their own, toddlers will grow up with a sense of
self-efficacy. If the caregivers hover excessively or encourage dependence, these
toddlers grow up with less confidence in their abilities.

Stage 3 — Preschool Years: Initiative vs. Guilt

During the preschool years, children learn to assert themselves and speak up when they need
something. Some children may state that they’re sad because a friend stole their toy. If this
assertiveness is greeted with a positive reaction, they learn that taking initiative is helpful
behavior. However, if they’re made to feel guilty or ashamed for their assertiveness, they may
grow up to be timid and less likely to take the lead.

Stage 4 — Early School Years: Industry vs. Inferiority

When children begin school, they start to compare themselves with peers. If children feel they’re
accomplished in relation to peers, they develop strong self-esteem. If, however, they notice that
other children have met milestones that they haven’t, they may struggle with self-esteem. For
example, a first grader may notice a consistently worse performance on spelling tests when
compared with peers. If this becomes a pattern, it can lead to feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5 — Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion

The adolescent stage is where the term “identity crisis” originated, and for good reason.
Adolescence is all about developing a sense of self. Adolescents who can clearly identify who
they are grow up with stronger goals and self-knowledge than teenagers who struggle to break
free of their parents’ or friends’ influences. Adolescents who still deeply depend on their parents
for social interaction and guidance may experience more role confusion than teenagers who
pursue their own interests.

Stage 6 — Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation

In young adulthood, which begins roughly at age 20, people begin to solidify their lifelong bonds;
many people enter committed relationships or marriages, while others form lifelong friendships.
People who can create and maintain these relationships reap the emotional benefits, while
those who struggle to maintain relationships may suffer from isolation.

Stage 7 — Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation

In middle adulthood, people tend to struggle with their contributions to society. They may be
busy raising children or pursuing careers. Those who feel that they’re contributing experience
generativity, which is the sense of leaving a legacy. On the other hand, those who don’t feel that
their work or lives matter may experience feelings of stagnation. For example, a middle-aged
adult who’s raising a family and working in a career that presumably helps people may feel
more fulfilled than an adult who’s working at a day job that feels meaningless.

Stage 8 — Late Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair

As adults reach the end of life, they look back on their lives and reflect. Adults who feel fulfilled
by their lives, either through a successful family or a meaningful career, reach ego integrity, in
which they can face aging and dying with peace. If older adults don’t feel that they’ve lived a
good life, they risk falling into despair.

2. Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills,

values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals,
and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants.