PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL AS/A LEVEL CTY Student Book 1Pdsahas by Patean exieaton Lesa 0 Sears Lender, WOR ORL. Copies corsa apactieations er Evel qualesiers maybe tau ens iste Nea uation pases (esigaed iy That i, Gaara UK ‘peter by Teen atl Gatecnase Ue Ed by Sora Ryan are Katharine Gocey Sm (Gogh rations ¢ Paarsan Educate urea 2 "Montnledy @ ch OL, Catecrad, UE Cover door © Pearce Eewcaton inc 2008 ov igus For ty apes Cad liver Fain Write ont ever: Shuttrstekicom/Emty Lance Tha ge ci Ct, Jans Ane and Dans om te nt a {om thao hn Pao asset by them naceetaren wen tha Coayrh, (signs nd Poors ct 1B, nanese ‘atu Leray Cataogung i Pustestn eta ‘catalog cera fre bookie anthem Ho Bech Lor ISBN Bre 2a22 496 0 ‘cooyget nation ‘a nies ered, No por cf pbtsbcn may be prec Foy tn obs {iy ear (neuzingreateespine rate Rit masium by sacrane mast {na whether arr Barer er nedetal) te sore cer in reputation, ‘acu ie wien paras ef cope me except accaniance ith the perocra ofthe Gopyr ah Daegne and Peer Ak AMM or ue te tara of Hearce wad Dye Capwtaht Losrana Aca, Bara en 86 Fate ane Lenn BG IE fru cla.o.08 apical for thecapyrgt overs ‘ween prackr souk be aoarsced toe pute Pintelin Sova by Neca ‘roknomtodgemants Tha aamereanapuedene woultoha tomani ths long resvaatz ane tapers fot perenne prion cocina Protogrania Ma t-te, ee He nan oes {230K com: reses harrneral |e: Alar Stock Phot deri Exe 14 Dera Kiogevinecco Photog 200-20). ah Moy Garo A Doe 11. 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AND GAIN 186 2 ASSIGNING OXIDATION NUMBERS 188 3 RECOGNISING REACTIONS. USING OXIDATION NUMBERS 190 4 OXIDATION NUMBERS AND NOMENCLATURE 192 ‘5 CONSTRUCTING FULL IONIC EQUATIONS: 194 ‘8B THE ELEMENTS OF 1 AND 2 1 TRENDS IN GROUPS 1 AND 2 ‘2 REACTIONS OF GROUP 1 ELEMENTS ‘O REAGTIONS OF GROUP 2 ELEMENTS 4 OXIDES AND HYDAOXIDES IN GROUPS 1 AND Z ‘5 THERMAL STABILITY OF COMPOUNDS IN GROUPS 1 AND 2 6 FLAME TESTS AND THE TEST FOR AMMONIUM IONS = CHEMISTY OF GROUP 7 1 TRENDS IN GROUP 7 ‘2 REDOX REACTIONS: IN GROUP 7 S REACTIONS OF HALIDES WITH ‘SULFURIC ACID 4 OTHER REACTIONS. OF HALIDES ‘8D QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY 1 MAKING STANDARD SOLUTIONS: 2 DOING TITRATIONS 3 CALCULATIONS FROM TITRATIONS MISTAKES, ERRORS, ACCURACY AND PRECISION 201 203 206 208 210 213 26 218 222 2245 MEASUREMENT ERRORS AND MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTIES 226 6 OVERALL MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTY 228 THINKING BIGGER 230 EXAM PRACTICE 232 TOPIC 9 INTRODUCTION TO KINETICS AND EQUILIBRIA 234 9A KINETICS 1 REACTION RATE, COLLISION THEORY AND ACTIVATION ENERGY 236 2 EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION, PRESSURE AND SURFACE AREA ON RATE OF REACTION 230 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RATE OF REACTION © 247 4 EFFECT OF CATALYSTS ON RATEOF REACTION 243 9B EQUILIBRIA 1 REVERSIBLE REACTIONS AND DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM © 246 2 EFFECT OF GHANGES IN CONDITIONS ON EQUILIBRIUM COMPOSITION 248 3 REVERSIBLE REACTIONS IN INDUSTRY 252 THINKING BIGGER 254 EXAM PRACTICE 256 TOPIC 10 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: HALOGENOALKANES, ALCOHOLS AND SPECTRA 260 10A GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN ORGANIC (CHEMISTRY 262 10B HALOGENOALKANES 1 HALOGENOALKANES AND HYDROLYSIS REACTIONS 264 2 COMPARING THE RATES OF HYDROLYSIS REACTIONS 266 3 HALOGENOALKANE REACTIONS AND MECHANISMS: 268 10C ALCOHOLS 1 ALCOHOLS AND SOME OF THEIR REACTIONS 270 2 OXIDATION REACTIONS OF ALCOHOLS: 272. 3 PURIFYING AN ORGANIC LIQUID 274 10D MASS SPECTRA AND IR 1 MASS SPECTROMETRY OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS == 278 2 DEDUCING STRUCTURES FROM MASS SPECTRA 280 S INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY 282 4 USING INFRARED ‘SPECTRA 284 THINKING BIGGER 286 EXAM PRACTICE 288 MATHS SKILLS PREPARING FOR YOUR EXAMS: COMMAND WORDS GLOSSARY PERIODIC TABLE INDEXCee a ABOUT THIS BOOK ‘This book is written for students folowing the Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidlary (IAS) Chemistry specification. This book covers the ful IAS course and the frst year of the International & Leval (AL) course The boo contains full coverage of IAS units (or exam papers) 1 and 2, Students can prepare for the written Practical Paper by using the IAL Chemistry Lab Book ise page x of this book). Each unit has five Topic ‘areas that maich the titles and order of those in the specification. You can refer to the Assessment Overview (on page ati for further information. Each Topic Is divided into chapters and sections to break the content down Into manageable chunks, Each section features.a mix of leaming and activities, Leomning cbjeatives tats wh a it of Soeciication reference The exact spectieaton points cove me ection ar proved Worked easerotes| thon yau how ‘goose, snl xt ot ealeulabers. ‘Checkoaint ‘Durston at re endo each section check Uneareardirg OF the hay arin ‘tach cht, Croasrafersaces Thesa help yo rferance pat ard Kare bain, eam bint Tipo hen eater ‘slams auesbons end guldarca for ay reparation Sabloc Key tone ara ngnighiog Inbiug in the tas, oor ations are proved wt fhe and af each seston ar fsanyrference, and are aso Collated na gicssary at me Daca fe bok ‘Did you know? Intoresing facts help you remember te toy coment,PaCS g 5 ey tor 9) pe by Tone esa aways pat coven HALOGENOALKANES, = ey Ona) ns Chemin knowesge 9 Thinking Blggor ha end ofeach foot thare SEMEL TMCS ro highly vaued In sneer : LlPRACTICAL SKILLS Practical work is central to the study of chemistry. The International Advanced Subsidiary (IAS) Chemistry specification lngludes aight Core Practicals that link theoretical Knowledas and understanding lo practical scenarios. ‘Your knewledge and understanding of practicsl sills and activities will be assessed in all examination papers tor the IAS Level Chamistry qualification. ‘© Fapore and 2 wil include questions bases on practical activities, including novel scenarios, Paper 3 will test your abilty to plan practical work, including risk management and selection of apparatus. n order to develop practical skills, you should carry out a range af practical experiments related to the topics covered in your course. Further suggestions in aduition to the Core Praeticals are nciuded in the specification vihich is availanie Bs aL at PPRHe SME ey ‘TOPIC 1 CPL Measurement of the molar volume of a gas FORMULAE, EQUATIONS AND AMOUNT OF ‘SUBSTANCE ‘TOPIC G cre Determination of the enthalpy change of a reaction using Hess’s Law: ENERGETICS: a 1 Ree yen K STAY AMD 1; 2 ANB. cra Preparation of a standard solution from a solid acid and useit to find Hoan atbppine a eitaileal reat ee ree ORGANIC CHES HALOGNORLKAES, ah et paganl thease hecho 2 fei) Ta ately nar cam uceaumar sepmeoe eo cre Analysis of some inorganic and organic unknownsThis Sent Book seco by & Lab Book, ‘nid wreting frames fr the Core Fractals fr you to racer ou eats are eae on your thom. Pract exile practice Provided. The Lab Book record fat be used as preserva for the Practical Sls Pape PRA inthe Stocent Book te Core Practeal spsciteatons ‘a guppies im theroewsrt PToy Cea) ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW The following tables give an overview of tha assessment for Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Sutsiciary (AS) Level course in Chemistry, You should study this information closely to help ensure that you are fully prepared for this course and know exacily what-te expect in each part of the examinations, More information about this qualifeation, and about the question types in the different papers, can be found in Preparing far yaur exams on page 296 ol this book. eae i eee pa parts co ul ee ‘STRUCTURE, BONDING AND 40% 20% #0 Uhewr January, Jone and Osraber peace EN can AP wminates pst assessment; January 2019 CHEMISTRY ‘Write exam paper Paper code WCHL Escernally set ana marked by Pearvoa Edexcel Single tee of entry ? earns PAPER J UNIT 2 eo ieee tare jae | ld ooo ENERGETICS, GROUP CHEMISTRY, 0-1 20% x0 howe January, Janeand October HALOREWOALKANES AND ALCOHOLS SOeMWGY: Sepceeacintsce rpcacane Written exam paper Paper code CHLI2M1 Ewermaly sec and marked by Pearson Edsel Single ie of entry fea | CET are Jor ia Ca ea PRACTICAL SKILLS IN CHEMISTRY 1 21> 10% 30 ibour January, Joneand Getaber Written exam paper DO minutes Figs assesses Juoe 2019 Papec/ Unit cade WCHLS/OL Esgernally xt and marked by Pearson Edexcel Single tier of entrySC " ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES AND WEIGHTINGS At Demansirate knowediae and understanding of science 36S (a) Application of kno wledige and ainderstandin of selene in Mah 3G 32K ie familiar and unfamiliar contexts, (hy Andtyis sad -evaluation of scleatbe information wo males out nad judgements and reach conclusions. ee Experimental shill in seiesce including analysis and evaluacinn a ai BA ‘of data and methods RELATIONSHIP OF ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES TO UNITS Pisses ees TO a2 Bo co ‘ours irs an 4555 00 wun iaB m8 4555 00 mura 00 20 oo 20 TOTAL FOR TERNATIONAL ue ey ei a ‘ADVANCED SUBSIDIARYTOPIC 1 FORMULAE, EQUATIONS AND AMOUNT RUSS 3 Studying chemistry at this level involves many skills. These skills include describing observations, giving explanations, planning and interpreting experiments, Aithough all of these skills are discussed in this tapie, the most important feature of this part of the course involves using numbers, Some students have a natural ability for numbers, while others find them lessattractive. Whatever your mathematical ability, itis important to spend as much time as possible focusing on this topic in onder to improve. Using numbersaccurately is an important skill in so many occupations - here are just a fewexamples: in medicine, calculating the dosage of a drug to maximise benefit to the patient and minimise unwanted side-effects in business, predicting whether capital investment will produce a sufficient income to justify the investment in industry, considering whether the costs and polluting effects of a new methad of making a molecule justify making the change in shipping operations (for example, the Casta Concordia in 2012), working out the volume of air needed ta float a ship after an accident, ‘As far as your chemistry course is;concemed, this topic is the foundation of success in other topics, such as energetics and kinetics, Use appropriate units and conversions, including for masses, gas and solution volumes Use standard and ordinary form, decimal places, and significant figures Use ratios, fractions and percentages, including in yield and atom economy calculations Rearrange expressions and substitute values aPeres laUbe essa ager Ung appropriate apparatus to measure masses Seer eee Seen Knowing how to convert betwoen diferent units Seta Weiing and balancing chemical equations, Me incudingthe ure of state symbole ee en eee? What will I study in this topic? eee eel eee eee eee ets eee eee eter ee eee eee aera eee tes Soa eet cd Interpreting observations from testtube reactions, including displacement, neutralisation ard ae BE et ged ee ey Pesicchepeps tho Sate decrolol eer nies Lepr ttsepin. tt Pana s eet eta ko eee Con ee ae rea 5 epelal ae aEat 1A ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND MOLECULES De Sd @ Know the terms atom, element, ion, molecule, compound, ‘THE PURPOSE OF THIS SECTION Jn your previous stuty of chemistry. you have learned about feveral terms at an intcoductory level. tn bus book you wil study them in greater depth “This topic is designed ta revise same of the terms that you have rot before. and will meet again in more detail WHAT IS AN ELEMENT? ‘We can start by locktng a 2 simplified version of the Periodic “Table of Blemores. You have already learned samnething abaut the Periadic Table and wal learn mare about it in epic 2 # He ulelele|nlo]r lw nafualal slr ls [ol w Each box in the Peviadie Table contains a capital letter. or more, ‘ten a pair of letters The first one is ahvays @ cepitalleter and. the second one is never a capital leer Each leter or pair Of Jette's presents an elerment. Sou will knew sone of thes fiom your everyday life For example. orygen s en element you breathe, ‘and itonis an element used to make bodies of ears and bicycles, ‘You may have been taught that an element isa subsiance that ‘contains arcmns of only one type. Elements are chersically the simplest substnncea 30 they cannot be broken down using ‘chernical reactions, Rar example. neon is an Cement becouse it ‘contains only neon ators, which have the symbol Ne, ft cannot be broken down into atoms of any other element, Water is not an element becaune it can be broken down into the elements hhydragen and oxygen, ‘This way of deseribing an element is sufficient for this stage of Yyour studies, but more details wil De required as you pregress through this course For ecample, some elements contain isotopes. You will learn about sotopes in Taple 2. Neon contains three stable isotopes, "Ne. “!Ne. and "Ne. All isatopes of the saine element havethe same number of protons and electrons, but aiferent numbees of neutrons WHAT IS AN ATOM? You already know what an atom is, because wehave used the term to help you understand what an element is, Atoms are far tac smal to be seen wih the human eye. You can ree a in grain ff sand and this contains many bilions of atoms of stican and jagger. An atom canbe described as the smaliest part af an element that has the properties of that element, This meaning is fine when you wort through Topie 1. However in Topie 2 you wnil need to recall that atoms contain even smaller particles, (protons, neutrons and electrons). WHAT IS A MOLECULE? This it easier now that we know the meanings of element and ator, You could deserite a molecule az. particle made of rwo ormore atoms berided together lf a molectie concains atoms af the sarne element, then the results a malecule-of an element. For example, 2 mctecule thot contwins two ator of hyemgea joined together can be represented by the formula Fy. This formula containsonty one symbol (9), seit isthe formula of a element fa molecule comains atoms af two or more dliffererr elernents then the result isa molecuie of a compound, For exemple, a rmclecule that contains two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of ‘oeypen jained together can be represented by the formula HO. ‘Th formula contains two different symbols, soit i the formula cof a compound (water, WHAT IS A COMPOUND? Now we ean desenbe a compound, Ths 8 u substance containing atoms of diferent elements combined together Note that some cempounds contain large numbers of ates bontfed topether but other compounds contain molecules wh only wo atoms. Some compounds nontan oppositely charged ions, Wie will explene these differences in lator sections of this boo WHAT IS AN ION? (One way to describe an ionis as aspecies conssting of one or more atoms jomed together and having a positive or negative change (Note that this is nota description of how anion is formed. Topic 3A. 1 wil cower the formation of ons Anion witha postive charge is called a cation, An ion with a egative charge is called an anion, Table A shows diogrars to ilustrate the terms refered ta. Bach atom ss shown as a circle wontaining the symbol of an element The lines show bones between auomsPrat) element @ | cu ‘This isan alerent. Al th @) o%6 maeae | Ge) | bonne Br Thisiea molecule of an element, The ators are thecame o af an element “eurboni co Thisisan ion. There are two negarive charges shawn, table A iaracces of wre ied is Oita Oren Tens Elements that are made up of single atems are deseribed as “1 Classify each of these symbols and karmulae a5 ators, rmonatornic. One example is helium, the gasused in weather ‘molecules or ions balloons. The symbol for Ne CO, HY SA Elemgals and comgounds mads up of two ators jsned losether | 2. which of shove formulae represent elements compounds, ae described at atomic. The two main dlatornc gases in the or neither elements nor compounds? Explain your answer ‘amosphere are nitrogen (N,) and oxygen (0) HG, NO, 0; Cad Elements and eoigounds wit inotewules nade up of seve toms jlned together are described us polyatomic, Examples of §— [hip you RNOW? polyatomic molecules ae phosphorus (Py and metiane (CH). | Sh pamesand syerblsct many element coma om the Greck The seme terme can be ured for tone, Chloride (Cli an exarle | and Latin languages. For example, hydrogen comes from the cf amonstomscion, Hydraside (HO- or QH|isa diatomic ion. | Greek words for watarand producer. This is because when ‘A sulfate ion ($07) is polyatomic as it carcains fve atoms. fhyoragen gas is burned, it foams (or ‘produces? water ‘Another example is copper (Cu) - the symtvo! Gu comes fiom the ST ‘Latin word cupvam, which means ‘metal trom Cyprus’ Cyprus is Itiroffen heb torelerioa ssostancety itesymbolor formule ax | the Slat were the Romans obtained much oftheir conde. well asitsname so tha your meaning i cla. For erample. the word hnydrogen could reer tn a ryérogen ainm (Hj, afydrogen molecule (H.).0ra bycrogen ion (H').Fat 1B 1 WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS Pee Sh | Wlte balanced full and ionic equations, including state symbols, for chemical reactions, WRITING EQUATIONS: WHAT TO REMEMBER “This topic isa usefil summary of what youare expected! ta do ‘when you write equations WRITING FORMULAE FOR NAMES ‘You may be given the formulae of unfamdiar compounds in a uesion. Younced to werk cut the formulae of many familar ‘compounds from their aames, and ta tememrber ctherSorrmalae ‘You also need to shaw elements with tbe comrect formule. I is not possible to provide « complete Ist but here are scrne examples. ‘You need to remember that cxypen is O; and not © hnyimgen is H and nox H sodium hysrexide is NaOH nitric acid is HNO, ‘You shoul be able ta work out thet: + ison sutfate is FeSO, + iron) caide'is FeO, + calcium carbonate # CaCO, WRITING AN EQUATION FROM A DESCRIPTION ‘You will need ta conver words into formulae and decide which ‘ones are reactants and which ones are pracucts ‘Consider this desctiption: when carbon diaxdcle reacts with calcium hydromide, calcium carbonate and water are formed. The wording ‘bf the description rakes it clear that carbon eicaide and calcium hhyaronde are the reactants, and that caleizm carzonate and water are the products ‘Now you have to write the farmulae in the eonroct psc 0, + Call, — CaCO, + 4,0 The next step izbalancing the equation, You need to add up the nnumiers of all the atoms taznake sure that, or each elem the totale are the game on both the left and the right slde of the ‘equation, In this exurnple, there is one eavbon, one ealelum, two hydrogen and four eaygen atcms'on each side, so the expat is already balanced Here ix an exarnple were the frst equation you write isnot helanced. Th description is hydrogen penne decomposes to water and orygen The formulae are- HO, -+H,0+ 0, The iv already balanced for hydrogen, but not for exygen. With careful practice, which sometimes involves geessing until you get it righ, you should be able to write ine coefficients needed to. balance the equation In this case, the balanced equation ix 2H,O, + 2H,0 + 0; ‘Most equations re belanced using ohale-mumber cocfficients tut using fractions or decimals is usually acceptable, This is especially he cave in organic chernisry. Consider this unbalanced equation Jor the complete combustion of butane C +O) CO, + HO The balanced equation can be either IC Hy + 130,860, + 1044,0 at Cyl + 630, 40, + SHO Using 6.5 instead of 6 is also aceeptable USING STATE SYIMBOLS Many chemical esuations include state symbols. The symbols are + aq) = aqueous (dssolved in wate, Lis important to distinguish between (and (ag). A eormman error is to wnite H,Olaq) stead af Of} Although iLis good practice w include state symbols in all equations, insome cases Chey are esseatal, while in cher cases fey are often omtted, For example, when wilting equations to represent ionisation energles mn Tople 2A.4 st |simportant to Incluc (g after each atort and fon, However in Topics 4 and 5 YOu Will Wie equations for organic reactions, Where state symbols are often not included, Hene is another description: when aquecus solutions of silver nitrate and calcium chloride are mined, # white precigitate of ser chloride forms As this precipitate rettes, a solution of ealeium nitrate becomes visible.Trak) eel Tree vee TEU) ‘Alter writing the arrest focruiae, balancing the equation and including state symbols the equation is: 2AgNOs{eq) + CaClan) > BACs) + Ca(NO5)aq) ‘Most equsticns are shown with a conventional (eft to right) anew —. However, some important ‘eactions are reversible, This mears that the reaction can go both in the foewaed and backward (reverse) sections, The syrrbol = is used in equations for these reactions. Yau can find guidance later inthis book (Fople 9B) about whon this reverie arrow should be used Sometimes a conventional arrow is ade longer to alow Information about the reeetion to be shown above the arrow (and sometimes betow if. This information might be about resction coneiions, such as temperature, pressure and the use of « catalyst Inorganic chemistry, where reaction sohernes are important, a label indicating, for example, Step 1, may be placed on the arrow in a sequenice of reactions, IONIC EQUATIONS SIMPLIFYING FULL EQUATIONS: Jonic equsticns show any ators and molecules ivelved, but only the sons that reset togethet and uotthe spectator ions ‘This the easiest method to lellow far simpliying equaticnss 1 Stare with the full equation forthe reaction, 2 Replace te formulae ef ionic eompauns by their sepamte iors 4. Delete any ions that appear identically on both sides ree (eh te Serplest ne equation far bs neutrllstlon ead hycresie sok by le tie ace? The fll equation is NaOt{ag) + HNOsaq) — NaNOaq) = H,010) ‘fou should now consider which of these species are (onic and replace ter with fora: fn this euarepe, the first theee eompoures aro ionic: Nara) + GH (ag) + Hag) > Nosh Aer deening te ira ens the quasi necames: He(an) +O fag) + Hc) ee (hat she simples ionic equation far the reaction hat cecurs wher seluons ef led) nme and sodium sata react together fo forma precise Of ead sue anc «solution of soca rite? The fll equation i: P(NO,)iaq) + Na-S0faq) ~+ F506 + 2NaNO Va) Replacing the appeoppnate species by ians gies Pb*Lag) + 2NO faq) + ZN) + SOM(aa) + PESGYE) + ANACaat + ZNO) ‘ter deenig he denice lens the equation becernes Pb? faq) + 505-09) =» FLO) These remaining ionsare ot deleted because they are not shonin dent INGYE Fee-Movitg ian in we Separate sites (PD and SOL. AM the together 9 asota precipate (POSCy) OM) » Na‘tag) + NOHaq) + reaction they reaction they afe joinedMien species should be. k may be siferent in dfferent eaetions, For example, waters never HOlaal butt may be H.O(6L H, Hy eee depending on ace Means ‘Carbon died reacts with calcium hydride solution to form waterand a preciptate of cxldum cartorate The ful equation i 0,4) + CalOH),faq) = GAC O,6) +108) Replacing the appropriate species by lone eves la) + Catia) + 20H faq) + CaCO) + HOM) Note that carbor-dioxide and water are molecules, vo thes! formulae wre nok changed, (n thivexampe, ino ions are shown idercically or oth scies. 89 this the simplest sonic equanon TONIC HALF-EQUATIONS. ‘We write inne hol equations for weaetians invelving guidation and reduction, and they unsally show ‘war happens io any one reactant. A simple example is the woaetion that occurs at the negative electtode during the electrolysis of aqueous eulfuric acid 2H (aq) + 26° Hyg) You vill lear much moxe about ionic hal equations in Tople @, Cea Lus 11 Sodium thiosulfate (Naz,5.0:} solution reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form a ‘precipitate of sulfur, gaseous sulfur dioxide and a solution of sodium chloride. Write an ‘equation, including state symbols for this reaction 2. Solutions of ammonium sutfate and sodium hydracide are vrarmed together to form sadium sulfate solution, water and arnmonia gas. Write the simplest ionic equation for reaction Saad ‘coefficient the technica! term for the number wniten in feat of species when balancing an equation “spectator ion an ion that «there bath bafore ane after thereaction but snot involved in tha reaction1B 2TYPICAL REACTIONS OF ACIDS are BBL) Sete ST Se) 1M Relate tonic and full equatons, with state symbols, to observations from simple test-tube reactions, for reactions. of acids. INTRODUCTION ‘Acids ate cammom reagents in chemistry. this topic, we surnmarise some af their typicsl reactions using hydrochiorc. nitric, sulfuric and phosphoric acids Ineach of these reactions, a sal is formed. The reactions can be Used to prepare sainpies of cake ACIDS WITH METALS ‘A general equation for these reastions is: metal + acid + salt + ydrogen Bubbles of hydrogen gas form. and if the salt formed is soluble, ten a solution Sorms, ‘The metal rust be sulficery nezctivero react inthis way. For ‘example, magnesium reacts but copper does Nos ‘Typical equarions for magnesium and Fydmochleic acid ae Mg + 2H) MgCh + Hy Mets) + 2H"faa) + Me(aa) + Hla) These reactions may appear to be examples af neutralisation reactions because the Hons are remaved from the solution ‘when they react with he metal. However, as he H”lons gain electrons fiom the metal and are corwerted to Hy(gl itmears that the HT ions ate reduced, noc neutralised ACIDS WITH METAL OXIDES AND INSOLUBLE METAL HYDROXIDES: ‘A general equation for thee reactions is: metal oxide + acid + salt + warer ‘metal kyuewwide + acid — salt + water "The react of the metal does not matter in these reactions because in te reactant tis present as rhetal ons, not metal atorns ‘The only observation i likely to be the formation of a Solutio ‘Typical equations for copper) side and zine bydrexide reacting. with sulfurie acid re CuO + HS, ~. CuSO, + H;0 CUDKs) + 2H"4aq) + Cu**laq) + HO) ZnjOH), + H;50, — ZnSO, + 2H,0- ‘ZolOHls) + 2H "leq) > Zn*laq) + 2H,0%0) ‘These reactions can be classified as neutralisation reactions because the H ions react with O-or OH iona. They are not redex reactions because there ise change in the oxidation, number of uny of the species, ACIDS WITH ALKALIS Metal hyiroridesthat dissolve in water are called alkalis A eneral equation for these reactions is: alkali + acid — ‘There are no visible changes during these reactions. although if a thermometer isused. a temperature rise can be noted ‘Typical equations for sodium hydroxide reacting with phosphoric acid are: NeOH + H,PO, — NaH,PO, +10 2NaQH + H,PO, —- Na,HPO, + 24,0 SNaOH + HPO, ~+ NayFO, + 3H.O ‘There are three replaceable knvdragens in-phosphoric acid. The ‘sol formed depends on the relasive amounts of aci¢ and aikall Used. The ionie-egzation forall these reactions is Haq) + GH-faq) + H:00) ‘These reactions. can be classified as neviralisation reactions because the H” jonsreact with OH" ions They are not redox reactions because there isiio-change in the oxidation number of any of the species. ACIDS WITH CARBONATES ‘A genera) equation for these reactions Is: metal carbonate + acid ~ salt + water + carbon diawide Bubbies of carbon dioxide ges form, I the salt formed is soluble, then a solution forms lt + water ‘Typlea! equatians for lithium casbanate reacting vith nydsoctaric acid are: LLCO, + 2HCl— 2UiCl + H,.0 4 CO; COE (aq) + 2H" (aq) —+ HO() 4 CO.(g) These reactions canbe classified as neutralsanon reactions because the H’ ions react with CO} ions They ae nox redox. reaetions because there ino change in the oxidation numer of any of the species,earean arta = ace ACIDS WITH HYDROGENGARBONATES: Hydregencarbonates are compounds containing the hydrogencarbcnate ion (HCOs), and they react with acids inthe sare way as carbonates, The beat known example is sodium hycrogencarbanate (NaHCO,), commonly known as bicarbonate of sodz oF baking soda, Baking soda is used in cooking athome and in the fsod industry. The ‘ightness' of baked food such as cakes is due to the formation Of bubbles of carbon dioxide in the cake mixture. which cause the cake to rise ‘A.word equation forthe reaction between bulking aoca and tho acid in lemon juice is trate + water + carbon sodium hydrogencarbonate + citric acid — soc ide ‘A suitable tet forthe presence of carbonate or hydrogencarbonatc iansin a solid or solution is to add an aqueous acid and totest the gaz produced with limewater ser Topic 8B.4) Cin ‘Write fll equations far the reactions between: {a} ine and suri acid (2) aluminium eniceand Nydroehioric acid 2. Weite the sips ionic aquations for the reactions between {a} mee and hydrachione acid {0} magnesium carbonate and nitic acidpL eR me Stee are ar) ING OBJECTIVES BE Relate ionic and full equations, inith state symbols, to observations from simple test-tube reactions, for displacement reactions, WHAT IS A DISPLACEMENT REACTION? ‘As you learn about more chemical reactions. you will iow tha ae often clussified io different types of veaction. You will vecognise reaction types such as additian, neutallsation, ‘combustion, cuasion and several otsera at a reaction type raed displacement ple terms itis areaction in ibich one element replaces ‘anoiher element ina compound DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS INVOLVING METALS Here are the equations for two displacement reactions of metals Ma(s) + CuSO.dag) + Cuts) + MeSOdlaq) ZAMS) + Fe,Ouish — 2FH{s) + A108) What do these reactions have in common? ‘Hoth involve one metal reseing wethe compound of a Afferent metal + Both produce a met * Both are redox reaetons + You can see that the metal element on the reactants side has. taken the place of the métal in he rretal comripessnd on the reactants aide a diferent metal compound What are the differences between ‘Reaction | takes place in aqu involves only sek, Reaction oecurs without the need for energy to be supplied, but Reaction 2 requires a very high temperature ta stat + Reaction | is likely to be done in the laboratary, but Reaction 2 jone fora specific purpose in industry. the reactions? sclution, but Reaction 2 METAL DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION ‘Take a closer laok at Reaction 1, shownabave. When magnesium ‘metal is added r0 copper(I) sulle solution, thebibe coleur af the solution bacames paler. If an excess of magnesaum is added, the solution becomes colourless, as magne: fate forms, ‘The magnesium changes in appearance lrom silvery to brown 3s copper farms onit, ‘The equation can be rewiis Mais) + Cu!aq) + SOF {aq) celiing the ions that appear identically an bath sides. gives: Mas) + Cu?(aq) — Cua) + Mg*faq) 3s an ionie ecquation: (Culs} + Mg'*(aq) + SOF faa) ts ‘Nowryou cen see thet thisis a recine reaction, Electrons are transferred fram magnesium aterns to ccpper( ‘magnesium atarns are oxidised oss af electrons) ar ions are reduced (gain of electrons) peril) “This reaction is just one example of many similar reactions in which ‘more active motel displaces less mactive metal from one of ‘You may come acioas this and athe jad in the mea: sini reactions a changes. METAL DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS INTHE SOLID STATE Reaction 2 is used in the valhvay industry ta join ralls together You ‘might iragine that a good way to join rals together would} ‘welding, bur the metal rails are good conductors of heat and itis very dificult to get the ends of two rails hot enough for them fo melt and join together. For this reason, the rermite metho is used. A misture of aluminium ard iron( lt) oxide is positioned just abowe the place where the tro rails are to be joined. A magnessum fuse is Ii, a Rezction 2 occurs. It isa exothermic that the molten metal, which flows into the gap between the two rails The molten iron cools, jinkg the ras togethe‘When describing dsplacernent Fesctions be careful to refer to tho comeettpncioe Far example inthe reaction between magnesium ands «copaer(i) sulfate, magnesium stor and capper on are icived ace ‘As in Reaction 1, the equati and simliie: 2A) + QF) + 30% (+ 2Fefh +2410) + 30° ccan be rewritten janice 2. + )) = AF ef) + 2AF*() ‘As with Reactio a redox reaction. El sired from alurniniurn atoms to ire} ions, so aluminum ators are oxidised {loss of electrons) anal iran(lll) ons are reduced (gain of electrans) BRE Te thetruereaten The wil eecedo fi cori rasa DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS INVOLVING HALOGENS In Topie 8C.2, we wall look at haw more reactive halogens-can displace less reactive halogens tron peir compounds. For ecample, chlonne will displace brommne from a potassium bromide sbubon. be fill,ionic and simplified ionic equations for this seaction are ‘Clgaq) + 2KBr{aq) = Brac) + 2kCaq) (Clan) + 2K(eq) + 2B (aq) — Brag) + 2K(aq) + 2C1-(aq) Gi,feq) + 2Br (on) — Br{ag) + 2Cr eq] ‘As with the metal displacement reactions, this is a redox: reaction. Electrons are transferred fam bromide-ions to chiorine, so bromide ions are oridised ((oss of elecrons) and chlorine is reduced (ain of electrons) Cue ‘iran metal reacts with aver nitrate in aeplacemant rmactian to form silver ane ont matte: Wien full equation, an ian: equation and a simplified janic equation for this reaction, Include stan symbls all your equations 2.Aminture of zine metal und copper{ll oxide isigrited, causing an exothermic reaction to o¢eul Writes ‘ul equation, an ins equation and a simplified janie equation for tis reaction, Dest snciols state symbol in your equations Saeed ‘displacement reaction a reaction in which one element replaceésanater, less reactive, element compoundLEARNING OBJECTI BE Relate ionic and full equations, with state symbols, to observations from simple test-tube reactions, for precipitation reactions, In thi wedocus on precipitation reactions: cal equation This may be you memory 0 rough calcium hydroxide sclut forms. The re quatior CalOH} faq) + COulg) —~ CacOts) + HCA!) The formation cf the white precipitate was prebat he limewarer going mikey or cloudy fig The presence’el sulfite ions in solution ca solutions of bar n-chloride or barium nitrate). The the addition of barium precipitate the nple, when beriuen chlor lu tum sulfate solution, the re squat Na,$0(aq) + BaClfaq) — 8a80 fs) + 7Nac 3} + Bae(aq) —+ BaSO,/s) This testis covered in more detail in Topic SB.4,Ta Moen ai be presence of hallde ions in solution can be shawn by the addition of siver ions (rom silver nitrate solurian) The preeipitates that farrn are silver halides For example, when silver nitrate solution is added to sodtum chlende solution, the relevent equations NaCifaq) + AgNO. (aq) —+ AgClis) + NaNOUaa) Crag) + Aglag) — AgCi} je tct ie eorurad in more etal Tope WC.4 WORKING OUT EQUATIONS. ‘A good example of using a precipiation reaction to work out an equation isthe reaction between agucous solutions of lead nitrate and potassium iodide. Both reactants are colourtess salutions, When they are mixed, a yells precipitate of lead iodide forms ‘The word equation for this reaction is, lead nitrate + potassium inckde — lead iodide + potassium nitrate Hees an outline of the experiment + Placerthe same value ofa potassur iodide solution ia series of test tubes + Add diferent volumes of a lead nitrate solution to the tubes. + Place each tube ta centnduge and spin the tubes for the same length of time. + -Measarethe depth of preciptata in eaeh tube, Table A shows the results of one experiment, ‘The concentration of both solutions i 8 marr The depsh of each precipitate indicates th sass of pri tate formed, | volume of potassiuin fod} solution /cm* Be | velumectied rie | a5 | a | as | a0 | 25 | 30 [as [Se fe | deh of psi F rate te tere (able A Foss af the reacionberween aqueous soluons of ed mina ae pcrascim ide in ore experiment. ‘The diagram shows the tubes at the end of the experiment 1 ok 8 4 8 8 7 oss fd idee nirate In ire progortons lead nce precisa MgB Ascratelead nina soli sacle! crave lel cic precute forsTrak) eens age ‘You can see that there is.no increase in the amount of precipitate fom tube § to tube & This shows that the reaction is incomplecein tubes 1,2, 3 and ¢, but is complete in tube 5, The armourts, in ‘moles, of reactants used in tube 5 are calculated as follows: a{ptasium iodide) = 0.008 » 1.0 = 0.005:mal sn(lead nitrate} = 0.0025 1.0 = 90025mol "This ehows that leed nitrate reacts with porascium lodide in the ratio 1:2 The equations far the reaction are: Pa(NO).faa) + 2kitag) — Polis) + 2KNO aq) PoP (aq) + 2faq) — Pol.tsb Prats alevlntng the aments af reaexants nd pduets in tubes 1-4. 1. Vinte the simplest ionic equaton. including state symbos, for (a) thetestforasulfate (0) thetes fora sloniée -Cuculae the aman moka seh vedanta product in tube 7 fig, ED revo sourme Bran ad precipitation reaction reaction in which an insoluble lids formed when fino solutions ave mines!Le SUBSTANCES Seed tity 1 COMPARING MASSES OF zi EARNING OBJECTIVES: Il Undeestand the terms: relative atomic mass, based on the "7 Scale; relative molecular mass: relative Formula mass; molar mass, as the mass per mole of a substance in g mol’, IM Understarid how to calculate relative molecular mass and relative formuta mass from relative atomic masses. Im Perform calculations using the Avogadro constant « (6.02 x 10* mol). RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (A) ‘As chemists discovered more and more elements in the nineteenth ‘century they began to realise that the masses of the elements ‘were diferent. They could not weigh inchidual atoms, tut they ‘upre able to use numbers to compare the masse of atsms of rifferent elemerts. For ths reason, they began to use the term ‘relative atomic mass’ “The chernisis soon realised that the element whese atcrns had the smallest mass was hydrogen, so the relative atarnic mass of hydrogen was fixed ap 1. Atoms of silcan had deubie the mass ff nitreges atoms, and nitrogen atoms were 1 times heavier than hydrogen ators. This meant that the relive atomnic mass of nitrogen was 14,end that of silicon was 28..At first, mostly whole rumibers were used but eventually it vas possible to find the mass ‘of an atom to several decimal places. The Periodic Table in the Data Booklet ures | decimal place far lighter elements and whole number; for heavier ones. ‘Alter the tliscovery of iscunpes. the "isotope of carbon was used in the definition of relative atoeric mass A-suitable definition of relative atemae-mass i the weighted mean average) mass-of an atom compated ta +c the mass of an atom of Its often useful to temember this expression: ‘mean mass f an atom af an element ‘of the mass of an atom of #C RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS (iM) Relative atomic masses are used for etoms of elements: Relative molecular masses are used for molecules of both elements and ‘compounds They are easily calculated by adding selative atomic masses 4 “Table A shows values for some common elements taken from the Data Booklet drogen 1 carbon 320 ‘exygen 6D [sulfur opper fable a Note that A, and #6, do-nat have unis. How are some examples of calculations Wea aa (Whats the relative molecular mais oF carbon cickid, COh? b= 12.0+ (2 «16.0)= 440 Wars ‘Whats the elite mialgcslar haat a wllsie aid H,S0,? My= (231.0) «324 «4 160) =984 En ‘Make sure youuse the rdativeatoriic masses shown on the Penogic Tabiein the Data Booklet, RELATIVE FORMULA MASS (M,) ‘This term has the same symbol as relive molecular mass, but the formula’ part means that |t includes both molecules and ions Worked example & below is slightly more compliceted because of the water of crystallisation, but thers ic also another problem: Hydrated copper(l) sulfate ie an ionic compound, co it is not-3 good idea to roferto its relative mofcular macs. "That = why itis called relative formut ras Cee Was the relative forma mass of yated copes) ae Cus, 5H.07 M,= 638+ 32) +(8 16.0) S42 101+ 16.0) « 229.6, ‘The term ‘relative forrala mass” should wo be used far compounds with giant structures such ws sodium chloride and silicon dicaide. MOLAR MASS (MM) Another way around the priblem in Worked example is 0 use the term molar mass, which isthe mass per mole any sulstance (molecular ornic}. is symsok is M {nck Md) and it has the units gol" {grams per mole} Here wre have a new term (the shoe) ich wi be fully explained in Topple 1C.2. Ror now, you can think of oe male (1 mol) of a substance 4s being the samme quantity a the relative formu mass of the substance, with the unis of gramsTrak) So.thi 3s the expression yau can use: mass of substance gn u amoure in mol = molar mass in g mol ‘Table B shows examples of working out the amounts in-moles of some substances using this expression, molly mass, fan gral 180 amount mal 556 | O88 ‘able B THE AVOGADRO CONSTANT ‘Amedea Avagadre (1776-1856) was an Italian chemist whose name is used in naming the Avogadre- constant, We are introducing him here because the scaling-up factor from atoms, volecules ard ions ta grams is nesned afer tim A figA ‘The value of the Arogadso constant ls appr 6020000000004 O80 000.0000! Ils e nber using standard form: 602.» 10raot vga ‘You do nce need to krow'a defnition of the Avagadro conscant, and it is bestco think of it asthe number of parte ‘molecules or ions) in one male Of any substance there are 602 ‘602 x 10° carton dioxide molecules in 44.03 of CO; 802 pions in 62.0 g of NO} hollum aromein 40g af He ene " CALCULATIONS USING THE AVOGADRO CONSTANT You willed to use the valve of Lin the types. calc shown hore 1 Caleulate the number of parbeles in a given me Substance. Star by using the expre ota massof substencein gy M mrolarmas ing mol then multiply the amount im mol by the Avogadra constant ee aes How many H.0 molecules sre there in 125g of water? 6684 mol umber of mclacales 6.02 10" 00684 =4 18» 10! 2 Caleulato the mass af a given number of panicles of a substance: start by dividing the mumber cf particles by the ‘Avogedro constant, then multiply the result by the molar mass Css n= 16610" 97053275 10% Panne 1. Malachite & an important mineral wih the formula Cu,CO/OH, Calculate ts retatve formula mass 22. How many molecules of sugar (CycH:O)y) ae there ina teaspeen measure (120 g)? DID You KNOW? ‘The symbol Lis use forthe Avogadro constant {using A would be comusing berause of tie use af 4, for relate storie mass). Coomes from the sumame of Johann Josef Loseheig (18211685), an Ausirian chemist who was a contemporary of ‘avogadro. He made meny coatriautons to our understanding of the same area of knowiedge. ST ee ‘molar mass the mass per ole ofa substance: thas the symbol At ‘and the units penal ‘Avogaciro constant (1) 602 » 10 mol the numberof particles in fone mole ofa substance1€ 2 CALCULATIONS INVOLVING MOLES IH Know that the mole (mol) is the unit for the amount of a substance, WHAT IS A MOLE? So far we have feferted to the mole and have used it in a simple Ferma calculation, but we have not propery explained what its. THE DEFINITION OF A MOLE Amoleis the amount of substance that contains the same number of perticles as the number of carbon atoms in exactly 12g of the "C isotope. “This definition is not easy to understand, but willbe explained as syouread on. Aga From (cos ean igh on), ple crus 6 COUNTING ATOMS ‘As you knowcatoms are very tiny panicles that cannot be: seen by the human eye, When we lak at the sand on a beach, we are {coking at bllins and billions of atoms ef mest. silicon and ‘ocygen in the compound silicon dioxide (SiO), Quoting the acwat rnumivers of arorns involved in # reaction, whether in a test rube or rial scale, would involve extiemely large numbers that ‘would be very effiult to handle ‘You are already familiar with the use of relative atomic maxes to ‘compare the relative masses of atoms In a water mokecule, the ‘pygenaiom has a mass that is U6 times greaier than the mass of ‘hydrogen atom You kav this because in the Periodic Table the relative atomic masves and O = 16.0, Note the word ‘relative, These values do not tell us the actual mass i grarms of an oeygan atom oF a hydrogen atom. They only tell ws that an exygea ‘tom has a mass 16 times greater than that of a hydrogen: atom. Now consider using tase mart uni g (grame), You can rare asally vioutioe 16.0, of oxygen than ‘eaingle atom of oxygen. Boing this is effectively scaling ua ons very large scele. The number of oxygen atoms in 16.0g of azygen isthe same ax the riamber of hydrogen atoms in L.Og of bydimgen. 60 and 1.0) with the fariiar Eat cae CALCULATIONS USING MOLES AT TO REMEMBER WHEN DOING CALCULATIONS You can use the mole to count atoms, molecules, (on, electans and other species. So its impartane to include an exact descrigtion of the species being referred ta. Cansider the exernples af hydrogen, cxggen and water One mole of waterhas.a mass of 180g. but what is the mass of tone mole ef hyeimgen or exygen? Itdepends an whether you are referring to-atoms ar mol you need to make this dear Remesnber that the symbol a is used for the ammount of substance in ma, Consider the substances in table A. “The masses are the same, but Secor 32.0 12480 = 00313mel | n.0208mol 12160= [7 0.0625mol table A You should always clearly identify the species that you are referring toi there is any possibility that there could be mare than one meaning, Ther is net usual compounds. Is good practice to refer ro bath the formula and the nanie Examples include! + theamount. in moles. of © in 4g of oxygen atoms (059 mol) + the amount, in moles, of Gin 84g of oxygen molecules (029mol) the amount. in moles. of O. in 9c of oxone rmolecties (0120 mol, + thearmount in moles of CO, in 94g of cntbon diowide (21 mal) + be aroue. in mobs, of SOP n Sg of slate ens (0.0880 THE EQUATION FOR CALCULATING MOLES “The equation for ealeulaing moles is amount of substance fs moles = aT ore You wll use this eepressian in many celculations during your study of chemistry Itis often rearranged as: ‘85g of sodiuen chloride? ie Whats te massif O263mdl of hydrogen iodide? arn nx Wh= 0263 1279 =3365Trak) 1} aTE MUSA SU Es) a eee Asample of 026 molof a subgance haca mass of 178g a, 178 Men p24 isthe malar mass of the substance «827 gmah FE When using motes always make clear what particles you are referring to: atoms, molecule, lons or ‘ectrons. kik al-& good idea to state the formula, Us ae ae 1. Whit isthe amountofsobslance in ach ofthe following? 4) Rong ofr (©) 8.00 of slr cowde, SO, (0) 8.002 of sulfate ions, SOX How-many parides are there of the specified substance? sour exc ‘61 omen 200g fs E> 1) melecules in 400 2 ifr conde $0, (6) sancins Cog eat ion, SOE Saree a ‘mole theamount of substance that contains the same number of patilesas the number of earbon atoms in exactly 12g01 °CeRe RSS Te Ge SSS pe Sey | Use chemical equations to calculate réacting masses and vice versa, using the cancepts of amount of substance ‘and molar mass | Determine formula or confit an equation by experiment, including evaluation of the data. INTRODUCTION TO REACTING MASSES You can use the-ideas from previcus topics about amounts of substance end equations todo calculations involving the masses oF reactants and products in equations, ‘A balanced equation far 2 reaction shows the same rumber of each species atoms. molecules, ans or electrons} on both sides of the equation. Itis also balanced for the masses cf each species. This ‘means that We can make predictions about the masses of reactants, which are needed to farm a ‘pectied mast or amount of a product, oF the other way rund. Consider this equation used inthe manufacture of ammonia: N+ 3H, = 2NH; ‘Thin shows that cne molecule of nitragen reacts with three mstecules of hydrogen ta form two molecules of armani This statement-can be made about the amounts invelved ‘Amal of Nyreacts with 3mol of H; to form 2mal of NH, ‘This statement can be made about the rastesimveivedt 2BOg of N, reacts with 60g of H, to form 34.0g of Nify ‘These amaunis and masses can have many other values. as long asthe retio does nat change CALCULATING REACTING MASSES FROM EQUATIONS Using a halancsd equatian, protctions can he male about rearting masses, Waele The equation for areaciot i 50, ‘What mast ofsulturtickee is needed to foi 75.0 ot rufune acid? 50, +4 pV calculate the molar mares ofall asbetances you sullur ride andl sulfuric acd (SO, » 80.1 gmot ' and M(H;S0,) 981 gmet ‘Slep 2 calculate he arrount of sults acid M20 9765 mal Stop 3 use the reiction rato in the equation ta work out the amount of sulfur triad neecied ‘Asthe ratio #611, the amount isthe sarne,40 (S03) = 0.788 mel ‘Step # calculare the muss ofsulfur troche iniM = 0765 «B01 = 612g told about and ackwd abou, kn the caceTrak) eee (roe muaets The equation fora reaction i: ‘Capper form twe ouldes, Bor andes can beconverted to eepper ZN, © HLS, + (NHAESO4 bby heatrg with hydrogen. med 7 What mass ol ammonia ienecdled to form 100 ef amen Question step 1 Ancoxide of copper is heated iy a stieam of hyshegen to constant 45), Frat. The massecor copper and water fx Cu=176zand MINH) » 170 gmot" and Mi H/O= 2.5¢g. What isthe equition for he reaction eceurrng INH) = 2» 0.757 = 151 mol 30 inthe equation) Step 3 atioe0, iM) ene M= 157 = 12.0 = 2578 Sent teal products mht be 20+ Ho WORKING OUT FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS FROM So the equaticn is REACTING MASSES CuO + Hy + 20 + HO and noe CuO + He Cu+ HO ‘You might assume thar the formulae and equations fr all eaesions are already known, Homwver there are sometimes 'wo or mone aT possi foulie fr saubwunce Therein sobs mene tncoe “Se iaparant ae bt tk Orca ee ec reaction ir the same eectars Reacting asses ca be used to Tpiiaisiyll lethal Apbeensogrenr erie tei’ identify the correct farmua.or whch of the reconsisaccurring _ esewvalat fom ne eoeston Prac to ce oo Sc carta ete 4 thal pin fark Call GUUS memersmme is three Byydrates. Cavefl heat to-oneofthe atherhydatesor ic mexurement a! reacting masse he decamnesitio. A ferilisr manufacturer makes a baich of 20kg ofammoniuen ritrate. What mass of ammonia, in kg, does the manufacturer eed taste with? The covet equation fi ‘Ousstion 2. Asample of anode of moa ua reduced to iron by heating with nyerogen The mass of ron obtained was-4.35g and the mas of water was 1.86 g, Deduee the equation forthe reaction that occurred igeampleof at Method Step T-caicilate te ‘asses of the relevant su MiNa.CO,.10H.0) = 2861. 2m0) and M{H.0) = 180gmal and Have in the ratio ANS84°0 175 0r 1-3 NaCO, 10H — Na,C0,7H,0 +3H.0 fig Ce BI aa eae fydrate compound containing water of cystalisation, represented by forrulaesuch as CuS0,,5H,0 nulaby cericCee sed] tO) a Cee) be A Se 39 IM Calculate percentage yields in laboratory and industrial procesées using chernical equations and experimental results A MigA Pharnareueca for ays percartage jal wer fanulacinhgadng THEORETICAL YIELD, ACTUAL YIELD AND PERCENTAGE YIELD Inthe laboratory when you are making a product, vou nasuraly want to cain as much of i as possible rom the reactants you start with. In industry whese teacons oocur om a much larger scale and theres econornic competition between manufacturers its even mare important to maximise the product of a reaction ‘There are some reasons why the mais of a reaction prodct may be les than the maximum possible “The reaction is rvesibe and so may not be complete + There are side-reacsione that lest ta other products that are et wanted +The product may need to he purified, which may ws in lass of produet TERMINOLOGY RELATING TO ‘YIELD’ Wenormaly use the term ‘vile with othe woes, such a + theoretical yield. + actual yield + percentage yield. Inthe labaratory, theoretical yield and actual yield may be measured in grams, bur in industry kilograms anc tonnes are more likely to be used. Percentage yletd is the term most ofen used, but you need to-understand the other to terms first, THEORETICAL YIELD ‘ne calcula deorevcal yield using the equation forthe reaction, and we use e method you are with om previous pics Its always assumed thal the reaction goes wo completion, with wa losses Meal aa ‘Copper carbonate is decormposed ta obtain capper{l) oxide The equation forthe reaction is: + cuo sco, ‘What isthe theoretical yield of copper) 5:78 of copper carbonate? Step 1; calculige the arrount of sarting 58 0,)- 278 -50486m0i Ac Step 3 caleulane the mass of desired product m= 00468 « 795-3728 Messrs ‘Nagnesum phosphate can be prepared fom rmagneskim by necting wale phosphors 2c “The equation forthe reaction 3Mg + 2H-PO),— MailPOh); +34, ‘Whar isthe theoretical yield of magreshum phosphate obtainable form 562 sep) img = 820 0231 of mages? Seep? AMgiPO.} 00770mel Step 3. m= 00770 «2689 = 2022bra) ee ea est] ACTUAL YIELD STU ris ‘This is the actus} mass obtained by weighing the product cbtained, not by caleulstion, ‘You may be asked ina question, ‘to suggest why you have a low PERCENTAGE YIELD ‘yield. IF 0, you should give a Percentage yield is calculated using the equation: speatic example in the reaction : Habelone teu raerheie seu id= 1 sage yield ieaeicnn veg theoretical yield solution was left on the filter ‘This calculation may be done lndependantly or in canjunction wth the eslewation of theoretical yield. PAPE uri ftratian’- WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Thetheoretical yield in a eactionis 24 7tcnnes. The actual yields TAStones What isthe peicentage yield? j 18S peiceitage vient -#5= (ers) 4 manufacturer uses this reaction ta obtain methanol from carbon monaride and hydrogen’ 60424, —cHOH The manuiaeturer obtaine 4.07 tonnes of methanal staring from 4 32 tonnes of carbon moran (has the percentage viel ca yl =093% Fit, calculate the thes 32+ 10 Step 1: nf} = 3221 54 0 10 ral 2:niCH Step m= 15 The use tho ansvtr to calculate the percentage Hel 407 «10!» 100 | 48 + 10 H}= 1 34+ 10° mol tbecause of 17 rato) x 1D 320 = 494 « 100) Percentage yield = 8 recs Era 71. student prepares a sample of copper) sulate crystal, CuSO, SHO, weighing 75 g ‘She started with 4.68 of copper} oxide: Whats the percentage yield? 22.A manufacturer mabes some ethanoic acid using this reaction: CH,0H + co — cH,cOOH Starting with 50.0hg af methenal, the manufacturer obiains 89 2kg of ethanic acid, ‘What the parcantage yold? Brame theoretical lel the maximum possible mass cf a productin-a reaction, assuming complete reaction and olesses ‘clual yield the actual mass obtained ia rezetion pereantage yield the actual yield divided by the theoretical yield, expresced aba percentagaieee VCO Eee NG pe AS ey IH Calculate percentage atom economies sing chemical equations and experimental results. BACKGROUND TO. ATOM ECONOMY In Topic 10.4. wc locked at the percentage yield of a reaction, The closer the value isto LOOM the better ‘A higher percentage means that less of the starting ratetals erelost or end up as unvranted products: Percentage yield is anv important factor to take into consideration when assessing the suitability of ain industrial process. However, i ig not the only one. Other faetoes include: + the availablity or searcty of non-renewuble raw materials + the cost of raw materials + the quantity of energy needed. HOW ATOM ECONOMY WORKS eve Is an example of atom economy In action, ‘There are two-main processes in the manufacture of phospharic acid, Tb make the comparison easier toellow, 3 single summary equation is shown fo each process Process 1 Cas(POdh + 34:50, — 2H,PO, + 30280, Process? P,+50;+6H,0 — dH,PO, ‘There are advantages and disadvantages of both processes, However, what you can see from thes equations i tha all af the atoms in the starting materials for Process 2 end up in the desired product. In Process 1, many of the ators end up in-a second, uneanted product, calcium sulfate. Process 1 has slower atarn economy than Process 2. THE CONTRIBUTION OF BARAY TROST ‘A chemist rom the USA, Barry Tres, developed the idea of atamn economy asamalternarive vay of assessing chemical reactions, especially in industrial processes. He believed that it was important 10 ‘consider how many atoms fem the reactants end up in the desired product. ‘The expression we usc to calculate atorn economy (usualy deveribed as percentage atom economy) is Imoiae ass Of the deste product ‘sumof the molar masses of llprodacts ‘You can gee that you do not need» caleulstor 1o work out the atom economy af Provese 2. There it nly one product co it must be 100% Far Process f atom economy star economy = 109) (980 x 2) x 100 (H0x 2+ (1962 9) ‘Sa you can see tat less than one-hind of the mass of the starting materials ends up in the desired product, which daes not look goodaf the CaSO, isa waste product that has to be dispased of If the fother product has a use, then the manufacturer can sell, which would partly balance the Kow atom, AGA inp wa peveero¢ ¢CoREMY of the process. Even if the percentage yield of Proress L was as high as 100%, the ator Mecorceptofstom esererry, economy is stil only 32.4%, REACTION TYPES AND ATOM ECONONNY We can make some generalizations about certain types of reaction. + Addition reactions have: | 00% atom ecoaomy. + Blimivation ard susitutian reactions have nner atom ecancenies + Mulnisten reactions may have even ewer atom ecenomies, 12.4%Trak) ees id B EXAMPLES OF CALCULATIONS: Dea tinier Bie Liat Sedan cirbonwte san important industal chemical manufaciured by the Sol process The overall eaction sat equation forthe proces econo G20, « Zhiatl — Nace, « Cac ‘Atom econcny idicates the vi ‘percentage of tems from the A manufacture stars with 750 kg of caloum carbonate and obtains 76.$ke of sodium carbenave Sorting nets Geka! Caleulat the percestage yield and ater econiomy for this faction edeened poe. Mj valuezare 100.1 For CaCO andl 105.0for Ns, CO, Theoretical yeld~ 752° 7088 roy EET ‘Also sate that you have mare me J. 2h cee: omen Pcetage yl = 56.84 Beer sem he Dispos stom economy «1601 nae res Hycrazine (H,) cam be used as 2 rocket fuel and is manufactured using this reaction: ANH, + NAOCL-— NyHy + NaCl + HO hat the atom ecanory for thsseaction? Vie fit need to otk out the mole massesel the products These art 32.0, 9B and 180, azox100 eden = aaa ag 205M WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Amanulaceuret of athena wants wsenrvert sna Qdhen inte 12-diehloraet posible reaction Rewetion) HOCH: + Cl = €1CH.cHc) Reaction 2 2H.C=CH, + 4HC1+ Op 2CICH.CH,CI + Explain haut dang calculation, whic reaction weauld ke a good choice on the basis of atem economy Theaeawer is Rratian 7, because there 6 only one product 0 allthe atoms in the resents ed the desired preduet ard the atom economy is 100% Reaction 2 hus a lonée atom economy because some fhe atams in the reactart form water, novalue a 8 product Ces 1 Ethanel can be marufactued by the hydration af ethene CoH HO — GHOH what isthe atom economy af this pracess? 2. Fthene can be manufactured by tie denyration of ethan: GH.OH— GH, +HL0 What isthe atom economy of ths pracess? ETRE ad atom economy the molar mass of the desired product divided fy the sum athe molar masses of al the products, expressad as percentagese alee a) pee AS ey | Know the term empirical formula. | Use experimental data to calculate empirical formulae, “The three letters ‘of’ appear in several wards used in chertitry ‘You will know some of these from your previcts studies, especially molecule’ which is group of twa or more atams joined together ky covalent bonds. You naw thai a molecule ‘of water can be represented by the formula HO, so this isthe molecular formula of water Vou have already came across the term 'elative molecular mass, which you will probably remember is 18 or more accurately 18.0) or water ‘The term ‘empiric’ indicates that some information has been found by experiment. .An empirical formula shows the smallest ‘whole number retio af the atcrns of each element ina compound ‘OME EXAMPLE OF AN EXPERIMENTAL METHOD A simple example involves determining the formala of an oxide ‘of copper. THis oxide canbe converted to copper by removing the oxygen ‘Here are the steps in the experiment + Place aknown mass of the axide of copper in the tube + Heat the oxide ina stream of hydrogen gas (or natural gas, ‘which is mosily methane} + The gas enc with the cxygenin the capper axids and forme steam. * ‘The colour of the solid gradually changes to crange-brown, which isthe eoiour of copper + ‘The excess gasis burned off at the end af the tube for safety * After cooling, remare and weigh the solid. eopper + Ieis good practice to beat the solid again in the siresm of the fas to check whether its mass changes. Heating to a constant mass suggests thatthe conversion to copper is complete econ baneg 1 ite ei Somos CALCULATING EMPIRICAL FORMULAE “The calculation method involves these steps, + Divide the mass, or percentage composition by mass, of each lertent by its relative acini ras. “UC necessary. divide the acwerd trom this step by the smallest a the numbers + This gives numbers that should be in an obvious whois mune ratio, such as 1: 2or3 2 + These whole numbers xe used to write tie empirical formula, ‘The numbers may net be in an exact rata because of experiments) erro: but you shouid be able to decide what the nearest whele-nurbser ratio f Use at least nwo significant figures in the calculation (preferably three). and beware of inappropriate rounding For example, you cannat convert @ 12: 1.2: LSratioto 1:1:2, because that would ve you the wiong answers |tmay help youto organise the calculation using a table. although this is not essential CALCULATION USING MASSES Assure: that these-are the resus Of the experiment aullited on, heel mass of copper oride = 4.28 mass of copper =3.432 mass of axygen removed i 428 ~ 3.45 = 085g Table A is the calculation table for these results, Taso clenent/5 "relative atomic mat as | division yA ratio 1 1 = a ! Here, the rati-is obviously 11, so the empiriee! formula is CuO. CALCULATION USING PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION BY MASS You de-the calculation in te samme way. excep that you divide percentages instead of masses by the relative atomic masses ‘The calculation table, table B, refers to a compound containing, {wee elements, The compound has the percentage composition by mass C= 58.4, H = 4A, Cl = 56 BEEEES Rofdenen [34 [4a | relative atomic mass wo | division bya, 32_ | 48 | ratio z 3 1 table B You can see that the empirical forrmala is C,H:CLPrark) (CALCULATION WHEN THE OXYGEN VALUE IS. NOT PROVIDED is for some compounds do-not infuse values for exyeen hheeauge it often cfc 10 obxain.sa experimertal value forthe mass of oxygen, Sometines you wll nee to respamber to calcul the percentage of caygen by scare 1 Here is a ‘A compound as the percercage composition ty mass Na= 19.1% ‘$= 40.5%, with the remainder being cxygen. he percentage nf oxygen = 100 = (291 4 4058) = 20.4% ‘Table Cis the calculation table Wof deme za | 4n5 | 304 relative ator wo | 321 isa division by A Wz 126 by the smallest ‘alec ‘You can now see thar the empineal formula is Na,3:0; TO “Take careto look ost for decemasthatncicate obvious actions, simplest abo 1133 indicatesan ermpincalfoomda of 3:4 Hom would a ratio of 1: 1.25 convert into an empl formula? CALCULATION USING COMBUSTION ANALYSIS ‘Many organic compounds contain carbon and hrdrogen, or carbon, hydragen and cxygen, When a knenn mass of an organic compaund is ecmplotly burned, tis possible to ccllees rmegsure the masses of carbon diocide and water formed calculation is more complex because there are extra stops, Here is an example, 4.187 sampleof an organic compound was completely burned, forming 265g of carbon dioxide and 1.83 g of water Inthic typo of calculation the first step ave to caleulate the f carbon and hyclragen in the carbon diceide and water + The relative molecular mass of carbon diowide is 44.0 but, because the relathe atomic mess of eaibon is 12.0, tne Proportion of Carbon in carbon dioxide is abways 120 + 4.0, + Similaiy the proportion of hydrogen in water is always (Qs 1.0)= 180. Al ofthe carn in the carbon dioxide comes from the cmon in the cegunic compound Sirlary. all the hyekmgen in the water comes from the hydrogen in the ‘organic crrpound, inthis example: 265x120 7 163 «2. Ta ese two masses add up to 0804 e moss of carbon = = 07g mass of hydrogen = fs olate The original mase of the organic compound was 1.47 g;s0 the ilerence must be the mass Of oxygen present in the organic compound. The mass.of oxygen = 187 ~ 0 94 = 0.965 2 evaare aie et a Table D is the calcwation table, You cat see that the empirical formula of the sample compound is CHO. rmass.of element g f cast | 056 relative stamic mass 20 ie dvsion by A ‘ao6o3 | 0.181 table D Fig B shaws amodel of the glueage molecule. You can count the umber: of the three diferert aiams in the molecule ah figs A batunt tick [Ems Divide by the relative atomic mass, nat the atomic number or th relative molecular mass, Fae caypen, only divide by 16.0, nat by 8 22 CEs 1. A compaund has the percentage cammpositicn by mais Cae2498,N «171% and 0 = 585%. \Whar is its emaitiealforrmua? 2. Combustion anahsis of 27g of en organic compound produced 433g01 carbon dioside and 1.77 gol wales, hat sits emprial form? 3. Can you work aut the empirical formula of his molecule? Black repeateris carbon and white reprevents hychagen, Bae ea ‘empirical formula the smatiest whole-namber ratio of atonns of ench flere in a compaundera RS ee pe Ase 1B Know the term molecularformula. |B Use experimentai data to calculate molecular formulae. | Use the expression pV = nT for gasesand volatile liquids. INTRODUCTION TO MOLECULAR FORMULAE In Topie 1.1, you lesrned haw to-calculate empirical formulae. Sometimes the empirical formula of a compound is the same es fis molecular formula. Carbon dioxide (CQ,) and water (H.C) ate common examples you will know. The moleeular formula of @ compeusd shovs the actual numbers of the atams of eath element in the compound ‘Examples of compounds with diferent empirical and molecular formulae are: bydrogen peorcde empirical formula is HO molecular formula io HO butane empirical formal is CH, molecular forruula is CH ‘To determine the molecular iarmula of a:compound, you need to already know of to calculate: the empinesl formula + the relative formula mass, For example, if you had already sound thatthe empirical ormuda af 6 compound was HO and you then fund! the its relative formuala raase was 24, you could compare the relative mass of the empirical formula [17) with. 34 and work nur that the molecular oemaula was double the empirical foermula CALCULATING MOLECULAR FORMULAE You have azeadly practised calculaing an empikical formula fiom experimental data. Now look at how to calculate a molecular formula from an ernparical formula. ies ctus a le this ecampl the empirical formula is ger: ‘Aconpourel has the erspinca formula CH and a rélative formula rass of 108, “The formula mass al the empirical formula & 130. 104 13.0 & so the molecular ftmulai the compound @ GyHy canard Th Uie-exampls you fist haveto wark out ihe empirical formula. A cermpeurd eontalns the percentage ‘composition by mass Na = 343%. C= 17.9% 0 47.8% and has a molar mass of 124g mol The caleutstione ae shown below [8 cfetement m9 _| [retaive aiomie mass 120 oabrA 148 The empirical forma is Na, The Toimusa mass of the ereal formula 8 230) « 120+ (2 160) = 670, The molar ass, 134 2 » 670 50 he rmoleular fo irra the compound is NAsC.O)Trak) THE IDEAL GAS EQUATION pV'= aRT pV = nRT's the ideal gas equation, and can be used for gases (or volatile liquide abcre their boiling temperatures} to find the meus of a substance in moles, Ifthe mass af the substance 1 aloe known, then the rmolar mass ef the substonee ean: be cealeulatee. Thia gives the exua information needed to wark out 8 smoleculay farrnula free an empirical oremuka, ‘The expression can albo be rearranged to calculate a value of p, cr Vorr. ‘When using this equation, you need to’be careful that the units are the correct ones. It is always safest to workin $I units. ‘The Sl units you should use are: p= pressure in pascals (Pa) + V= volume in cubic metres ( + T= temperasure in kelvin (K) © n= amount of substance in moles (m0) + R= the gas constant - thes appears in the Data Bocikler provided for use in the exarninations andi has the value al dmol Sometimes in & question you may find thal the units quoted are ‘ot! units. If this is the case, then you wall need to-corvert them, to Sl units. Table A shows the conversions yeaa are likely to need multiply by 10 crn! — me dence by 10" er raltiply by. 10 ami mi dice by 10% or rainpy by 10? Cok add 2 table WORKED EXAMPLE ad Mowe practice) 10 wn the values wits any necessary eorwerions. fa gas has a volume 1 ganda temperature of 70°C ‘mass cf the gas p= 120k = 12010 V=885.em = 885 «10-4 Ta70C = 348K -831)mo-x PY tan ULAE (ree muaets [inthis eral you wif calculate the emprical formula, hen te amount inmmoles Aer thatthe molar russ, then the iclecuar fm tt ‘compound hasthe percentage comiostion by mass C = 52.2% Hi 1.08,0 + 34.8% A sample contarmng 0,1 74g of the carp haga volume of 95 Oem? when: meacured at 105 ‘Wat i¢the molecular forrmula ofthis cornpouind? Step 1; caloulate the empincal formula 522 20 rela dhvsion bya, rato 2 6 1 eprical formula is 8.0. Step Z calcula tie amount in moles pv 0 w = 000377 ral ae Stop # caleutte me malar macs Naa MTR: ge grass M= mr" pagar 2898 Stop 4: calculate the malecular Formula the empirical formu bx 20) +(6 10)+ 16.0 he sare a the molar mass then the empirical and frolecular fume arethe sarne, The melecularfeernula HO, LEARNING TIP 8¢ carefulwhon Using tha word amaune. t-should onybe used for theamount. in moles of a substance For example, The arnount of magnesium used was 150 mol is correct. You should nee use in instead of quantities with other units. Foe example. “The amount of magnesium used was 364 should beThe rss of magnesium used nas 3.6 2 Another example: ‘The amount of water used ures 25.0.cm* should be “The volume of water used was 25.0%, als 1.A282 gearmple ofa gathas avolume of | 26 Ca(NO,),(aq) + 1,00) + COAg} na veactioa, 190 er of carbon diowide is formed. What mass of calelum carbonate is needed for thie? You are not told anything about nite ecid, or asked anything about calcium nitrate or waret You can use the molar volume expression to calculate the amount of carbon choxide, You can see thatthe CaCO} CO; ratio in the equation is 1 Which rmeans that 0.00417 mol of calcium carbonete Is needed Convert this amount te « mass and you have the answer msnx M = 00047 x 100.1 =042gPrat) ‘Ammoniuen sulfare neaets with sium Ryiroxide solution to farm sodium sulfate, water anal farmmenia, as shawn in the equation: (WH,).S045)+ 2NaQH[aq)— Na,S0.(aq) + 21,01) + JNHs(g) What volume of arnmonia is formed by reacting 2.18 g.af ammonium sulfate with excess sodium hydroxide snation? You are net given any information about the sodium hydreaide.and you are not asked anything about sodium sulfate or water You can use the mole expression to-calculate the amount i ammonium sulfate = 216 NHS0) = fap = 6.01688 mal ‘You can see that the (NH,):S0,: NH; ratio in the equation is 1-2, which means that (0001635 = 2 = 0.0327 mal of ammonia is formed Convert this ammount to 2 wolume and you have the answer: volume = 24000 x 0.0377 = 7854 Practise using the three-step method for calculating masses from valurnes and valumes rom masses, ome rections Css Seed Inthese questions aszurnsthatall wolumes are mauured att, 1.A flask contains 2d? ofbutane Whats the amount, moles, af asin the Mask? 2.1000 ot copper) oxide x haated wth hycrgen according 1 this equation. Cua = Hae) — Cul) + H.000 \What volume! hydeogen gass needed o react withthe copper}. onde, and what mass ofapper is formea? Bate ‘molar volume tha valume eccupied by Tel sfamy gat thi ie narmaly 24 en? oe 24 000 em at rtp1E 2 CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS pee RS ey | Calculate the concentration ofa sclution, in go? and mold. ‘CALCULATIONS USING MASS CONCENTRATION (g dev) ‘you know the mass of a solute that you dissolve ina solvent {usually water), and the wlume of the Solution formed, ther it is straightionvard to calculate the mass concentration ‘You use the expression: cecal £ ‘mags céncentration in gem? = eae futon indi ‘In this topic, we only use vaines based on gand dim’. You may sometimes see other units, suchas ger” and kgm” -As-with other similar expressions, you will need to rearange depending on the warding of she question. You also need to remember ta-convert cm’ ta cm? (by dividing try 1000), 20cm of a-solution contains 5 68g of sodium bromide, Whatis its mass concentraton? ress concentration = = EXAMPLE 2 ‘The concentration of a solution és 57 geln-® What ass of solute is therein 750m of solution? ‘m= mass concentration V 57 0750 = 118g EXAMPLE 3 ‘8 chomist uses 280 of a solute to maleea solution of ‘concertranon 28.4g.ém~?. Whar welume af solution does he mak? NGA. Thee comanes rence Lop ocreaeg colovr mers. Ue ‘oc eoleuted,an'we cannot sol (erenreenceenations CALCULATIONS USING MOLAR CONCENTRATION {mot di) Molar concentration (it used (abe called molarity) is used mere often than mass concentration. I only the term ‘concentration’ is mentioned, then you should assume that it refers ta malar concentration, “The unity af molar concentration are moldm'4, and this ig often denoted by using square brackets If a solution of hydrochloric acidhas a concentraian of 0 150moldm-,chis can be shown as [HCl] = 0.180motdm”®. The symbal cls sometimes used to represent molar conceniration You need to be able to use these rar expressions togethey: and Imola concentration volume As previously: you may need to rearrange these expressions, Look atthe question wording to decide which ane ta use fist. Ces eee A chemist makes S00ern* ef 4 Solution of rite atid af concentration | ‘Q80Gmal dm. What massof HNO, does she nex Sep |: You are gven values of Vand c. so. youcan use the second fepeession to calculate a value for 9 n=ex¥=0800 « 0500 =400mel ‘Sep 2 You rar new use the fir expression tm calculate the mass of acd. =n eM =O400 «630= 252g Wears ‘Astudent has [010g 08 sodium choride Whatwalume oF {5limnalcle*scuton can be make? Step 1: You are given the value of n and eat wath Qut Mf ram the Peslodic Table so you can calculate 300 oece n= = Zag O8SSrral Step 2: Yau can ni use the second expression to cakulate the volume of solution, In this type of calculation, you can use an equation to celculate the mass of a reactant or product If you are given the volume: and tmclar concentration of another substance. and vice versa, The expressions you needare the same as those you have just aed. ut you alse ned the equation for the ratio ses hat you can see the reacting ratioDCT) Tee ese Crees of magnesium & added to 100em' af | 80 maldnr hydrachlonec acid. The equation forthe Ms 2HCi—+ Nigcly +H, What mass cf hydeigen is formed? Step 1: You are given thevalues of ¥ and «40 you can use the secand expression to calculate the value of Yor bychochleric acid f= 01006 15¢=0.180mo1 Step 2 The ratio HCL Hsin2:1, sa, Step 3: For hydrogen, m =n» M = DOTSOx peat ae ‘of47.8g of magnesium carbonate reacts with 25Drmol drm! hycrachlorc acl The equation for Meco. 2HC + MgCl, HLO + co: 079¢-2

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