Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790

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Results in Engineering
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Comprehensive investigation of recycled waste glass in concrete using

silane treatment for performance improvement
Feras W. Al-Awabdeh a, Mazen J. Al-Kheetan a, b, Yazeed S. Jweihan a, b, Husam Al-Hamaiedeh a,
Seyed Hamidreza Ghaffar c, d, *
a
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Mutah University, Mutah P.O. Box 7, Karak, 61710, Jordan
b
Materials Science and Energy Lab, MSEL, Mutah University, Mutah P.O. Box 7, Karak, 61710, Jordan
c
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Brunel University London, Kingston Ln, Uxbridge, UB8 3PH, United Kingdom
d
Applied Science Research Center, Applied Science Private University, Jordan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: An in-depth investigation of the incorporation of silane-treated and untreated glass waste in concrete is presented
Glass Waste in this research. Coarse and fine aggregates were replaced with glass waste in 30 wt.-% and 50 wt.-% ratios,
Concrete while glass powder was employed as an additive to concrete with 2 wt.-% and 5 wt.-% ratios. Physical, me­
Sustainability
chanical, microstructural and surface chemical properties of the produced concrete samples were studied by
Morphology
Interaction mechanism
conducting water absorption test, compressive and splitting tensile strength tests, Scanning Electron Microscopy
Strength (SEM) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses, respectively. The results showed that the
combined influence of glass waste and silane coupling agent enhanced the impermeability of concrete by 87%
when replacing sand with 50 wt.-% glass. In addition, all modified mixtures showed a reduction in their 28 days’
compressive strength compared to the control, except mixtures where untreated glass powder was used as an
additive, which led to an increase in their compressive strength by 1%. Moreover, replacing sand with 50 wt.-%
glass enhanced the splitting tensile strength of concrete by 25%. Microstructural analysis revealed a delaminated
interface between glass and cement paste when using silane-treated coarse glass and the formation of Ettringite
at later ages.

1. Introduction impractical due to the incompatibility in their chemical composition and

Due to industrialisation and urbanisation, millions of tons of glass
waste are stockpiled annually in landfills, making it a growing envi­
ronmental concern worldwide. It is expected that the percentage of glass
waste will increase with time because of the widespread use of glass
products, its limited lifespan, and being an inert material [1]. In the US
alone, over 7.6 million tons of glass waste went to landfills in 2018,
representing 5.2% of municipal solid waste. Moreover, only 31% of the
generated glass waste was recycled that year [2,3]. In China, the total
amount of glass waste generated in 2018 was 20 million tons, of which
53% has been recycled [4]. On a positive note, Sweden achieved one of
the world’s highest recycling rates of glass waste, with over 90% [5].
Remanufacturing glass wastes effectively reduce their abundance in the
landfill. However, this process faces many obstacles that downgrade its
efficiency. The variation in colour and chemical composition of the
different types of glass waste make the recycling of mixed glass
the variation in their melting temperature. Additionally, the presence of
non-recyclable glass between recyclable ones could hinder the recycling
process, as the presence of 5 g m of non-recyclable glass is enough to
contaminate a ton of recyclable glass [6].
The concrete industry is one of the world’s largest consumers of
natural resources, where it consumes over 20 billion tons of natural
resources, like sand and gravel, every year [7–13]. Due to the high de­
mand for concrete and the annual rise in its production and use
worldwide, scarcity of fine and coarse aggregates is expected to take
place in the near future [14]. Accordingly, many studies proposed the
incorporation of glass waste into concrete as a sustainable solution to its
recycling [4,10,15–17]. Reusing glass waste in concrete might result in
some economic and environmental benefits; replacing part of the con­
ventional concrete raw materials with glass will lower the cost of con­
crete production, reduce the pollution generated from mining the raw
materials, and preserve natural resources [18–21]. Moreover, the

* Corresponding author. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Brunel University London, Kingston Ln, Uxbridge, UB8 3PH, United Kingdom.
E-mail address: seyed.ghaffar@brunel.ac.uk (S.H. Ghaffar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2022.100790
Received 18 October 2022; Received in revised form 15 November 2022; Accepted 18 November 2022
Available online 19 November 2022
2590-1230/Crown Copyright © 2022 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al.
incorporation of glass waste into concrete, either by replacing the
aggregate or using it as an additive, provided some promising results,
especially in terms of water absorption reduction [22–26]. Most studies
reported a reduction in water absorption between 25% and 72% when
replacing sand with glass waste in ratios between 40% and 70% [22,24].
However, a contradiction in the mechanical properties results was
observed in different studies; some studies reported an improvement in
the mechanical properties [27,28], while others reported a declination
[29]. For instance, Sharma (2022) reported a 122% enhancement in the
compressive strength when replacing coarse aggregate with 10% glass
waste along with 20% waste foundry waste and 0.75% glass fibres, while
Tuaum et al. (2018) reported a reduction of 2% in the strength when
using the same replacement ratio of glass waste [30,31]. This might refer
to the variation in the used glass waste’s chemical composition, colour,
and replacement ratio. Additionally, many studies reported the devel­
opment of Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) in concrete after the integration
of glass waste, which negatively affects its mechanical properties
[32–34]. However, there are limited efforts aimed to study the inter­
action mechanism between glass waste and other concrete constituents
to explain the effect of glass waste on concrete’s physical and mechan­
ical properties [35]. Based on previous studies, little research explored
the strategies of treating glass waste before its incorporation into con­
crete to enhance its properties [10].
Therefore, the novelty and significance of this study come from the
possibility of incorporating glass waste in concrete in different forms.
Fig. 1. Experimental framework of research.
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Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790
Untreated and silane-treated glass wastes are employed to replace coarse
and fine aggregates in different ratios, in addition to their use as a
functional additive to improve the performance of the resultant con­
crete. Silane treatment was employed in an attempt to enhance con­
crete’s properties, mainly impermeability, after the incorporation of
glass. Furthermore, physical and mechanical properties along with
microstructural and interaction mechanism analyses, are thoroughly
assessed and discussed with statistical analyses.
2. Materials and methods
The testing program, including mix formulations and experimental
methods used in this research, are represented in Fig. 1.
2.1. Materials
CEM I 42.5 N Portland Cement, coarse limestone aggregate with a
maximum grain size of 25 mm, and 2 mm fine river sand were used in
this study, following the guidelines of BS EN 197–1 and BS EN 12620
[36,37]. The used glass waste is a soda-lime glass type, which was
provided by Greater Karak Municipality. The chemical composition and
physical properties of the glass waste is illustrated in Table 1 [38–40].
The glass waste was washed, cleaned, and milled into various sizes be­
tween 0.007 mm and 25 mm to be consistent with the grain size of the
used cement and natural aggregates. The particle size distribution of the
F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al. Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790

Table 1 specimens (six cubes and three cylinders). All specimens were cured in a
Chemical composition and physical properties of the used glass waste water tank at a temperature of 21 ◦ C for 7 and 28 days prior to testing
[38–40]. following the procedure of the BS EN 12390–2 [43]. Specimens were
Chemical composition Content (%) Physical properties value dried in an oven at 100 ◦ C, after completing the curing periods, until a
SiO2 70.5 Specific gravity 2.50–2.52
constant weight was attained.
Al2O3 3.2 Density (kg/m3) 2420 The experimental framework (Fig. 1) was assigned to characterise
Fe2O3 0.42 Finesse modulus 3.48–3.49 three main properties: (1) Mechanical, (2) Physical, and (3) Micro­
CaO 10 Water absorption 0.40–0.43 structural. Mechanical properties were evaluated by conducting the
Na2O 12 – –
compressive and splitting tensile tests, where the compressive strength
K2O 1 – –
MgO 2.3 – – was performed on all specimens after 7 and 28 days of curing, and the
TiO2 0.07 – – tensile strength was performed on all specimens only after 28 days of
curing following the instructions of BS EN 12390–5 and BS EN 12390–6,
respectively [44,45]. Cubes were used to serve the compressive strength
used natural aggregate and glass waste is shown in Fig. 2. Moreover, test, while cylinders were used for the splitting tensile test.
Sikagard 700-S silane, provided by Sakkab Newport Trading (Amman, The physical properties of all mixtures were assessed by conducting
Jordan), was used to coat part of the crushed glass waste before its the water absorption test. After finishing the 7 and 28 days curing pe­
integration into concrete. The used material is an environmentally riods, all hardened mixtures were tested for water absorption by
friendly compound with hydrophobic characteristics that works as a following the ASTM C1585 testing procedure [46]. Cylinder specimens
coupling agent to enhance the bonding between glass and the cement were used in this test after drying in an oven at 100 ◦ C until a constant
matrix [10,41]. mass was achieved. Cylinders were immersed in water, and the changes
in their masses were recorded after 30 min, 1 h, 2 h, 3 h, 4 h, 5 h, and 24
2.2. Mixture design h from placing them in water. The water absorption rate of specimens
was then calculated by using the following formula:
As illustrated in Table 2, 13 different mixtures were designed
following the instructions of BS 1881–125 [42]. All mixture formula­ W2 − W1
Water Absorption (%) = X 100
tions were designed with constant water-to-cement ratio (w/c) of 0.46. W1
As shown in Table 2, eight mixtures were designed by varying the coarse
where.W1: Dry weight of concrete specimens (g).W2: Weight of concrete
and fine aggregates by replacing them with glass waste in 30 wt.-% and
specimens after immersing in water (g).
50 wt.-% of the weight of natural aggregates. Four mixtures, out of the
To evaluate the microstructural characteristics of concrete after the
eight mentioned above, were prepared with silane-treated glass waste.
incorporation of glass waste (treated and untreated), Scanning Electron
Glass waste that was employed as coarse aggregate had a grain size
Microscopy (SEM) analysis was performed along with energy dispersive
range of 4.75 mm–25 mm, and glass waste that was used as fine
spectroscopy (EDS) analysis. Before conducting the analysis, small parts
aggregate had a grain size distribution between 0.075 mm and 2 mm.
(10 mm3) of the specimens were gold-coated to enhance the conduc­
Furthermore, glass waste was also used as an additive in another four
tivity of their surfaces.
mixtures by adding it with 2 wt.-% and 5 wt.-% of cement weight. Two
An in-depth analysis of the interaction mechanism between the
mixtures out of the latter four contained silane-treated glass waste as an
incorporated glass waste (treated and untreated) and the cement matrix
additive. Glass waste was ground to a particle size of 0.007 mm before
was carried out using the attenuated total reflectance-fourier transform
using it as an additive. One mixture was used as a control for comparison
infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). The analysis was performed at a
reasons. Mixtures ID are explained in Fig. 1.
wavenumber range of 4000 cm− 1 to 400 cm− 1.

2.3. Testing procedures and specimens

A total of 117 specimens were produced: 78 cubes with the dimen­

sion of 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm and 39 cylinders with the
dimension of 200 mm × 100 mm. Every mixture was set to have nine

Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of the used natural and glass waste aggregates.

3
F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al. Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790

Table 2
Mix design compositions with a fixed water/cement ratio of 0.46
Mixture ID Cement (kg/m3) Coarse aggregate (kg/m3) Fine aggregate (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Glass waste (kg/m3)

Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate Additive

CS 457 1073 660 210 0 0 0

CW-30 457 751 660 210 322 0 0
CW-50 457 536.5 660 210 536.5 0 0
FW-30 457 1073 462 210 0 198 0
FW-50 457 1073 330 210 0 330 0
CT-30 457 751 660 210 322 0 0
CT-50 457 536.5 660 210 536.5 0 0
FT-30 457 1073 462 210 0 198 0
FT-50 457 1073 330 210 0 330 0
AW-2 457 1073 660 210 0 0 9.14
AW-5 457 1073 660 210 0 0 22.85
AT-2 457 1073 660 210 0 0 9.14
AT-5 457 1073 660 210 0 0 22.85

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Water absorption

Fig. 3. Water absorption of concrete mixtures after (a) 7 days and (b) 28 days
of curing.
All concrete mixtures have been tested for water absorption to assess
their waterproofing properties. As illustrated in Fig. 3a, concrete mix­
tures integrated with silane-treated fine and coarse glass aggregates
exhibited the least water absorption rates among all mixtures after 7
days of curing. Notably, a maximum drop of 78%, 67%, 32%, and 7%
was noticed in the water absorption of FT-50, FT-30, CT-50, and CT-30
mixtures, respectively, compared to the control. This is attributed to the
hydrophobic effect of silane that coats the glass aggregates and leads to
repelling water out of the concrete’s pores. Moreover, the lowest ab­
sorption rate exhibited by FT-50 could be attributed to the higher sur­
face area of fine glass aggregates that increases silane’s coupling effect
and allows more silane particles to link with their surface [10]. On the
other hand, the integration of untreated coarse and fine glass aggregates
in concrete showed higher water absorption rates than their treated
counterparts, which is evidence of silane’s high efficiency in reducing
water absorption (Fig. 3a).
After 28 days of curing, a noticeable reduction in water absorption
was spotted with increasing the replacement ratio of treated fine and
coarse glass aggregates (Fig. 3b). A maximum reduction of 87%, 78%,
31%, and 21% was achieved in the water absorption of FT-50, FT-30,
CT-50, and CT-30 mixtures, respectively. This is due to the presence of
silane that creates a water-repellent layer on the surface of the glass
aggregates. Similar to the results obtained at 7 days, FT-50 achieved the
lowest water absorption rate, which refers to the high silane content in
this mixture and its well-distribution on the high surface area glass [10].
Moreover, replacing fine and coarse aggregates with untreated fine and
coarse glass wastes showed water absorption values relatively lower
than the control but higher than their treated counterparts. This could be
attributed to glass’s inherent moderate hydrophobic nature compared
with natural aggregates.
Interestingly, incorporating untreated glass powder as an additive to
concrete recorded higher water absorption rates than the control, where
increasing the glass powder content increased the water absorption rate.
At 7 days, water absorption increased by 4% and 47% after integrating
2% and 5% untreated glass powder (AW-2 and AW-5 mixtures),
respectively (Fig. 3a). Moreover, at 28 days, water absorption of AW-2
and AW-5 mixtures increased by 2% for both mixtures. This increase
in water absorption might indicate forming a highly porous mixture
after incorporating the glass powder into the mix [47]. Furthermore, the
integration of treated glass powder as an additive (AT-2 and AT-5
mixtures) has also resulted in an increased water absorption rate.
Water absorption of the AT-2 mixture increased by 5% and 2%, whereas
the water absorption of the AT-5 mixture increased by 1% and 5% at 7
days and 28 days, respectively. This increase in water absorption might

4
F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al.
also be attributed to the formation of higher porous mixtures after the
addition of glass powder, which works on absorbing higher amounts of
water than the control. The presence of silane in those mixtures is
considered minimal, which will not be enough to reduce the water ab­
sorption rate.
3.2. Compressive strength
Compressive strength results of all samples after 7 and 28 days are
illustrated in Fig. 4 a-b. It is perceived that replacing fine and coarse
aggregate with untreated glass waste has resulted in an increase in the 7
days compressive strength of FW-30, FW-50, CW-30, and CW-50 mix­
tures by 23%, 29%, 7%, and 29%, respectively, compared to control
(Fig. 4a). This is due to the glass’s pozzolanic effect that enhances the
Fig. 4. Compressive strength of concrete mixtures after (a) 7 days and (b) 28
days of curing.
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Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790
hydration process at early ages [48]. In addition, the glass absorbs less
water due to its hydrophobic nature, which leads to more water present
to accelerate the hydration process. Remarkably, the increase in the 7
days’ compressive strength of the coarse glass mixtures could be
attributed to the angular shape of glass particles that exhibits higher
friction and interlocking between the aggregate particles in the concrete
mixture [49].
As shown in Fig. 4b, replacing fine aggregate with untreated fine
glass waste with ratios of 30% and 50% reduced the 28 days compressive
strength of FW-30 and FW-50 mixtures by 13% and 5%, respectively.
This could be due to the minimal effect of small glass particles in filling
the pores, resulting in forming a low-dense concrete structure [10].
Moreover, replacing coarse aggregate with untreated coarse glass
reduced the 28 days’ compressive strength of CW-30 and CW-50 mix­
tures by 7% and 33%, respectively. This could primarily be due to the
brittle nature of glass (more brittle than natural aggregate), which is
reflected in the decreased compressive strength of concrete [50].
On the other hand, using silane-treated glass waste as aggregate (fine
and coarse) negatively influenced the concrete mixtures’ 7 and 28 days
compressive strength. Moreover, the 28 days compressive strength of
FT-30, FT-50, CT-30, and CT-50 has dropped by 19%, 46%, 34%, and
45%, respectively. This might be due to the presence of silane that coats
the glass surface, which hinders the pozzolanic effect of glass powder. In
addition, silane might induce slippage between glass particles and
reduce their interlocking resulting in a decreased compressive strength
[51].
Remarkably, the use of glass waste (treated and untreated) as an
additive in concrete led to an increased compressive strength when
tested at 7 days, where a 28%, 12%, 10%, and 10% increase was
observed in AW-2, AW-5, AT-2, and AT-5 mixtures, respectively
(Fig. 4a). In the case of the silane-treated glass waste mixtures, the in­
crease in the 7 days’ compressive strength could be attributed to the
hydrophobic effect of silane that provides more free water in the mix,
which is necessary to accelerate the hydration process at early ages.
Moreover, the increase in the 7 days’ compressive strength of untreated
glass waste mixtures could be due to the pozzolanic effect of glass
powder [52]. On the other hand, using untreated glass waste as an ad­
ditive showed a modest enhancement in the 28 days’ compressive
strength, where only a 1% increase was noted in both AW-2 and AW-5
mixtures compared to the control (Fig. 4b). The presence of glass pow­
der in small quantities (up to 5%) would minimise its dispersion in the
mix, affecting its role in enhancing the hydration process [52]. More­
over, AT-2 and AT-5 mixtures experienced a drop of 5% and 21%,
respectively, in the 28 days’ compressive strength compared to the
control, which could refer to the silane effect at later ages in hindering
the reaction between silica in glass and the cement matrix.
3.3. Splitting tensile strength
The splitting tensile strength of all mixtures has been tested after 28
days of curing, and the results are illustrated in Fig. 5. All mixtures
experienced a drop in their tensile strength compared to control except
FW-30 and FW-50 mixtures, where an increase of 4% and 25%,
respectively, was seen. This increase could be attributed to: (i) the
enhanced bonding between fine glass and cement paste, where a strong
bond is anticipated to form after the reaction between silica and calcium
hydroxide resulting in the formation of high amounts of C–S–H gel, and
(ii) the small size of fine glass, which reduces the pore size of concrete
and results in a dense microstructure [20]. Replacing sand with un­
treated fine glass waste outperformed the strength of control. On the
other hand, it is known that the tensile strength of concrete is easily
influenced by the quality of the interfacial transition zone between the
aggregate and the cement matrix. Therefore, the waste glass would have
a poor bonding with the cement matrix when present as a coarse
aggregate due to its smooth surface and small surface area resulting in a
reduced tensile strength [53].
F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al.
Fig. 5. Splitting tensile strength of concrete mixtures after 28 days of curing.
The drop in the tensile strength of mixtures containing treated glass
is mainly due to the presence of silane on the surface of the glass, which
could reduce the adhesion between the glass and the cement matrix. In
addition, silane promotes slippage and reduces the interlocking between
glass particles, reducing concrete’s tensile strength.
3.4. Microstructural analysis
A morphological analysis of concrete incorporated with waste glass
was performed by SEM/EDS technique after 28 days of curing (Fig. 6).
As presented in Fig. 6a, replacing coarse aggregate with coarse glass
Fig. 6. SEM analysis of concrete with (a) untreated coarse glass aggregate, (b) treated coarse glass aggregate, (c) untreated fine glass aggregate, and (d) treated fine
glass aggregate.
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Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790
(untreated) exhibited a well-bonded interfacial transition zone between
the glass and the cement matrix. This might be due to the rough texture
of large fractured surfaces of coarse glass, which improves the bonding
between glass and the cement matrix. Although, the bonding between
natural aggregate and cement is relatively higher than that between
glass and cement [54]. This could be reflected in concrete’s mechanical
properties, where compressive and splitting tensile strength values have
shown a slight reduction compared to control. The adverse effect of
coarse glass aggregate on the mechanical properties of concrete could be
due to the brittle nature of glass compared to natural aggregate, despite
the adequate adhesion between the two materials [50]. On the other
hand, the absence of microcracks and voids in the mixture and the
relatively well-bonded interfacial transition zone between the glass and
cement matrix reduced the water absorption of concrete compared to
the control (As illustrated in section 3.1). Moreover, the smoother
texture of glass particles compared to natural aggregate might also
reduce the affinity of concrete to water.
On the other hand, a noticeable debonded interface between glass
and cement matrix was detected in concrete integrated with silane-
treated coarse glass (Fig. 6b). Silane efficacy is reduced due to its
application on the surface of large glass particles with a small surface
area, which will minimise silane distribution on the glass’s surface.
Accordingly, fewer organosilicon bonds will develop between glass and
the cement matrix leading to a weak interfacial transition zone [55].
Adding to that, the presence of silane on the glass surface would create a
smooth texture, which promotes slippage at the glass-glass contact point
and reduces their interlocking. This can explain the reduction in the
compressive and splitting tensile strengths of concrete with treated
coarse glass, as the adhesion between glass and the cement matrix was
negatively affected (As shown in sections 3.3 and 3.4). However, the
presence of hydrophobic silane on the surface of coarse glass particles,
regardless of its low quantity, helped improve the impermeability of
concrete compared to concrete with untreated coarse glass and control
samples [10] (as shown in section 3.1).
It is evident from Fig. 6c that replacing sand with untreated fine glass
F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al.
resulted in the formation of a low-dense structure with the presence of
imperceptible micro-cracks and enlarged voids. This might refer to the
rough texture of the small glass particles (generated from the fine
grinding of glass), which reduces their filling effect in the pores [10,56].
Moreover, a small distribution of Ettringite was detected in the mix
(Fig. 6c), which might reduce the bond between the cement matrix and
glass, resulting in a lower densely packed structure [10,57]. However,
the presence of Ettringite did not demonstrate a strong negative influ­
ence on the mechanical properties of concrete, where a slight reduction
in compressive strength was observed due to the formation of Ettringite
in small quantities. The presence of glass in small sizes in the mix would
ease the reaction of its silica with the hydration products [50]. On the
other hand, and as shown in the water absorption section, replacing fine
aggregate with fine glass did not show any enhancement in the imper­
meability of concrete, which might refer to the presence of micro-cracks
and voids, and the inferior filling effect of glass powder.
Interestingly, incorporating silane-treated fine glass aggregate in
concrete has shown a high-dense structure with the absence of micro-
cracks or voids (Fig. 6d). A clear distribution of C–S–H crystals
(confirmed with EDS analysis) was also observed in the mix, which is the
main binding element in concrete [58]. This is sufficient to create a
highly dense and well-bonded matrix. Additionally, the application of
silane on small-sized glass particles worked on enhancing the efficacy of
silane due to the high surface area of glass powder, which will result in
the formation of strong organosilicon bonds between the glass and the
cement matrix and increase the bond between both vicinities [10]. This
could also influence the water absorption of this type of concrete, as it
achieved the lowest absorption levels among all samples due to the
hydrophobic effect of silane (Section 3.1). Moreover, few depositions of
Ettringite were found within the mix, which could explain the drop in
the compressive strength of this mixture (Section 3.2). This reduction in
compressive strength could also refer to the smooth texture that silane
creates on the glass surface, which might increase the slippage between
particles after applying the load [51]. Furthermore, coating glass par­
ticles with silane will create a barrier between the cement matrix and
glass, which can hinder the reaction between silica in glass and cement
products and reduce concrete’s strength.
3.5. Surface functional chemistry
The interaction mechanism between glass and concrete on one side
and silane-treated glass and concrete on the other was investigated by
conducting Attenuated Total Reflectance-Fourier Transform Infrared
Fig. 7. FTIR analysis of the investigated concrete mixtures.
7
Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790
Spectroscopy (FTIR-ATR) analysis (Fig. 7). The obtained results were
compared with the control. The spectra of all concrete samples are
dominated by some characteristic peaks at the absorption ranges of 3643
to 3434 cm− 1, 1428 cm− 1, 1100 cm− 1, 875 cm− 1, and 470 to 450 cm− 1.
O–H stretching vibration bond was recorded at the band range of
3643 to 3434 cm− 1 [35,59,60]. Furthermore, the peak at 1428 cm− 1 is
attributed to the O–C–O stretching vibration bond [61,62]. The two
peaks at 1100 cm− 1 and 875 cm− 1 are believed to belong to the
stretching bonds of S–O and Al–O, respectively [59,62,63]. Besides, the
small peaks at 470 to 450 cm− 1 are assigned to the Si–O–Si and O–Si–O
bending vibration bonds [62,64,65].
A noticeable increase in the transmittance of all the characteristic
peaks was observed after incorporating untreated and silane-treated
glass waste in concrete. However, the increase was higher in concrete
integrated with silane-treated glass waste (Fig. 7). The increase in the
intensities of the O–H, S–O, and Al–O bonds might denote the presence
of Ettringite (Ca6Al2(SO4)3(OH)12⋅26H2O) in both mixtures (as demon­
strated in Fig. 6c and d) [60], with higher Ettringite content in
silane-treated glass waste concrete. Accordingly, the reduction in
compressive strength of those mixtures could be linked to the increase in
Ettringite levels. At the same time, the increase in the O–C–O stretching
vibration bond intensity assigns the presence of carbonates in the mix­
tures, which might arise from the reaction between CO2 in air and the
mixtures [61]. Furthermore, the presence of carbonates is higher in
silane-treated glass waste concrete, which implies the manifestation of
carbonation in this mix at higher levels. This might also contribute to the
reduction in the mixture’s strength.
On the other hand, an evident increase in the transmittance of the
Si–O–Si and O–Si–O bending vibration bonds can be spotted in Fig. 7. In
the case of untreated glass concrete, this increase could be due to the
high silica content in the integrated glass. This explains the relative
reduction in water absorption in this mix resulting from the low affinity
of silica to water [66]. However, higher intensities of the Si–O–Si and
O–Si–O bonds are witnessed in silane-treated glass waste concrete,
which refers to the abundance of those bonds in the chemical compo­
sition of the used silane (C7H18O3Si). This elucidates the superior per­
formance of this mix in terms of water absorption, as it achieved the
lowest absorption levels among all mixtures.
4. Statistical analyses
In the previous sections, the mechanical and physical properties
along with the microstructural and interaction mechanism analyses
were discussed in detail. This section applies statistical analyses to
investigate the significance of the population means of the mechanical
and physical properties of all mixtures with respect to the control mixes
(CS). The probability values “P-values” were used to interpret the results
statistically at a 95% confidence level.
The concrete mixtures were divided into three groups based on the
incorporation type of glass waste. The groups include coarse aggregate,
fine aggregate and additive mixtures. The coarse-aggregate group in­
cludes CW-30, CW-50, CT-50, and CT-30 mixtures. The fine aggregate
group includes FW-30, FW-50, FT-50, and FT-30 mixtures. The additive
group includes AW-2, AW-5, AT-2, and AT-5 mixtures. A single-factor
analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique was then conducted to inves­
tigate the significance of the population means (μ) of each group by
testing the following hypothesis:
H0 : μCS = μi = μj = μk = μl
H1 : at least one mean is odd
where.i, j, k, and l represent the modified mixes of each group (Example:
CW-30, CW-50, CT-50, and CT-30).
Table 3 summarises the result of P-values for each group concerning
the conducted tests. The results indicated that the population means of
F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al. Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790

Table 3 6. Replacing fine or coarse aggregates with 50% untreated glass

“P-values” results by ANOVA. waste enhanced the 7 days’ compressive strength of concrete by
Incorporation type Compressive Splitting Water absorption 29% compared to the control.
of waste glass strength tensile (after 24 h) 7. A slight reduction of 13% and 5% in the 28 days’ compressive
strength strength was detected when replacing fine aggregate with 30%
7-Days 28-Days 28-Days 7-Days 28-Days and 50% untreated fine glass, respectively.
Coarse 0.03115 0.01354 0.11790 0.00104 0.00091
8. Replacing coarse aggregate with 30% untreated coarse glass
Fine 0.00403 0.11802 0.00735 0.02202 0.00000 resulted in a 7% reduction in the 28 days’ compressive strength.
Additive 0.48230 0.66711 0.62663 0.12529 0.01371 Moreover, a reduction of 33% in the compressive strength was
noted after replacing coarse aggregate with 50% untreated coarse
glass.
the coarse-aggregate concrete mixtures might differ significantly at all
9. Using silane-treated glass waste as aggregate (fine and coarse)
tests except that for the splitting tensile strength of concrete. In addition,
negatively influenced the concrete mixtures’ 7 and 28 days
insignificant differences in the population means might be obtained
compressive strength. A reduction of 19% and 46% was spotted
among the fine-aggregate concrete mixtures at the 28-day compressive
after replacing fine aggregate with 30% and 50% silane-treated
strength. However, the population means of the additive mixtures might
fine glass, respectively. Furthermore, a drop of 34% and 45%
differ significantly in the water absorption at 28 days.
was remarked when replacing coarse aggregate with 30% and
The previous analysis was helpful in showing that at least one odd
50% silane-treated coarse glass.
mixture from the test groups might differ significantly in the population
10. All mixtures experienced a drop in their splitting tensile strength
means. Therefore, further investigation was performed through statis­
except those incorporated with 30% and 50% untreated fine
tical “t-tests” (of two-independent populations) to determine the mix­
glass, where an increase of 4% and 25% was observed.
tures of “unequal means” with the control mixes (CS) at all tests in the
11. Microstructural analysis revealed a high-dense structure with the
population. Table 4 shows the results of P-values from the t-tests at a 95%
absence of microcracks when incorporating silane-treated fine
confidence level. The results reveal that there is not enough evidence to
glass aggregate in concrete. In contrast, a noticeable de-bonded/
conclude that:
delaminated interface between glass and cement matrix was
witnessed in concrete integrated with silane-treated coarse glass.
1. The population means of CT-30 and CS mixtures are equal when
12. Functional chemistry analysis showed the formation of Ettringite
tested for water absorption at 28 days.
(Ca6Al2(SO4)3(OH)12⋅26H2O) at later ages in silane-treated glass
2. The population means of CT-50 and CS mixtures are equal when
waste concrete, which explains the reduction in the 28 day’s
tested for compression strength at 28 days and water absorption at 7
compressive strength of those mixtures.
and 28 days.
3. The population means of FW-30 and CS mixtures are equal when
This study provided promising outcomes for using either treated or
tested for water absorption at 7 days.
untreated glass waste aggregates as environmentally friendly substitutes
4. The population means of both FT-30 and FT-50 mixtures are equal to
for natural aggregates. However, more research is needed to investigate
the CS mixture mean when tested for water absorption tests at 7 and
life cycle assessment (LCA), life cycle costing (LCC), and carbon foot­
28 days.
print estimation for the incorporation of glass waste in concrete.

5. Conclusions Credit author statemennt

Concrete mixtures were developed with glass waste particles in
different ratios and sizes, employing silane treatment on the glass sur­
face. Coarse and fine aggregates were replaced with 30 wt.-% and 50
wt.-% glass waste, in addition to using glass powder as an additive to
concrete in 2 wt.-% and 5 wt.-% ratios. After conducting physical, me­
chanical, and microstructural analyses of the concrete mixtures, the
following conclusions can be drawn:
5. Using glass waste as a partial replacement for fine aggregate
reduced concrete’s water absorption with a maximum reduction
of 87% when using 50% silane-treated fine glass.
Feras W. Al-Awabdeh: Investigation, Data curation, Formal analysis,
Writing – original draft. Mazen J. Al-Kheetan: Conceptualization, Visu­
alization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft,
Writing – review & editing. Yazeed S. Jweihan: Formal analysis, Writing
– original draft, Writing – review & editing. Husam Al-Hamaiedeh: Su­
pervision, Methodology, Visualization, Conceptualization, Resources,
Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review &
editing. Seyed Hamidreza Ghaffar: Writing - Original Draft, Writing –
review & editing

Table 4
“P-values” results from the t-tests.
Mixture type Compressive strength Splitting tensile strength Water absorption (after 24 h)

7-Days 28-Days 28-Days 7-Days 28-Days

CW-30 0.4943 0.7308 Insignificant 0.1414 0.1299

CW-50 0.5070 0.0848 0.7179 0.5907
CT-30 0.1924 0.0675 0.4153 0.0021
CT-50 0.0993 0.0260 0.0151 0.0100
FW-30 0.1974 Insignificant 0.8933 0.0269 0.5453
FW-50 0.1750 0.2508 0.9656 0.5764
FT-30 0.3098 0.1006 0.0000 0.0007
FT-50 0.0970 0.0926 0.0000 0.0000
AW-2 Insignificant Insignificant Insignificant Insignificant 0.6359
AW-5 0.4769
AT-2 0.4873
AT-5 0.0774

8
F.W. Al-Awabdeh et al. Results in Engineering 16 (2022) 100790

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