Applied Soft Computing Journal 80 (2019) 285–296

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Soft Computing Journal

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/asoc

New quantum-genetic based OLSR protocol (QG-OLSR) for Mobile

Ad hoc Network
∗
De-gan Zhang, Yu-ya Cui , Ting Zhang
Key Laboratory of Computer Vision and System (Tianjin University of Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300384, China
Tianjin Key Lab of Intelligent Computing & Novel software Technology, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin 300384, China

highlights

• Put forward new improved quantum genetic strategy.

• Present novel Q-Learning strategy has been embedded in our improved quantum genetic strategy.
• New protocol overcomes the shortage of the traditional protocol.
• Prove the property of convergence and global optimization of the algorithm.
• Improve the performance of transmission.
• Support the mobility, self-organization and distributed control of MANET (Mobile Ad hoc Network).

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Due to the mobility, self-organization and distributed control of Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET),
Received 4 November 2017 the routing protocol of MANET must adapt to the rapid changes of the network structure, and
Received in revised form 23 February 2019 ensure the maximum savings of network resources. This paper proposes a kind of new quantum-
Accepted 25 March 2019
genetic based OLSR protocol (QG-OLSR) for MANET. The protocol adopts the MPR (multi-point relay)
Available online 16 April 2019
technology in OLSR (Optimal Link State Routing). By embedding new augmented Q-Learning algorithm
Keywords: and combining the OLSR algorithm to optimize the selection of MPR sets, it can effectively reduce the
Protocol consumption of network topology control, improve the delivery rate of data packets, and reduce the
MANET time delay of the end-to-end packet transmission between nodes. The results of the experimental
Optimal link state routing testings show that the new protocol is reliable and highly efficient, which is suitable for many
Multi-point relay applications of MANET.
Quantum genetic © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) is composed of a group
of logically equivalent nodes with wireless transceiver device,
it does not rely on any basis set [1–3]. Due to the high dy-
namic property of the topology, the traditional routing protocol
is not applicable. So the routing problem of MANET is one of
hot topics [4–8]. OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing) is a typical
table-driven routing protocol and is different from the traditional
LSR (Link State Routing), its key function is the MPR (Multiple
Point Relay) strategy. The MPR strategy is very important and
useful when the node density is bigger in the network, so OLSR
is very suitable for the network with high node density [9–13].
In OLSR, each node selects a part of its own hop node as
its own MPR node set. Only the node selected as MPR will for-
ward the Topology Control (TC) packet. MPR node is responsible
∗ Corresponding author at: Key Laboratory of Computer Vision and System
(Tianjin University of Technology), Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300384, China.
E-mail addresses: gandegande@126.com (D.-g. Zhang),
2310674826@qq.com (Y.-y. Cui).
for notification of link state in the network [14–16]. The infor-
mation with link state is generated by the nodes selected as
MPR, which can reduce the flooding of information. And the
MPR node receives & forwards the TC message from the other
MPR node. When the MPR node sends its own TC message, the
MPR node also needs to add the information of being selected
as MPR by the neighbor node in the TC packet. In Refs. [17–
19], the problem of flooding is considered for a specific physical
layer. In Refs. [19–21], the flooding problem of heterogeneous
MANET is studied. In Refs. [22,23], MPR is applied to multicast
protocols. In Refs. [24–26], it is proved that the MPR selection is
an NP-complete problem. However, the above references do not
consider redundant information, topology control overhead, and
transmission efficiency in a network in a high-density network
environment.
The concept of quantum computation is put forward by Be-
nioff and Feynman [17–20]. Currently, there have been many
quantum computing methods [21–25]. Quantum Genetic Algo-
rithm (QGA) [26–29] is based on the vector representation of
quantum states, and the probability amplitude of qubits is used

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asoc.2019.03.053
1568-4946/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
286 D.-g. Zhang, Y.-y. Cui and T. Zhang / Applied Soft Computing Journal 80 (2019) 285–296
in gene coding. Therefore, each chromosome can performance a
superposition of multiple states at a certain time, and the gene is
updated by a quantum spine. The quantum solution and the local
optimal solution of the mutated population are used to optimize
the target solution. The parallel nature of quantum computing can
be used to derive large data factors in a small time complexity,
which can solve the NP-C problem [29–32]. Therefore, QGA can
effectively solve multi-objective optimization problems such as
mobile WSN and MANET. The current research focuses on two
types of models: Quantum Inspired Genetic Algorithm based on
quantum multi-cosmic features, QGA based on Quantum Genetic
and Quantum Genetic Superposition (QGA).
Q-Learning algorithm [31–34] is an unsupervised active learn-
ing algorithm, which does not require a specific system model,
and can be adapted to different environments by interacting with
the surroundings. At the same time, it is a reinforcement learn-
ing and heuristic learning algorithm, which belongs to machine
learning method. The learning process of the node is as follows:
The source node finds the path to the target node with the largest
return value by periodically updating the state activity value (Q-
Value) in different states. It can adaptively adjust Q-Table with
ensuring the reliability of each hop link to adapt such dynamic
network topology of MANET [35–40]. New augmented Q-Learning
strategy has been embedded in our improved QGA.
Our improved QGA adopts the multi-state factor bit coding
method to encode the nodes of MANET. The quantum cross-
operation and the quantum not-gate are used to realize the
genetic mutation. The quantum rotation gate and dynamic ad-
justment of the rotation angle strategy are adopted to consider
the nodal energy information, which avoid premature and local
convergence. For the NP-completeness of the MPR problem, an
improved global genetic algorithm is used to obtain the global
optimal solution.
2. Related works
When the network of MANET is very sparse, OLSR degraded
to the general LSR protocol. In Ref. [15], the image acquisition
method is applied to the MANET, and the node information is
collected by the image instead of only the OLSR, an OLSR pro-
tocol based on image enhancement is proposed. The protocol in
Ref. [20] can find a better solution of the MPR set problem in a
short time defined as O(n log(n)), but because of the limitations of
the greedy protocol, the solution is not necessarily the optimal so-
lution. In Ref. [21], they proposed a new Neighborhood State Self-
Adaptive Update (NSSAU) protocol based on the loop control the-
ory to establish the mapping relationship between network topol-
ogy changes and neighbor-like updates. The OLSR-NSSAU routing
protocol is proposed in conjunction with the OLSR protocol.
Shor proposed quantum decomposition strategy and Grover
proposed database search strategy [17–21]. Shor proposed quan-
tum decomposition strategy and the use of quantum computing
parallelism can quickly decompose large numbers of prime fac-
tors . However, the optimal time complexity of traditional classi-
cal algorithm is . This will make it easy for the quantum computer
to crack the widely used RSA public key encryption system, it will
be a serious threat to the banking, network and other information
security and national security. Therefore, Shor’s quantum decom-
position algorithm has attracted worldwide attention. Grover’s
database search algorithm can provide substantial secondary
acceleration for many (but not all) heuristic algorithms. The
Grover quantum search algorithm neglects the nature of the
search elements in the search, and focuses on those elements
of the index. At the same time, it can also effectively decipher
the DES encryption system, with the potential to accelerate the
search password system key purposes [22–27]. When searching
directional information, the Grover’s search algorithm can find
the specified target item in an unordered √ table with directory
entries. In the time complexity of O( n) to find the specified
target, but before the time complexity of the classic algorithm is
O(n). The problem of solving 0–1 knapsack problem in Ref. [17] is
that each gene has only ‘‘0’’ or ‘‘1’’ state. The problem is simple,
but in other problem solving, each gene may exist multiple states,
so the proposed algorithms are not universal. The solution is
to design a unitary transformation that can operate on multiple
states at the same time. This method has the advantages of sim-
ple encoding, high computational efficiency, but computational
complexity is large, and the design of high latitude unitary trans-
formation is troublesome [28–31]. Another solution is the use of
binary coding in genetic algorithms to quantify the presence of
polymorphic bits, such as two states encoded with a single qubit
and four states encoded with two bits, and the characteristics
of the method is better versatility, and to achieve easier [32–
34]. Quantum bit coding makes it possible for a chromosome to
express multiple states at the same time, which makes QGA have
better diversity characteristics than classical algorithm. Quantum
bit coding can also obtain better convergence. With factor or |α|2
orientation with 0 or 1, the chromosome encoded by the qubit
will converge to a single state.
From the above analysis, we can see that the existed QGA is
not universal, only to solve specific problems, not suitable for
OLSR routing in the selection of MPR collection and the entire
network performance of MANET [35–40]. In this paper, a novel
quantum genetic strategy named QG-OLSR protocol based on im-
proved quantum genetic strategy is proposed, and its correctness
and validity are proved by theory and experiment. The algorithm
adopts the multi-state factor bit coding method to encode the
nodes in the network. The quantum cross-operation and the
quantum not-gate are used to realize the genetic mutation. The
quantum rotation gate strategy and the dynamic adjustment of
the rotation angle strategy are adopted to consider the nodal
energy information, which avoid premature and local conver-
gence. For the NP-completeness of the MPR problem, an improved
global genetic algorithm is used to obtain the global optimal
solution [41–44]. Because the calculation of MPR is carried out
independently by each node, only the information of link state
within two hops is considered. Therefore, even though the net-
work is very large and the nodes are very dense, the topology
information of two hops does not consume a large amount of
energy and can achieve a better calculation efficiency. Since the
selection of MPR sets is optimized and the information such as
node energy is taken into account in the selection process, the
redundant information such as topology control information in
the network will be reduced, resulting in a decrease of network
topology control overhead and an increase of effective packet de-
livery rate [45–48]. The average end-to-end delay of the effective
packet becomes shorter.
It is well known that Q-Learning strategy used as a kind of self-
learning mechanism can find a shortest path from source node
to destination node through constant interaction with outside of
MANET. Based on this idea, our improved QGA is adopted new
augmented Q-Learning strategy in this paper.
3. New QG-OLSR protocol
The new optimized link state routing protocol (we name QG-
OLSR protocol) is based on our improved QGA, which can reduce
the redundant information in the MANET. The global convergence
of the MPR set selection is guaranteed by quantum crossing
and quantum not-gate variation, and the quantum rotation gate
is used to update the data to improve the data transmission
efficiency in the topology of MANET.
The QG-OLSR protocol is based on the hierarchical routing
approach with the idea of Edsger Dijkstra’s shortest path, a router
in a MANET does not transfer the ‘‘route entry’’ to the neighbor,
 D.-g. Zhang, Y.-y. Cui and T. Zhang / Applied Soft Computing Journal 80 (2019) 285–296
but advertises some link status to the neighbor. Instead of simply
learning routes from neighboring routers, the router running the
routing protocol divides the routers into areas, collects link state
information for all routers in the area, and generates the topology
of MANET based on the state information.
The quantum heredity means that quantum state vector ex-
pression is used to genetic coding, the use of quantum revolving
door to achieve the evolution of chromosomes, to achieve better
results than that of conventional genetic algorithm. However,
since all individuals evolve toward a target, there is a high prob-
ability that they will fall into the local optimum if there is no
crossover operation.
The quantum crossover means that according to the rapid
evolution of the population characteristics of the use of quantum
bit population crossing operation, it takes the first locus of an
individual as the first locus of the new individual, and takes the
second locus of the adjacent individual as the second locus of the
new individual, repeating until the child have the same number
of individuals with parents. A descendant is generated for each
individual until the number of offspring and parent are equal.
The quantum not-gate variation means that a qubit has two
independent states, ‘‘0’’ and ‘‘1’’, α and β are the probability for
states amplitude of the two states, respectively which indicates
the probability amplitude of the two states, respectively. The
quantum non-gate is an interchange of the probability amplitude
of collapse to ‘‘0’’ and the probability amplitude of collapse to ‘‘1’’.
3.1. Principle of QGA
QGA is based on the combination of quantum computation and
genetic algorithm. QGA is an algorithm based on the superposi-
tion of quantum bit and quantum state, and uses polymorphic
gene bit coding method and quantum rotation gate to find the
optimal solution, which has the advantages of fast convergence
and global optimal solution.
The basic genetic algorithm adopts the proportional selection
strategy. The probability of crossover and the mutation respec-
tively are Pc and Pm , whose values are the smallest, definition
length of the pattern H is δ (H), and its order is o(H). The pop-
ulation of the generation contains m(H , t + 1), and the following
inequality holds.
f (H) δ (H)
m(H , t + 1) ≥ m(H , t) × × (1 − Pc × − Pm × o(H))
f¯ l−1
In the basic genetic algorithm, data grows exponentially in
which order of low, defined length of short and the fitness value
are greater than the average fitness value. In contrast, data de-
creases exponentially which the fitness value is less than the
average fitness value.
QGA minimum information storage unit is a quantum com-
puter with only two states, called qubits. A qubit has only ‘‘0’’
and ‘‘1’’ two independent states, it can also be a superposition of
two states, can be expressed as:
|ψ⟩ = α|0⟩ + β|1⟩
Where α and β are complex numbers representing the probability
amplitudes of the two corresponding states. |α|2 represents the
probability when the qubit state is ‘‘0’’, and |β|2 represents the
probability when the qubit state is ‘‘1’’. In [the]QGA, a bit is defined
α of other nodes except for itself; Activity spaceA is that the beacon
as a set of complex(α, β), expressed as , α and β according
β
to Eq. (1), then a chain of chromosomal genes with m bits can
be expressed as:
α1 ⏐⏐ α2 ⏐⏐ . . .⏐⏐ αm
[ ⏐ ⏐ ⏐ ]
β1 ⏐ β2 ⏐ . . .⏐ βm
287
Where |α|2i + |β|2i = 1, i = 1, 2, . . . , m, this representation has
the advantage that it can represent any state of the superposition,
that is, if a system has m quantum bits, then the system at a time
that can be 2m states. For example, the amplitude of a three-bit
representation is as follows:
1.0
[ ]
√1 1
2 2
√
(3)
√1 1.0 2
3
2
Then the system state can be expressed as:
√ √
1 3 1 3
√ |000⟩ + √ | 001⟩ + √ | 100⟩ + √ | 101⟩ (4)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
The above results indicate the probability of the system is in
state 000, state 001, state 100, and state 101 is 1/8, 3/8, 1/8, and
3/8, respectively. So the gene chain with three bit vectors can
represent four states at the same time. Due to the state superpo-
sition of the bits, the evolutionary computation represented by
the bits is more diverse than the conventional method. In Eq. (3),
only one gene chain can represent the four states, but using the
traditional method requires at least four gene chains to represent,
namely (000), (001), (100) and (101). According to the properties
of Eq. (1) and |α|2i + |β|2i = 1, i = 1, 2, . . . , m, it can be seen that
as the value of |α|2 or |β|2 tends to 0 or 1, the bit gene chain is
converged to an independent state, and the diversity disappear
slowly.
3.2. New improved QGA
QGA utilizes quantum bits to preserve the chromosomal genes
of individuals in a population.{In the t-generation, the population
can be expressed as Q (t) = qt1 , qt2 , . . . , qtn , wherenis the total
}
number of individuals in the population at the tth generation, qti
is the ith individual, and each individual represents the MPR set of
the node, and the chromosome gene chain of the individual m as:
α1t ⏐⏐ α2t ⏐⏐ ...⏐⏐ αmt
[ ⏐ ⏐ ⏐ ]
qti = (5)
β1t ⏐ β2t ⏐ ...⏐ βmt
Where i = 1, 2, . . . , m, m is the number of quantum bits, that is,
the length of chain of quantum chromosomes.
A kind of new augmented Q-Learning strategy has been em-
bedded in our improved quantum genetic strategy. Different from
traditional way of Q-learning, each node has a Q-Table (as ML(i, j))
in our new augmented Q-Learning strategy. Nodes complete the
task of learning by exchanging beacon information and updating
Q-Table. The beacon packet sent by nodes contains not only its
own speed, location and other information, but also the maxi-
mum Q-Value of neighbor nodes to the destination node, i.e., the
maximum value in a column. Q-Table is a two-dimensional table,
whose size is determined by the number of neighbor nodes and
the number of destination nodes. It is obvious that it has a
good scalability. The value in Q-Table is updated by periodically
exchanging beacon packets between nodes. The task of learning
is distributed to each node, which makes the approach quickly
converge to the optimal path, and the changes of the topology of
MANET can be timely adjusted. In our improved QG algorithm, we
have added the convergence condition of the approach to keep it
(1)
suitable to the mobile or distributed computing environment of
MANET.
Our studied Q-Learning environment is that the whole
MANETs environment as the learning environment of agent; The
learning agent is each node of MANET; State space S is composed
packet transmitted from one node to another node is defined as
an activity; Immediate reward R is that the agent carries out an
activity and get, its range is [0, 1]. Because the destination node
can directly reach the destination node, the reward value is 1.
Eq. (6) defines the initial value R of the entire focus network case
(2)
of MANET as follows:
288 D.-g. Zhang, Y.-y. Cui and T. Zhang / Applied Soft Computing Journal 80 (2019) 285–296
{
R=
1 s ∈ Nd
(6)
0 else
where Nd represents one hop neighbor node set of destination
node D. The reward value of an activity for all the neighbor nodes
of the destination node is 1. In learning process, the reward value
which can be obtained from a state transition to another state is
indicated by Q-Value Q (s, a) (s ∈ S , a ∈ A) and its range is [0, 1].
Each learning agent maintains a two-dimensional table, which
is used to record the Q-Value of the reachable destination node
and its one hop neighbor node. This two-dimensional table is
called Q-Table (shown in Table 1). In Q-Table, the first line repre-
sents for all possible destination nodes’ ID, which is expressed by
Di ; the first column shows the one hop neighbor nodes’ ID, which
is expressed by Ni .Q (D1 , N1 ) represents the Q-Value between the
node and the neighbor node N1 when it reaches the destination
node D1. The size of Q-Table as shown in Table 1 is determined
by the number of neighbor nodes of MANET and the number of
destination nodes. It is obvious that Q-table has a good scalability.
The value in Q-Table is updated by periodically exchanging bea-
con packets between nodes. The task of learning is distributed to
each node, which makes the algorithm quickly converge to the
optimal path, and the changes of the topology of MANET can be
timely adjusted.
Learning tasks are assigned to each node agent of MANET,
and the learning process is mainly updating the Q-Table in the
agent, meanwhile, updating the pair of state activity of Q-Value
Q (s, a) (s ∈ S , a ∈ A). The standard Q-Learning function is shown
in Eq. (7) as follows:
{ }
Qs (d, x) ← Qs (d, x) + R + γ · max Qx (d, y) (7)
y∈Nx
where Qs (d, x) is the Q-Value to be updated, S is the node, x is
its neighbor node, Nx is x’s neighbor node. D is the destination
node, R is the reward value, maxy∈Nx Qx (d, y) is the maximum Q-
Value betweenx and its neighbor node to the destination node
D. Discount factor γ is an important parameter and it affects
the reward value which a node obtains from carrying out an
activity according to the equation above. Considering that the link
stability is an important parameter, we put the link reliability r (l)
between nodes, as a discount factor, that is γ = r (l). In MANETs,
the available bandwidth, as an important parameter, determines
the rate of packet transmission. As defined in [31] the bandwidth
BW is calculated as follows:
n × SB × 8
BW (bps) = (8)
T
where n represents the number of packets which the node send
and receive, SB is the size of the packet and represented in byte,
T is the time interval. Assuming that the maximum available
bandwidth of the node is a fixed value, which is defined as
maxBW , the bandwidth factor can be calculated as follows:
maxBW −BW
BF = (9)
maxBW
As the factor that affects learning speed, the bandwidth factor
is changed with the change of effective bandwidth, and deter-
mines the learning progress of each node of MANET. We modify
Eq. (7) to obtain a new heuristic function as follows:
{ }
Qs (d, x) ← (1 − BF ) · Qs (d, x) + BF · R + γ · max Qx (d, y) (10)
y∈Nx
According to Eq. (10), considering that the bigger the hops
number is, the smaller the reward value is. So the final reward
value is based on the number of hops, link reliability and band-
width. By adding bandwidth and link state, the optimal path from
source node to destination node can be obtained in the dynamic
network.
Our improved QG algorithm may be described as follows:
 D.-g. Zhang, Y.-y. Cui and T. Zhang / Applied Soft Computing Journal 80 (2019) 285–296 289

Table 1 denoted by N12 , N22 , . . . , Nn2

2
, where n2 is the number of two-hop
Q-Table. neighbor nodes. Normally, n2 is a multiple of{ m.
Because the selection of set P(t), P(t) = qt1 , qt2 , . . . , qtn is a
}
D1 D2 ...
N1 Q(D1,N1) Q(D2,N1) ... better set of Q (t) and qti is the MPR set of node i. For a node i,
N2 Q(D1,N2) Q(D2,N2) ...
according to each node in the two-hop neighbor table NB_table2
... ... ... ...
of the node i, the node i selects the nodes covering them in the
one-hop neighbor table NB_table1 of the node i, and selects these
one-hop neighbors into the MPR set of the node i.
3.3. Initialization & encoding If the jth hop neighbor node of the node i is selected into the
MPR set of i, the jth hop neighbor corresponding to the gene chain
During evolutionary computation, there are many different of the node i is obtained in the chromosome gene chain of the
encoding ways to encode genes. The classical encoding methods node i after initializing 0–1 coding. The probability amplitude of
include sequence encoding, real encoding, adaptive coding, out- state 1 is set to 1, βjt = 1, the probability amplitude of state 0 is
of-order encoding, symbol encoding. For the gene chain of QGA set to 0, αjt = 0, and the rest continues to follow the initialization
for OLSR put forward in this paper, we use the 0–1 method principle, αit and βit (i = 1, 2, . . . , m, i ̸ = j) hold the initialization
to encode, considering the global and genetic cross mutation value √1 .
2
problem, setting chromosome length equal to the total number This method of setting the value is in accordance with the
of nodes in the topology of MANET. property |α|2i + |β|2i = 1, i = 1, 2, . . . , m, and has a heuristic
By the using initialize Q (t) to do the initialization work, the effect. Due to the fact that nodes want to select the one-hop
probabilities of all the one-hop neighbor nodes of i are equal to neighbor nodes that cover more than two-hop neighbors as their
that of the MPR set of i for node i, so the probability amplitude of own MPR set, then one-hop neighbor node j is likely to be in
the chromosomal locus of all individuals qti in population is Q (t) the smallest MPR set of node i. In fact, according to the two-hop
and αit are both initialized to the value √1 . That is to say, for the neighbor table, the MPR set is selected in the node i hop node. The
2
node i, its initial chromosome gene chain is expressed as follows: more the two-hop neighbors are covered by one-hop neighbor
⎡( )0 ⏐⏐ ( )0 ⏐⏐
. . .⏐ √1 0
⏐( ) ⎤ nodes, the greater the probability of the two-hop neighbors being
⏐ √1 ⏐
√1 selected. So the virtuous loop owns a heuristic effect.
. . .⏐ 2 m ⎥
⏐
⎢ 2 ⏐ 2
q0i = ⎣ ( )10 ⏐ ( )20 ⏐
⏐
1 1
. . .⏐⏐ ( 1 )0 ⎦
3.4.2. On fitness function
⏐ ⏐
√
2
⏐ √2 ⏐
1 2
. . . ⏐ √2 m
The smallest MPR set in the OLSR is typically considered
Where i = 1, 2, . . . , m, m is the total number of nodes in to reduce flooding messages in the MANET, thereby reducing
the topology of MANET. A qubit of the chromosomal gene chain overall energy consumption. However, only minimizing the MPR
qti |t = 0 represents a linear superposition of all possible states setting standard may result in excessive energy consumption of
with the same probability, expressed by the equation as follows: some nodes in the MPR set, resulting in partial network failure,
2m affecting the overall data transmission efficiency and lifetime
∑ 1 of the network. Therefore, it is necessary to comprehensively
|ψq0j ⟩ √ |Sk ⟩ (11)
2m minimize the MPR set and make a comprehensive individual
k=1
adaptive assessment of the node energy information. According to
Where Sk is the state, represented by the binary string ⟨x1, x2, . . . , the aforementioned heuristic selection rule, the fitness equation
xn⟩, xi is 0 or 1, and m is the chromosome gene chain length, of the node j in the set is as follows:
i = 1, 2, . . . , m.
Fitness_NB(i, j) = NB_table1.size − q[j].size (12)
3.4. Selection of initial population Where Fitness_talble1.size denotes the number of nodes in the
hop list of the node j, and q[j].size denotes the size of the MPR
According to the OLSR protocol, the MPR set of the source node set selected by the individual j in the population Q (t).
should satisfy the following conditions: (1) each terminal in the In Eq. (12), the fitness of node j is figured out because the
MPR set is a single-hop neighbor at the source end; (2) the source MPR set of node i is to be selected. Node j is a one-hop neighbor
end propagates the message to all two-hop neighbor endpoints node of node i. According to the above heuristic rule, if nodes
through the MPR set. The heuristic rule is used to select MPR set are selected as nodes in MPR set, which cover more than two-
of node i, which is mainly based on the one-hop and two-hop hop neighbor node, node j needs to be evaluated. Similarly to the
neighbor nodes table of node. In addition, considering the nodal following Eq. (13), the node j in the MPR set of i is selected, and
energy, the node fitness function is put forward, and the node the energy fitness function of node j needs to be evaluated.
i is selected as the node in the MPR set to evaluate the fitness. Selecting the MPR set based on the above heuristic rules may
According to the above two rules, the MPR set of the node i is result in excessive local energy consumption in the network. In
selected to ensure the optimal selection of the MPR set. And the this paper, according to the node energy information, the node
redundant information is transmitted less, the topology lifetime energy fitness function can be calculated as follows:
of MANET is longer.
N N1
∑ ∑
Fitness_ENE(i, j) = Ccst − Wij × Costij × (µj + c + ∆Ccst ) (13)
3.4.1. On heuristic rules
i j
The nodes in the topology of MANET are divided into the
following three categories: (1) Node i; (2) One-hop neighbor In Eq. (13), N is the total number of nodes in the network
node of node i and stored in one-hop neighbor table NB_table1, topology and N1 is the number of hop neighbors in node j.
denoted by N11 , N21 , . . . , Nn1
1
, where m is the one-hop neighbor Costij × (µj + c + ∆Ccst ) represents the cost of the entire link,
number of node i; (3) The two-hop neighbor node of node i, that Costij represents the cost of the edge, i.e. the energy consumed to
is to say, the nodes that need to reach by two hops, and do not send and receive data between the node i and the node j, µ is
include the nodes in one-hop neighbor node table, and store these the compression ratio, and c is an arbitrary constant, ∆Ccst is the
nodes in the two-hop neighbor node table NB_table2 of node i, noise volume. The cost of the edge between the nodes Costij can
290 D.-g. Zhang, Y.-y. Cui and T. Zhang / Applied Soft Computing Journal 80 (2019) 285–296
be expressed by radio terminal energy consumption ETX (k, dij )
and ERX (k, dij ) with the energy consumption of the noise ∆E as
follows:
Costij = ETx (k, dij ) + ERx (k, dij ) + ∆E
Based on the radio energy consumption model as Eq. (14), the
energy consumption per node for k bits is as follows:
(k, d) = ETx −elec(k) + ETx−amp (k, d) + ∆ETx (k, d)
ETx{
kEelec + kEfs × d2 + ∆Enoise , d < d0
= ent network performance requirements of MANET, different and
kEelec + kEmp × d4 + ∆Enoise , d ≥ d0
√ parameters can be set.
In Eq. (15), d0 = fs E
, k is the number of transmitted
Emp
packets, d is the transmission distance, ∆ETx (k, d) and ∆Enoise are
the energy consumption of the noise. When the distance between
the source node and the destination node of MANET is less than
or equal to the threshold value d0 , the node adopts the free
space mode; when the distance between the source node and
the destination node of MANET is greater than the threshold
value d0 , in contrast, the node adopts the multi-path attenuation
mode; Eelec (nj/bit) is the radio frequency energy consumption
coefficient; Efs and Emp are the energy consumption coefficients
of the circuit amplifier in free space mode and multi-path fading
mode respectively. The energy consumption value of the node
receiving a k-bit the message is calculated as follows:
ERx (k) = ERx−elec (k) = kEelec
The weighting factor Wij in Eq. (13) is used to protect nodes
with low energy of MANET, so that they do not have to send too
much data. Since node j is optimized, node j is selected as the
MPR set of node i, and node j with less energy can be protected.
The calculation of Wij equation is as follows:
⎧ E Eav g
j
× × (−2) Eav g /Ej ≤ 0.45
1 ∑k
⎪ 1 ∑k
i=1 Ei i=1 Ei
⎪
k k
⎪
⎪
⎨ E Eav g
j
wij = 1 ∑k E × 1 ∑k ×2 Eav g /Ej ≥ 1.9
⎪ k i=1 i k i=1 Ei
⎪
⎪ Ej Eav g
× others
⎪
⎩ 1 ∑k ∑k
1
k i=1 Ei k i=1 Ei
Where Ej is the energy of current node j of MANET; Eav g is the
average energy of all the hop nodes of node j; Ei is the energy
of the superior node i of the node j, the superior node is the
Selector MPR node of the node j; setting the parameters k, k is
the total number of nodes MPR Selector j. For making the node
energy consumption more balanced, when the energy of node j
is more than about twice average energy of its one-hop neighbor
node, Eav g /Ej ≤ 0.45, the weight will be multiplied by (-2) to
reduce the cost of the whole link. And the node j is encouraged
to become the MPR node of other nodes i of MANET. That is to
say, Eav g /Ej ≥ 1.9, the weight will be multiplied by about 1.9 to
increase the link cost, reduce the fitness of node j, and restrain it
from becoming other node i MPR node.
The Eq. (17) shows that Wij protects the node j with less
residual energy and suppresses it as the MPR node of other nodes
i by using the weighted penalty method, then the node j does not
need to send more TC messages. Thus, the nodes and topology of
MANET will have longer lifetimes.
Based on the node fitness function calculated by the above
heuristic rule and the nodal fitness function calculated from the
node energy information, the comprehensive fitness function of
the node of MANET can be calculated as follows:
Fitness(i, j) = w1 × Fitness_NB(i, j) + w2 × Fitness_ENE(i, j)
Where w 1 = 1/2, w 2 = 1/2 are the equilibrium heuristic
selection rule and the fitness of node energy of MANET. According
to the statistical result, the default value of w1 and w2 were set to
1
2
.
How can these surely be optimal values? The value of w1 and
w2 were changed based on the different applications by machine
learning, which introduced in the references [9–12]. Based on the
learning process, the optimal value can be obtained. If equation
(14)
(18) is treated as a multiple objective approach, it should be
divided or extended the dimension of the parameters, so that
non-dominated solutions can be formed to be another dimension
of thought for the design. In the simulation experiment or actual
application, according to different application scenarios, differ-
(15)
Based on the result of the node fitness function, the node j is
selected as the node in MPR set of node i, and the equation is as
follows:
Fitness(i, j)
MPR (i, j) = ∑gen _size (19)
j=1 Fitness(i, j)
Where gen _size is the total number of individuals in the popula-
tion, that is to say, gen _size is equal to the total number of nodes
in the network of MANET. So the selection probability that the
node j is selected as the MPR of node i is MPR(i, j).
In summary , the MPR set of node i is selected by the heuristic
rule, and the MPR set selected by the heuristic rule is filtered and
optimized by the fitness function of node j. Since the heuristic
rules only depend on the coverage of the nodes to select the
(16)
MPR set, the energy information of the nodes of MANET is not
taken into account. However, MPR sends TC control messages
periodically, which needs to consume energy. If only the MPR
set judged by the distance information is selected, the probability
of some nodes being selected is large, and the energy consump-
tion of these nodes is large. It may result in excessive energy
consumption in the regional nodes. The topology of MANET is
partially paralyzed and network data transmission efficiency is
affected. Therefore, the heuristic rule is adopted to select the MPR
(17)
nodes, according to the one-hop and two-hop neighbor table of
nodes. And the distance fitness of the nodes of MANET is obtained
according to the number of neighbors. And the energy fitness
of the node of MANET is obtained by using the node energy
fitness function containing the energy information. In the end, the
optimal MPR set of each node is selected.
3.5. Crosstalk and mutation
3.5.1. Crossover operation
The traditional cross-gene operation methods include single-
cross, multiple-point cross, uniform cross, shuffle to cross, narrow
proxy cross [33,34]. However, the traditional crossover strategy
does not apply in respect of this approach, for example, in the
single-cross, there are continuous genetic locus of different in-
dividuals’ gene chains, which can better reflect the individual
traits and individual fitness. In the process of biological evolution,
the crossover rate of the offspring generated by a single point of
crossing is small, which is only applicable to the evolutionary pro-
cess of the environment with slow change, and is not applicable
to the MANET with fast topology change. For the characteristics
of high dynamic topology of MANET, the quantum cross-policy
is selected. The steps include the following ones: numbering
and sorting all nodes in the network topology; the first gene of
the first individual is taken as the first gene locus of the new
(18)
individual, and the second gene of the adjacent individual is taken
as the second gene locus of the new individual, until the new
individual has the same number of genes; do it until the new
population has the same genetic size as the parent.
 D.-g. Zhang, Y.-y. Cui and T. Zhang / Applied Soft Computing Journal 80 (2019) 285–296
3.5.2. Mutation operation
After the probability of individual mutation for individual mu-
tation operation is calculated, and the probability of mutation
of the gene locus of the individual chain is calculated, then the
mutation operation of quantum not-gate is carried out. Due to
the low probability of mutation, some individuals may not mutate
at all, in order to reduce the waste of computing resources, the
probability of mutation at the individual level is judged first,
and then the probability of mutation of the gene locus of in-
dividual gene chain is judged. Similar descriptions in genetic
biotechnology refer to the probability of an individual infecting an
infectious disease, the probability of chromosome mutation and
the probability of inheritance to offspring after the disease has
been determined.
Suppose that L is the individual length of the chromosome,N
is the number of individuals in the population, and pinitial is the
initial mutation probability. Then the probability of mutation of
individual i in the population can be calculated as follows:
p(i) = 1 − (1 − pinitial )L
Where i = 1, 2, . . . , N. Set a random variable φ ∈ [0, 1],
when p(i) ≥ φ individual variation, p(i) < φ when not mutated
sometimes. Due to the variation, the mutation probability of the
gene on the individual selected for mutation also needs to be
modified accordingly to ensure that the expected number of gene
mutations across the population is equal. In traditional mutation
mode, the expectation number of mutation is n × L × pinitial,
and the probability of new gene mutation is p′ , then the expected
number of mutation under the new mutation mode is (n × p(i)) ×
(L × p′ ). Mutation expectation values can be calculated as follows:
n × L × pinitial = n × p(i) × L × p′
p = p/p(i) = pinitial /(1 − pinitial )
′ L
By comparing the traditional variant of n × L and the new
variant of n × p(i) × L, we can know that the difference is
n × L × (1 − p(i)). Therefore, the longer the chromosome gene
chain, the lower the computational complexity. According to the
quantum not-gate and the calculated gene mutation probability
p′ , the values of the amplitudes α and β of the chromosomal
loci are exchanged with probability p′ . The quantum mutation
operation actually changes the state of the superposition of the
quantum bit states. So the mutation operation is effective for all
the superimposed states of the chromosome.
3.6. Updating of the gene chain
According to the while loop of the above QGA, we can obtain
a set P(t) of solutions and evaluate for each solution using the
above fitness function by observing the Q (t − 1) state and the
previous process description. The UpdateQ (t) operation is done
by using the appropriate quantum gate U(t), which is the optimal
solution to update P(t). The quantum gate U(t) can be chosen
by the specific application cases. Currently, there are many kinds
of quantum gates of the quantum bit gate, which are commonly
used in quantum rotation gate, quantum not-gate, quantum con-
trol gate, Hadamard gate and so on. Based on the characteristics
of QGA, it is more suitable to select quantum rotation gate. The
procedure for adjusting the quantum revolving door is as follows:
⏐α ′ ⏐ ⏐cos(θi ) − sin(θi )⏐ ⏐αi ⏐
⏐ ⏐ ⏐ ⏐ ⏐ ⏐
⏐ i′ ⏐ = ⏐ (23)
⏐βi ⏐ ⏐sin(θi ) cos(θi ) ⏐ × ⏐βi ⏐
⏐ ⏐ ⏐
⏐ αi ⏐
⏐ ⏐
Where ⏐ ⏐ is the probability amplitude of the ith bit in the
βi ⏐
⏐
gene chain, θ i is the rotation angle, and the selection strategy is
similar to the reference [15]. The rotation angleθ i = S(α i, β i) ×
291
∆θ i, S(α i, β i) represents the rotation direction, and ∆θ i repre-
sents the rotation angle. The rotation angle adjustment strategy
is to compare the fitness f (xi) of the current measured value of
the individual qti with the fitness value f (b i) of the current target
value of the individual.
3.7. Detailed steps of new QG-OLSR protocol
The improved quantum genetic algorithm with augmented
Q-Learning strategy applied to the OLSR protocol can optimize
the selection of the MPR set of the source node in the protocol.
It can effectively reduce the redundant information in the net-
work topology, improve the packet delivery rate between nodes
and reduce the end-to-end delay. According to the aforemen-
tioned equations and theories, the detailed steps of new QG-OLSR
protocol are as follows:
(1) Based on the improved QGA with new augmented Q-
Learning strategy, each node in the topology of MANET is rep-
resented by every quantum bit of quantum chain. The initial
(20)
population is denoted by Q (t) = qt1 , qt2 , . . . , qtn , where qti repre-
sents the gene chain of the ith individual in the population, Eq. (5)
is the representation of the individual gene chain.
(2) Initialization and encoding. When the population Q (t) is
initialized, the gene chain is encoded by 0 or 1, and the proba-
bility amplitudes α and β denoting ‘‘0’’ and ‘‘1’’ are initialized to
the value √1 , then the Q (t) of the i individual qti in the population
2
can be expressed as Eq. (11).
(3) Selecting the initial population. According to the charac-
teristics of MPR strategy in OLSR protocol, the heuristic rule and
the node fitness function are used to select each node MPR set.
⃝1 Heuristic rules: the node in the network of MANET is di-
(21) vided into three categories: node i, one-hop node of i which
(22) is stored in NB_table1; two-hop node of i which is stored in
NB_table2 Based on new augmented Q-Learning strategy, for
node i, the nodes that cover all NB_table2 are selected in
NB_table1 according to each node in NB_table2, and these nodes
in
NB_table1 are selected into the MPR set of node i. The probability
amplitudes of the state ‘‘1’’ at the corresponding positions of the
gene chain of the node i are modified to 1, and the probability
amplitude of the state ‘‘0’’ is changed to 0, and the rest remains
unchanged.
⃝2 Fitness degree rules: according to the above heuristic rule
and by using Eq. (12) to calculate the distance fitness of the node,
the energy fitness of the node is calculated by using Eq. (13).
Eqs. (18) and (19) are used to calculate the overall fitness of nodes
of MANET to determine whether node j in NB_table1 is suitable
for MPR node of node i based on the new augmented Q-Learning
strategy.
(4) Doing the crossing and mutation operation of Gene strands.
In order to avoid falling into the local optimal solution, we use
quantum crossing to perform gene chain crossing operation to
keep the convergence by augmented Q-Learning strategy, and
use quantum not-gate to realize gene chain mutation operation,
and judge the probability of mutation of individual gene chain in
consideration of the probability of individual level mutation. The
probability of gene-site mutation is calculated by Eqs. (20)–(22).
(5) Doing the update operation of Gene chains. The chromoso-
mal gene by quantum rotation gate in parent offspring produced
by the probability amplitudes of α and β are updated by Eq. (23),
and the update strategy with augmented Q-Learning updates
rotation angle θ .
(6) Checking the convergence of the whole process based on
the convergence condition by augmented Q-Learning strategy. If
so, the processing is over, otherwise, the process will go to step
(3).
292 D.-g. Zhang, Y.-y. Cui and T. Zhang / Applied Soft Computing Journal 80 (2019) 285–296

Table 2
Parameters for experimental testing.
Node distribution range 500 m × 500 m
The total number of nodes 200
Node initial energy 0.9 J
Node communication radius 105 m
Node movement speed [0 Vmax], Vmax=30 m/s
Packet transmission rate [0 Smax], Smax=15 p/s
Packet length 1500 bit
Node communication distance 85
threshold
Energy consumption factor of 4.5×10−8 J/bit
circuit
Energy consumption coefficient Efs: 0.9×10−11 J/(bit*m−2 )
of channel propagation model
Compression ratio Emp: 1.2×10−15 J/(bit*m−4 )
Initial mutation probability 0.45

Fig. 2. Topological control overhead of motion velocity.

needs to send their own message information packet. According

Fig. 1. Network topology diagram of experimental testing.
(7) Checking whether the processing meets the requirements
and the error threshold is less than 5% or not, If so, the protocol
will exit or do EXIT operation, otherwise, the processing will go
to step (2).
4. Experimental testing
In our experiments of MANET with the parameters as Table 2,
the QG-OLSR protocol is simulated and analyzed by MATLAB
platform. We compare this protocol with the classical OLSR proto-
col, the proposed OLSR-NSSAU (Neighborhood State Self-Adaptive
Update) protocol and the CE-OLSR (Cartography Enhanced-OLSR)
protocol [13–18]. The packet-to-packet delivery rate and the av-
erage end-to-end delay between the nodes and the network
lifetime are analyzed under the banner of different node speed,
different node packet sending rate, different network node den-
sity, routing topology control overhead, packet-to-packet delivery
rate.
The main experimental performance testing objects of MANET
are as follows:
(1) The overhead of topology control: because OLSR is the
table-driven routing protocol, it needs to periodically send rout-
ing group information and maintain the routing table to other
nodes of MANET. Therefore, the analysis of the packet overhead
of maintaining the routing topology information is carried out.
(2) The rate of data packet delivery: each node not only peri-
odically sends routing maintenance information packets, but also
to the number of data packets sent by the source node and the
number of data packets received by the destination node, the data
packet delivery rate is calculated.
(3) The average delay of end-to-end of MANET: The average
delay time after the data flow is generated from the node or after
the data is received, until data is successfully received by the next
hop node.
Figs. 2–4 show the influence of various routing protocol on
the network performance under the different speed of nodes
of MANET. Fig. 2 is the network topology control overhead of
MANET, Fig. 3 is the packet delivery rate, Fig. 4 is the average end
to end delay. The nodes are randomly distributed in the range of
500×500 in MANET, and the speed of nodes of MANET is evenly
distributed on [0, Vmax]. The nodes of MANET generate and send
packets at a rate of 15 packets per second and each packet size is
1500 bits (see Fig. 1).
As shown in Fig. 2, in both the traditional routing protocol
and the improved routing protocol, the network topology control
overhead of MANET increases with the increase of node motion
rate. This is because the faster the node moves, the bigger the
network topology changes. For table-driven protocol routing, the
proportion of the total information of the communication that
needs to be maintained by the structure is larger, resulting in
an increase in network topology control overhead. It can be seen
from the figure that the control cost of QG-OLSR proposed in this
paper is greatly improved compared with that of OLSR. Compared
with OLSR-NSSAU, the control cost of QG-OLSR decreases about
9.3%, and the control overhead of CE-OLSR decreases about 2.8%.
Compared with the OLSR-NSSAU, the control overhead of the
QG-OLSR is about 8.8% lower than that of the OLSR-NSSAU, and
the control cost of the QG-OLSR is 3.2% lower than that of the
CE-OLSR when the node moves at a high speed of V = 30 m/s.
As shown in Fig. 3, in both the traditional routing protocol and
the improved routing protocol, the rate of successful packet deliv-
ery between nodes decreases with the increase of moving speed
of the node in MANET. In the static state of the node, since the
topology of the network does not change, the number of packets
requiring topology maintenance is small, so the delivery rate of
the effective packet in the total packet is high. With the increase
of the node movement speed, when the node moves at a high
speed of V=30m/s, the QG-OLSR is about 0.16% higher than the
OLSR; the QG-OLSR is about 0.10% higher than the OLSR-NSSAU;
the QG-OLSR is about 0.05% higher than the CE-OLSR.
 D.-g. Zhang, Y.-y. Cui and T. Zhang / Applied Soft Computing Journal 80 (2019) 285–296
Fig. 3. The data packet delivery rate of different nodes.
Fig. 4. Average end-to-end delay of moving speed of nodes.
As shown in Fig. 4, the OLSR, OLSR-NSSAU, CE-OLSR, and
QG-OLSR protocols do not differ significantly between node rest
and node low-speed motion. For table-driven routing, each node
knows the path to each other node. When the network topology
changes little and the packet generation rate is the same, the
network congestion is basically the same, and the delay between
the nodes is basically the same. When the nodes are moving at
high speed of V = 30m/s, the average end-to-end delay is larger
than that nodes keep static, because the routing table needs to
be calculated for the table-driven route. It can be seen from the
figure that the average end-to-end delay is improved by about
2.6 m/s compared with OLSR and OLSR-NSSAU when the node
moves at high speed, and the delay is about 1 ms compared with
CE-OLSR.
Figs. 5 and 6 show the influence of various routing algorithms
on network performance under different packet sending rates.
Fig. 5 shows the network topology control overhead, Fig. 6 shows
the packet delivery rate. The nodes are randomly distributed in
the range of 500 m × 500 m. Each node moves at a uniform speed
of 20m/s and the direction of movement is random. The rate at
which packets are generated by the node is in the range of 0 to
15 packets per second, and the size of each packet is 1500 bits.
As shown in Fig. 5, when the node speed is constant, the
network topology control cost tends to decrease slightly as the
packet sending rate increases. This is because the oscillation
degree of the topology structure is the same when the velocity
293
Fig. 5. Topology control overhead for transmission rates.
Fig. 6. Packet delivery rate of data packet delivery rate.
of the node is constant, and the control cost for maintaining the
topology structure is constant. However, with the increase of data
rate, the proportion of routing information needed to maintain
the topology in the total data information of the network be-
comes smaller and smaller. Therefore, as the packet sending rate
increases, the network control overhead is slightly lower. OLSR-
NSSAU and CE-OLSR are more efficient than OLSR in network
topology control cost of QG-OLSR.
As shown in Fig. 6, when the node speed is constant and the
direction of motion is random, the packet delivery rate is slightly
decreasing for a variety of routing protocols, and the QG-OLSR
is decreased by about 0.22% with the increase of the node data
packet transmission rate. This is because when the node sends
a large amount of data packets, the network will cause a larger
amount of data, resulting in network congestion slightly. And the
QG-OLSR has higher packet delivery rate than OLSR, OLSR-NSSAU
and CE-OLSR.
Figs. 7–9 show the simulation results of the network topo-
logical range of 200 nodes to 500 m × 500 m. Node velocity is
15m/s, and packet generation rate is 11 per second. The network
topology control overhead, packet delivery rate, and end-to-end
delay between nodes are analyzed under different node densities.
As shown in Fig. 7, for many different routing protocols, rout-
ing control overhead of nodes in smaller network is small, be-
cause in larger network, in order to enable all nodes to receive
the messages from others. According to the characteristics of
MANETs and OLSR routing, you need to send more data packets
294 D.-g. Zhang, Y.-y. Cui and T. Zhang / Applied Soft Computing Journal 80 (2019) 285–296
Fig. 7. Different node density, routing control overhead.
Fig. 8. Different node density, packet delivery rate.
to maintain a highly dynamic network topology. OLSR increases
about 28%, OLSR-NSSAU increases about 25%, CE-OLSR increases
about 23%, and QG-OLSR increases about 21% for different routing
protocols. By comparison, the QG-OLSR protocol has a smaller
ratio of the increase of the topology maintenance and control
overhead caused by the increase of the topology of MANET.
Fig. 8 shows the impact of different routing protocols on the
packet delivery rate for different node densities. It can be seen
from Fig. 8 that the packet delivery rates of different routing
protocols have a slight decrease with the node density becoming
smaller, but the difference is not significant. The main reason
is that the topology range becomes larger, the node density be-
comes smaller, and the effective routing between nodes becomes
less. From the figure, it can be seen that the OLSR protocol reduces
the packet delivery rate by about 2.6%, the OLSR-NSSAU reduces
packet delivery rate by about 1.7%, and the CE-OLSR reduces
packet delivery rate by about 0.9% , QG-OLSR reduces packet
delivery rate by about 0.7%. Compared with other routing pro-
tocols, QG-OLSR has the least impact on the packet delivery rate
when the density of the nodes is small, in the same simulation
environment.
Fig. 9 shows the effect of routing protocols on the average
end-to-end delay between nodes with different node densities.
The Fig. 9 shows the delay of different routing protocols. As the
network topology increases, the distribution of nodes is frag-
mented, and the data transmission path between nodes becomes
Fig. 9. Different node density, average end-to-end delay.
less and the efficiency of data transmission decreases, leading to
an increase in end-to-end packet delay between nodes. From the
figure, it can be seen that the OLSR delay is about 54%, the OLSR-
NSSAU is about 47%, the CE-OLSR is about 44%, and the QG-OLSR
is about 40% when the node density in the network becomes
small increasingly. Compared with other protocols, the QG-OLSR
protocol has a better efficiency.
Aforementioned NSGA-II [29] is one of the fast and elitist
successful multi-objective genetic algorithms in optimization of
current generation mobile WSN and MANET. Based on OLSR with
NSGA and NSGA-II, we do many relative experiments to discuss
the implication of the same in our proposed work and compare
with QGA’s implication by taking few conflicting issues like mo-
bility, throughput, delay, etc. Here we give Fig. 10 to show their
respective performances.
As can be seen from Fig. 10, the QG-OLSR protocol has better
efficiency than the other five protocols. From our experimental
test and analysis (the process is similar to aforementioned de-
scription), we can see that because the calculation of MPR of
QG-OLSR protocol is carried out independently by each node, only
the LS information within two hops is considered, therefore, even
though the network is very large and the nodes are very dense,
the topology information of two hops does not consume a large
amount of energy and can achieve a better calculation efficiency.
Since the selection of MPR sets is optimized and the information
such as node energy is considered in the selection process, the
redundant information such as topology control information in
the network will be reduced, resulting in a decrease of network
topology control overhead and an increase of effective packet
delivery rate.
5. Conclusions
This paper proposed a kind of new quantum-genetic based
OLSR protocol (QG-OLSR) for MANET. Because the traditional
QGA strategy needs to be improved, New augmented Q-Learning
strategy has been embedded in our improved quantum genetic
strategy. The nodes in the network are encoded and initialized
by the quantum gene bit. The MPR set of each node is selected
by using heuristic rules and node fitness rules (nodal energy in-
formation). The probability of mutation in the gene is considered
in advance when the gene mutation probability is calculated.
The quantum rotation gate is used to update the gene chain,
and the MPR set of the repair strategy is added. The results of
the experimental testings show that the new protocol is reliable
and highly efficient, which is suitable for many applications of
MANET.
 D.-g. Zhang, Y.-y. Cui and T. Zhang / Applied Soft Computing Journal 80 (2019) 285–296
Fig. 10. Data packet delivery rate of different nodes.
Acknowledgments
This research work is supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No. 61571328), Tianjin Key Natural
Science Foundation, China (No.18JCZDJC96800), Major projects of
science and technology in Tianjin, China (No.15ZXDSGX00050),
Training plan of Tianjin University Innovation Team, China
(No.TD12-5016, TD13-5025), Major projects of science and tech-
nology for their services in Tianjin, China (No.16ZXFWGX00010,
No.17YFZCGX00360), the Key Subject Foundation of Tianjin, China
(No.15JCYBJC46500), Training plan of Tianjin 131 Innovation Tal-
ent Team, China (No.TD2015-23).
Conflict of interest
No author associated with this paper has disclosed any po-
tential or pertinent conflicts which may be perceived to have
impending conflict with this work. For full disclosure statements
refer to https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asoc.2019.03.053.
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