University of Sharjah, College of Engineering

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Engineering Department

040-6330
Wind Energy Systems
Course Instructor: Tareq Salameh

Chapter 2
Wind Characteristics and Resources

1
General Characteristics of Wind
Resources
Outlines
1. Introduction
2. General Characteristics of the Wind Resource
Global Wind origin
Temporal and Spatial characteristics of wind,
Estimation of Potential Wind Recourses

2
 2.1 Introduction
Knowledge of wind characteristics at particular site is
relevant to the following topics:

Systems design Performance evolution Siting Operations

Need knowledge of
representative average
wind conditions,
turbulent nature of the
wind, extreme wind events.
To determine the
For assessment or Information used for load
expected energy
prediction of the management, operational
productivity and
desirability of procedures, and the
cost effectiveness.
candidate sites. prediction of maintenance
or system life.

3
2.2 General Characteristics of the Wind Resource

Where does the wind come from?

2.2.1 Wind Resource: Global Origins

2.2.1.1 Overall Global Patterns

• The original source of the renewable

energy contained in the earth’s wind
resource is the sun.

• Global winds are caused by pressure

differences across the earth’s surface due
to the uneven heating of the earth by solar
radiation

• The circulation of the atmosphere that

results from uneven heating is greatly
influenced by the effects of the rotation Fig. Surface winds of
of the earth (at a speed of about 1670 worldwide circulation pattern
kilometers per hour at the equator,
decreasing to zero at the poles).

4
2.2.1 Wind Resource: Global Origins 2.2.1.1 Overall Global
Patterns

5
 2.2.1 Wind Resource: Global Origins 2.2.1.2 Mechanics of
Wind Motion

Four atmospheric forces can be considered for

the motion of the wind.

Pressure forces Coriolis force

Inertial forces Frictional forces at
Pressure force on the air Coriolis force (per unit the earth’s surface
(per unit mass) mass)
U (wind speed)
f (Coriolis parameter)
ρ air density.

pressure
gradient normal  Latitude
to the isobars.  angular rotation
of the earth.

6
2.2.1 Wind Resource: Global Origins 2.2.1.2 Mechanics of
Wind Motion

The direction of the Coriolis force

is perpendicular to the direction
of motion of the air.

Direction of motion
of the air.

The resultant of these two forces, called the geostrophic wind, tends to be parallel to isobars

7
 2.2.1 Wind Resource: Global Origins 2.2.1.2 Mechanics of
Wind Motion

The resultant of these the two

forces, called the geostrophic
wind, tends to be parallel to
isobars

The magnitude of the

geostrophic wind, Ug, is a
function of the balance of
forces equal to:

This is an idealized
case, Why?

8
2.2.1 Wind Resource: Global Origins 2.2.1.2 Mechanics of
Wind Motion

The presence of areas of high and low pressure

causes the isobars to be curved.
 This imposes a further force on the wind, a
centrifugal force. The resulting wind, called a
gradient wind, Ugr (result of the balance of the
forces)

Substituting from

Eq (2.3) for Ug

R (radius of curvature of the path of the air

particles) 9
2.2.1 Wind Resource: Global Origins 2.2.1.2 Mechanics of
Wind Motion

10
2.2.1 Wind Resource: Global Origins 2.2.1.3 Other Atmospheric
Circulation Patterns

The earth’s surface varies considerably, with large ocean and land masses.

Smaller scale atmospheric circulation

divided into

Secondary circulations include the following:

Hurricanes;
Monsoon circulation;
Extratropical cyclones.

Tertiary circulations (local circulations characterized

by local winds). include the following:

Land and sea breezes;

Valley and mountain winds;
Monsoon-like flow
Thunderstorms;
Tornadoes.

Diurnal valley and mountain wind 11

2.2.2 Temporal and spatial characteristics of wind

Atmospheric motions vary in both: Time (second to months) AND Space (centimeters to
thousands of kilometers)

2.2.2.1 Variation in Time

Variations in wind speed in time can be divided into
the following categories

Inter-annual Annual Diurnal Short-term (gusts

Inter-annual variations Variations in seasonal Daily variations in solar and turbulence).
in wind speed occur or monthly averaged radiation are responsible
Short-term variations
over time scales wind speeds are for diurnal wind
usually mean variations
greater than one year common over most of variations in tropical and
over time intervals of
(for long term wind the world temperate latitudes over
ten minutes or less.
turbine production) relatively flat land areas

12
2.2.2 Temporal and spatial characteristics of wind 2.2.2.1 Variation in Time

Short-term (gusts and turbulence).

Turbulent fluctuations in the flow

need to be quantified, (turbine
design considerations can include
maximum load and fatigue
prediction, structural excitations,
control, system operation, and
power quality).

A gust is a discrete event within a

turbulent wind field. One way to
characterize a gust is to determine: (a)
amplitude, (b) rise time, (c) maximum
gust variation, and (d) lapse time.
Wind turbine structural loads caused by
gusts are affected by these four factors.
13
2.2.2 Temporal and spatial characteristics of wind 2.2.2.2 Variation due to
location and wind direction
• Due to Location, dependent on local topographical and
ground cover variations.

The graph shows monthly and five-year mean wind speeds for two sites 21 km
apart.

The five-year average mean wind speeds differ by about 12% (4.75 and 4.25 m/s
annual averages).
14
2.2.2 Temporal and spatial characteristics of wind 2.2.2.2 Variation due to
location and wind direction
• Due to wind Direction. HAWT must rotate (yaw) with changes in wind
direction.
Yawing causes gyroscopic loads throughout the turbine structure and exercises any
mechanism involved in the yawing motion.
Crosswinds due to changes in wind direction affect blade loads.

Thus short-term variations in wind direction and the associated motion

affect the fatigue life of components such as blades and yaw drives.

A gyroscope in operation. Note the freedom of

rotation in all three axes. The rotor will
maintain its spin axis direction regardless of
the orientation of the outer frame. 15
2.2.3 Estimation of Potential Wind Resources 2.2.3.1 Available Wind Power

Using continuity equation, the mass flow of air can be determined.

The mass flow rate

16
2.2.3 Estimation of Potential Wind Resources 2.2.3.1 Available Wind Power

The wind power density is proportional to the density of the air, the area swept by the
rotor and the cube of the wind velocity

wind velocity is an important parameter

and significantly influences the power
per unit area available from the wind

More accurate estimates can be made

if hourly averages, Ui.

The average wind power density, based on hourly averages

Some sample qualitative

magnitude evaluations of the
wind resource are:
Where U the annual average wind speed
Ke is called the energy pattern factor.

where N is the number of hours in a year, 8760 17

2.2.3 Estimation of Potential Wind Resources 2.2.3.2 Estimation of world
wide recourses

The different types of wind energy potential that can be estimated

(World Energy Council, 1993)
1. Meteorological potential. This is equivalent to the available wind resource.

2. Site potential. This is based on the meteorological potential, but is restricted to

those sites that are geographically available for power production.

3. Technical potential. The technical potential is calculated from the site potential,
accounting for the available technology.

4. Economic potential. The economic potential is the technical potential that can
be realized economically.

5. Implementation potential. Implementation potential takes into account

constraints and incentives to assess the wind turbine capacity that can be
implemented within a certain time frame.

18
Characteristics of the Atmospheric
Boundary Layer.
Outlines
1- Atmospheric Density and Pressure
2- Stability of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer
Lapse Rate
3- Turbulence
Turbulence intensity
Wind speed Probability Density Functions
Autocorrelation
4- The Steady Wind: Wind Speed Variation with Height
5- Effect of terrain on Wind Characteristics

19
2.3 Characteristics of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer
An important parameter in the characterization of the wind resource is the
variation of horizontal wind speed with height above the ground.
Vertical Profile of the Wind Speed or Vertical
Wind Shear

Directly Determines the Strongly influence the

productivity of a wind turbine lifetime of a turbine
on a tower of certain height rotor blade

Figure: Vertical wind shear profile

20
2.3.1 Atmospheric Density and Pressure

Power in the wind is a function of air density

Air pressure decreases with elevation

above sea level. The pressure in the
international standard atmosphere up to an
elevation of 5000 m is very closely
approximated by:

21
2.3.2 Stability of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer

Stability – the tendency to resist vertical motion or to suppress existing

turbulence.

• The stability of the atmospheric boundary layer is a determining factor for the
wind speed gradients (e.g. wind shear) that are experienced in the first few
hundred meters above the ground.

Atmospheric stability is classified as

stable, neutrally stable, or unstable.

The stability of the earth’s atmosphere is governed by the vertical temperature

distribution resulting from:

 The radiative heating or cooling of its surface

 The subsequent convective mixing of the air adjacent to the surface.

22
2.3.2 Stability of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer 2.3.2.1 Lapse Rate

Lapse Rate defined as:

The rate of change of temperature with height (by calculating the change in
pressure with height and using thermodynamic relation assuming an adiabatic expansion)

Thus, the rate that temperature

decreases with an increase in
height for a system with no
heat transfer is about 1oC per
100 m and is known as the dry
adiabatic lapse rate.
23
2.3.2 Stability of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer
The *lapse rate,  or (Ra), is defined
as the negative of the temperature
gradient in the atmosphere.
2.3.2.1 Lapse Rate
Thus, the rate that temperature
decreases with an increase in height for
a system with no heat transfer is about
1oC per 100 m and is known as the dry
adiabatic lapse rate.
* Important of  or (Ra), comparison
of its value to the actual lapse rate in
the lower atmosphere is a measure
of the stability of the atmosphere.

This ideal temperature decrease is reasonably linear up to several
kilometers above the earth’s surface and can be approximated by
where Ta(z) Temperature at elevation z m
above sea level, Tg Temperature at ground
level zg, Ra is the adiabatic lapse rate,
0.01oC/m. The quantity z − zg is the
altitude above ground level.

The actual temperature decrease with height will

normally be different from the adiabatic prediction,
due to mechanical mixing of the atmosphere.
24
2.3.2 Stability of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer 2.3.2.1 Lapse Rate

The actual temperature

decrease with height will
normally be different from
the adiabatic prediction,
1000m due to mechanical mixing
of the atmosphere.

Air temp. slightly above the adiabatic

line starting from ground temp.

Figure: Dry-adiabatic and actual temperature variations with height as a function

of time of day, for clear skies.

The international standard atmospheric lapse

rate, based on meteorological data

Thus, the standard lapse rate,

based on international
convention, is 0.66oC/ 100 m

25
2.3.3 Turbulence WIND-SPEED STATISTICS

Turbulence in the wind is caused by dissipation of the wind’s kinetic energy

into thermal energy via the creation and destruction of progressively smaller
eddies (or gusts).
Turbulence features are characterized by a number of
statistical properties:

• Turbulence intensity;
• Wind speed probability density function;
• Autocorrelation;
• Integral time scale/length scale;
• Power spectral density function.

Turbulent wind consists of longitudinal u lateral v and vertical components w

Component is consisting of a short-term mean wind (U) ,

with fluctuating wind (𝒖), added to it,

26
2.3.3 Turbulence 2.3.3.1 Turbulence Intensity
WIND-SPEED STATISTICS
One statistical quantity is the average or arithmetic mean.
Mean wind
speed

number of samples
during each short-
term interval

In addition to the mean, we are interested in the variability of the set of numbers.

standard
deviation
Variance

Turbulence Intensity: the ratio of the standard deviation of the wind speed to
the mean wind speed (in the range of 0.1 to 0.5)

27
2.3.3 Turbulence
WIND-SPEED STATISTICS

Including the numbers of observations of a specific wind speed mi. The

mean velocity is:

Number of different
values of wind speed
observed

Variance and the standard deviation

28
2.3.3 Turbulence 2.3.3.2 Wind Speed Probability Density Functions (Pdf)

Probability density function: Describes the behavior for turbulence.

The data has mean of 10.4 m/s and

a standard deviation of 1.63m/s.
Thus, the turbulence intensity, over
the ten-minute period, is 0.16.

Autocorrelation: Measure of the relation between the wind speed at one

point in time to that at another point in time.

29
2.3.3.3 Autocorrelation
is the cross-correlation of a signal with
itself. Informally, it is the similarity
between observations as a function of the
time separation between them.

It is a mathematical tool for finding

repeating patterns, such as the presence
of a periodic signal which has been buried
under noise,

or identifying the missing fundamental

frequency in a signal implied by its
harmonic frequencies. It is often used in
signal processing for analyzing functions or
series of values, such as time domain
signals

where r = lag number.

2.3.3.4 Integral Time Scale/Length Scale
• The autocorrelation function can be
used to determine the integral time
scale of turbulence.

• A measure of the average time over

which wind speed fluctuations are
correlated with each other is found
by integrating the autocorrelation
from zero lag to the first zero
crossing. The single resulting value is
known as the integral time scale of
the turbulence.

Based on the autocorrelation function

• Gusts are relatively coherent (well
correlated) rises and falls in the wind,
and have characteristic times on the
same order as the integral time scale.
illustrated
The integral time scale is 50.6 seconds.
The mean wind velocity is 10.4 m/s.
The size of the turbulent eddies in the
mean flow, or the integral length
scale, is on the order of 526 m.
2.3.3.5 Power Spectral Density Function
The fluctuations in the wind can be
thought of as resulting from a composite
of sinusoidally varying winds
superimposed on the mean steady wind.

These sinusoidal variations will have a

variety of frequencies, amplitudes, and
phases. The term ‘spectrum’ is used to
describe functions of frequency.

where f is the frequency (Hz), L is the integral

length scale, and U is the mean wind speed at
the height of interest
 2.3.4 The Steady Wind: Wind Speed Variation with Height

The actual wind speed, at any location, varies in time and direction around its
mean value due to the effect of turbulence.

This figure clearly shows that the mean wind

speed increases with height, which defines the
phenomenon called wind shear

Two mathematical models used to model the

vertical profile of wind speed.

1- Logarithmic Profile (Log Law)

2- Power Law Profile

33
2.3.4.1 Logarithmic Profile (Log Law)
Near the surface of the earth the momentum equation reduces to:

where x and z are the horizontal and vertical coordinates, p is the pressure,
and xz is the shear

using the Prandtl mixing length theory, the shear stress may be expressed
as:

where r is the density of the air, U the horizontal component of velocity, and
L the mixing length. Viscosity is defined as L*u ; where u is a turbulent
velocity scale.
Combining Equations (2.29) and (2.30) gives:

If one assumes a smooth surface, L=k z, with k=0.4 (von Karman’s constant),
then Equation (2.31) can be integrated directly from z0 to z
where z0 is the surface roughness length, which characterizes the roughness of
the ground terrain. This yields:
2.3.4 The Steady Wind: Wind Speed Variation with Height
2.3.4.1 Logarithmic Profile (Log Law)

𝑈 ∗ friction velocity, k von Karman’s

constant
zo the surface roughness length.

Other forms of Log Law

The log law is often used to extrapolate wind

speed from a reference height, zr, to another
level using the following relationship:

36
2.3.4 The Steady Wind: Wind Speed Variation with Height
2.3.4.2 Power Law Profile Represents a simple model for the vertical
wind speed profile.

U(z) the wind speed at height z,

U(zr) the reference wind speed at height zr,
α the power law exponent (can be assumed equal to 1/7))

37
2.3.4 The Steady Wind: Wind Speed Variation with Height

Correlation for the Power Law Exponent as a Function of Velocity and

Height

where U (m/s) and z ref (m).

Correlation Dependent on Surface Roughness

for 0.001m <z0 <10 m, where z0

represents the surface roughness in m

38
2.3.5 Effect of Terrain on Wind Characteristics

Some of the effects of terrain include

• Velocity deficits

• Unusual wind shear

• Wind acceleration.

The influence of terrain features on the energy output from a

turbine may be so great that the economics of the whole
project may depend on the proper selection of the site.

39
 2.3.5 Effect of Terrain on Wind Characteristics
2.3.5.1Classification of Terrain
Basic classification of terrain

Flat terrain Non-flat terrain

Terrain with small irregularities
such as forest, shelter belts, etc.
Conditions for flat terrain
• Elevation differences between the wind turbine site
and the surrounding terrain are not greater than about
60m anywhere in an 11.5 km diameter circle around
the turbine site.
• No hill has an aspect ratio (h/w) greater than 1/50
within 4 km upstream and downstream of the site.
Has large-scale elevations or
depressions such as hills, ridges,
valleys, and canyons.
Researchers have divided non-flat terrain
into
Isolated (terrain of small-scale features)
Mountainous terrain (refers to large-
scale features

The information on wind direction should be

considered when defining the terrain classification.

40
 2.3.5 Effect of Terrain on Wind Characteristics
2.3.5.2 Flow Over Flat Terrain with Obstacles

Velocity deficits

41
 2.3.5 Effect of Terrain on Wind Characteristics
2.3.5.3 Flow in Flat Terrain with a change in Surface Roughness

Downwind profile changes significantly in

going from a smooth to a rough surface
Unusual wind shear

42
2.3.5 Effect of Terrain on Wind Characteristics
2.3.5.4 Characteristics of Non-Flat Terrain (Small Scale Features)
Elevations and Depressions

Ridges are elongated hills that are less than or equal to 600m above
the surrounding terrain and have little or no flat area on the summit.

Effect of ridge orientation and shape on site suitability. The slope of a ridge:
Steeper slopes give rise to stronger wind flow, but on the lee of ridges steeper
slopes give rise to high turbulence.
43
2.3.5 Effect of Terrain on Wind Characteristics
2.3.5.4 Characteristics of Non-Flat Terrain (Large Scale Features)
The flow over these features is the most complex, and flow predictions for
this category of terrain classification are the least quantified

44
Wind Data Analysis and Resource
Outlines
1- General Aspect of Wind Turbine Energy Production
2- Direct Method of Data Analysis, Resource Characterization
and Turbine Productivity
Direct use of Data
Method of Bins
3- Statistical Analysis of Wind Data
Rayleigh Distribution
Weibull Distribution
4- Extreme Wind Speeds

45
2.4 Wind Data Analysis and Resource Estimation
2.4.1 General Aspects of Wind Turbine Energy Production

We have the database --- a large quantity of data on wind speed and its direction.
For example, 8760 hourly measurements for one year. (24 x 365 = 8,760)
We wish to calculate the wind-energy production potential.

Two Widely Used Methods

1. Direct Use of Data

2. Method of Bins

46
 2.4 Wind Data Analysis and Resource Estimation
2.4.2 Direct Methods of Data Analysis, Resource Characterization, and
Turbine Productivity

2.4.2.1 Direct Use of Data

47
2.4.2 Direct Methods of Data Analysis, Resource Characterization, and
Turbine Productivity

2.4.2.1 Direct Use of Data

48
2.4.2 Direct Methods of Data Analysis, Resource Characterization, and
Turbine Productivity

2.4.2.2 Method of Bins

(Bin means wind-speed interval; typically this interval is held
constant. Each bin contains data for that interval)

Wind-speed data are arranged into bins or wind-speed intervals,

which typically span 0.5 m/s.

( These procedures are often governed by specifications from

ASME, AWEA and such organizations.)

49
 A Sample of Database Arranged into Bins
• The data were continuously measured every hour for one year ≡ 8760 measurements.
The site refers to MOD-2 (Boeing) 91.4 m diameter turbine; cut-in speed=6.25 m/s
and cut-out speed = 22.5 m/s.)
Wind Speed (m/s) Duration ∆t
Bin Min (m/s) Max (m/s) (hr/year)
1 0 6.25 2147
2 6.25 6.75 416
[from: Wind turbine
3 6.75 7.25 440 Technology, David A. Spera,
4 7.25 7.75 458 editor , 1994, p.222, ASME
5 7.75 8.25 468
6 8.25 8.75 470 publication]
7 8.75 9.25 466
8 9.25 9.75 453
9 9.75 10.25 435
10 10.25 10.75 410 *For Bin 18,
11 10.75 11.25 381 The reason for the much larger
12 11.27 11.75 349 interval (22.5-14.25 = 8.5 m/s) is
13 11.75 12.25 314 not known, (revisit the data base.)
14 12.25 12.75 278
15 12.75 13.25 242
16 13.25 13.75 208
17 13.75 14.25 175
18* 14.25 >22.4 648

19 >22.4 2
Total = 8760 = N

Bin ≡ wind velocity interval, specifications often require 0.5 m/s bins. 50
2.4.2 Direct Methods of Data Analysis, Resource Characterization, and
Turbine Productivity
2.4.2.2 Method of Bins

51
Wind Data Distributed by Bins for Hypothetical Site (average
wind speed 5.57 m/s or 12.2 mph)

BIN Wind Speed hi fi mi

(0bserved)
Bin Avg.
Min(m/s) Max(m/s) hours/year (pct) Σmifi
Speed
hi/8760 (m/s)
1 0 0 80 0.91% 0 0.0000
2 0 1 204 2.33% 0.5 0.0116
3 1 2 496 5.66% 1.5 0.0849
4 2 3 806 9.20% 2.5 0.2300
5 3 4 1211 13.82% 3.5 0.4838
6 4 5 1254 14.32% 4.5 0.6442
7 5 6 1246 14.22% 5.5 0.7823
8 6 7 1027 11.72% 6.5 0.7620
9 7 8 709 8.09% 7.5 0.6070
10 8 9 549 6.27% 8.5 0.5327
11 9 10 443 5.06% 9.5 0.4804
12 10 11 328 3.74% 10.5 0.3932
13 11 12 221 2.52% 11.5 0.2901
14 12 13 124 1.42% 12.5 0.1769
15 13 14 60 0.68% 13.5 0.0925
No upper
16 14 2 0.02% -
bond
N=8760 5.572
Ū=

* fi = observed bin probability or probability density function for the i-th bin
(fi is also referred to as frequency)
52
2.4.2 Direct Methods of Data Analysis, Resource Characterization, and
Turbine Productivity

2.4.2.2 Method of Bins

53
2.4.3 Statistical Analysis of Wind Data
Probability p of the discrete wind speed ui The sum of all probabilities will be unity.
No of
observation

Total no of
observation (N)

54
2.4.3 Statistical Analysis of Wind Data
Cumulative distribution function F(ui): the probability that a measured wind speed will
be less than or equal to ui. Or time fraction

55
2.4.3 Statistical Analysis of Wind Data
Summary

56
2.4.3 Statistical Analysis of Wind Data
Summary

57
2.4.2 Direct Methods of Data Analysis, Resource Characterization, and
Turbine Productivity

2.4.2.3 Velocity and Power Duration Curves from Data

After filling up bins, one can plot wind speed versus the number of hours
the wind will be greater than or equal to that speed.

Note that the velocity duration curve s closely related to the cumulative
distribution function.

the velocity duration curve = 8760  (1-F(u)), but with the x and y axes
reversed

Then, based on the power generation curve (including cut-in and cut-out
speeds), one can plot wind turbine power versus the number of hours the
wind turbine will exceed that power output.

58
2.4.2 Direct Methods of Data Analysis, Resource Characterization, and
Turbine Productivity
2.4.2.3 Velocity and Power Duration Curves from Data
The velocity duration curve is a graph with wind speed on the y axis and the
number of hours in the year for which the speed equals or exceeds each
particular value on the x axis.

1. arrange the data in bins;

2. find the number of hours
that a given velocity (or
power per unit area) is
exceeded;
3. plot the resulting curves.

59
2.4.2 Direct Methods of Data Analysis, Resource Characterization, and
Turbine Productivity
2.4.2.3 Velocity and Power Duration Curves from Data

60
 CAPACITY FACTOR

The capacity factor (CF) of a wind turbine at a given site is the ratio of
the energy actually produced by the turbine (Pw) to the energy that
could have been produced if the machine ran at its rated power, PR,
over a given time period.

Thus, it is an measure of how often the turbine is operating at its

design point.
CF = PW/PR

61
2.4.3 Statistical Analysis of Wind Data
2.4.3.3 Commonly Used Probability Distribution
Commonly Used Probability Distribution

Rayleigh Distribution Weibull Distribution

 Simplest velocity probability

distribution to represent the
Example of Rayleigh
wind resource.
probability density function
 Requires only a knowledge of
the mean wind speed.

As Shown, a larger value of the mean wind speed

gives a higher probability of higher wind speeds.
62
2.4.3 Statistical Analysis of Wind Data
2.4.3.3 Commonly Used Probability Distribution
Commonly Used Probability Distribution

Rayleigh Distribution Weibull Distribution

Example of Weibull probability
density function for 𝑈= 6 m/s
Requires knowledge of two parameters:
 k, (shape factor)
 c, (scale factor)
Both of these parameters are functions of
𝑈 and 𝜎𝑈 .

As shown, as the value of k increases, the Gamma function

curve has a sharper peak, indicating that there
is less wind speed variation.
63
2.4.3 Statistical Analysis of Wind Data

64
2.4.4 Extreme Wind Speed
The primary meteorological factor in evaluating a prospective wind turbine site is
the mean wind speed. Another important consideration is the extreme wind speed.

(Highest wind speed expected over some relatively long period of time).
The most common statistical model for estimating extreme wind speeds is the
Gumbel distribution.

The cumulative distribution function

65
2.4.4 Extreme Wind Speed

66
2.5 Wind Turbine Energy Production
Estimates Using Statistical Techniques

67
2.5 Wind Turbine Energy Production Estimates Using Statistical Techniques

68
2.5.1 Idealized Machine Productivity Calculations using Rayleigh Distribution

• A measure of the maximum possible average power from a given rotor

diameter can be calculated assuming an ideal wind machine and using a
Rayleigh probability density function.
2.5.1 Idealized Machine Productivity Calculations using Rayleigh Distribution
2.5.1 Idealized Machine Productivity Calculations using Rayleigh Distribution

Example
2.5.2 Productivity Calculations for a Real Wind Turbine using a Weibull Distribution
2.6 Regional Wind Resource Assessment
There are many methods for estimating the wind resource of an area.
This review summarized the following methods:
(1) Folklore. (2) Measurements only. (3) Measure–correlate–predict.
(4) Global databases. (5) Wind atlas methodology. (6) Site data based modeling.
(7) Mesoscale modeling. (8) Combined meso/microscale modeling.

2.6.4 Wind Resource Information for Other Parts

of the World
There are numerous technical publications that summarize wind resource
information for other parts of the world. There is no one publication, or wind
atlas, however, that summarizes all of this work.
 2.7 Wind Prediction and Forecasting
In the case of a wind turbine or wind farm operator, the capacity to
effectively integrate the wind energy into a grid may be affected by
the predictability of the output of the wind turbine(s).
In this case, wind speed, or power production forecasts, might be
needed for the next few hours or one to two days

Most of the currently used forecasting models consist of all or most of

the following (Landberg et al., 2003b):
• numerical weather prediction (NWP) model output;
• input of observations;
• a numerical forecasting model and output
 Wind Measurement and instrumentation
There are three types of instrument systems used for wind measurements:
• Instruments used by national meteorological services;
• Instruments designed specifically for measuring and characterizing the
wind resource;
• Instruments specially designed for high sampling rates for determining
gust, turbulence, and inflow wind information for analyzing wind
turbine response.

Wind energy applications use the following types of meteorological

sensors:
• Anemometers to measure wind velocity;
• Wind vanes to measure wind direction;
• Thermometers to measure the ambient air temperature;
• barometers to measure the air pressure.

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Wind Measurement and instrumentation
2.8.2 General Characteristics of Instruments
This review is divided into three sections:
• System components;
• Characterization of measurements;
• Instrument characteristics.

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2.8.2 General Characteristics of Instruments

2.8.2.1 System Components

Sensors: A sensor is a device, such as a cup of an anemometer or a hot

wire, which reacts to changes in the environment.
Transducers: A transducer is a device which converts energy from one form
to another, e.g, mechanical into electrical in anemometer.
Signal Conditioners: Signal conditioners supply power to the sensor when
required, receive the signal from the sensor, and convert it to a form that
can be used by a recorder for display.
Recorders: Recorders are devices that store and/or display the data obtained
by the sensor/transducer/signal conditioner combination.

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2.8.2 General Characteristics of Instruments
2.8.2.2 Characterization of Measurements
• Accuracy and Precision
• Error
• Reliability: The reliability of an instrument is a measure of the
likelihood that it will continue to perform within specified limits
of error for a specified time under specified conditions.
• Repeatability: The repeatability of an instrument is the closeness
of agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of
output for the same input value, provided the measurements are
made under the same conditions.
• Reproducibility :The closeness of agreement among
measurements of the same quantity where the individual
measurements are made under different conditions defines
measurement reproducibility.
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2.8.2 General Characteristics of Instruments
2.8.2.3 Instrument Characteristics
• Time Constant: The period required for a sensor to respond to 63.2%
(1-1/e) of a stepwise change in an input signal defines its time
constant.
• Distance Constant: The distance constant is the length of air flow past
a sensor required to cause it to respond to 63.2% of a step change in
speed. It is calculated by multiplying the sensor time constant by the
average speed of the wind.
• Response Time: The response time is the time required for an instrument to
register a designated percentage (usually 90% or 95%) of a step change in
the variable being measured.
• Sampling Rate: The sampling rate is the frequency (Hz) at which the signal is
measured. It can be a function of the data collection system.
• Resolution: Resolution is defined as the smallest unit of a variable that is
detectable by the sensor. As an example, a sensor may have a resolution of
+-0.1 m/s or +-1 m/s depending on the instrument.
• Sensitivity: The sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of the full-scale
output of an instrument to the full-scale input value.
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2.8.3 Wind Speed Measuring Instrumentation
The sensors of wind-measuring instrumentation can be classified according
to their principle of operation via the following (ASME, 1988):
• momentum transfer – cups, propellers, and pressure plates;
• pressure on stationary sensors – pitot tubes and drag spheres;
• heat transfer – hot wires and hot films;
• Doppler effects – acoustics and laser;
• special methods – ion displacement, vortex shedding, etc.

in most wind energy applications four different systems have been used.
• cup anemometers;
• propeller anemometers;
• sonic anemometers;
• acoustic Doppler sensors (SODAR);
• Laser Doppler sensors (LIDAR).

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2.8.4 Wind Direction Instrumentation

• Wind direction is normally measured via the use of a wind vane.

2.8.5 Instrumentation Towers

2.8.6 Data Recording Systems

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2.8.7 Wind Data Analysis

a wind assessment and monitoring program includes the following

components:
• review of guiding principles of a wind resource assessment program;
• determination of costs and labor requirements for a wind monitoring
program;
• siting of monitoring systems;
• determination of measurement parameters;
• selection of monitoring station instrumentation;
• installation of monitoring systems;
• station operation and maintenance;
• data collection and handling;
• data validation, processing, and reporting

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2.9 Advanced Topics

• application of stochastic processes to wind energy;

• analysis and characterization of wind turbulence;
• use of numerical or computational fluid dynamic (CFD) models for
flow characterization;
• micrositing;
• statistically based resource assessment techniques

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