Dictionary of the Middle AgesAMERICAN COUNCIL OF LEARNED SOCIETIES ‘The Amecican Council of Learned Societies, organized in 1919 for the purpose of advancing the study of the humanicies and of the humanistic aspects of the vacial sciences, i a nonprofit federation comprising forty-five national scholarly groups The Council represents the humanities in the United States in the International Union of Academies, provides fellowships and grants-in-aid, supports reseacch-and-planning, ‘conferences and symposia, and sponsors special projects and scholarly publiea MEMBER ORGANIZATIONS AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOGETY, 174% AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, 1710 AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY, 1812 AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOCTETY, 1842 AMERICAN NUMISMATIC SOCIETY, 1858 AMERICAN PHILOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, 1869 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERICA, 1879 SOCIETY OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE, 1880 MGIDERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION OF ANERICA, 1823, AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION, 1884 "AMERICAN ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION, 185 "AMERICAN FOLKLORE SOCIETY, 1888 AMERICAN DIALECT SOCIETY, 1489 AMERICAN ISYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, 1892 ASSOCIATION DF AMERICAN LAW SCHOOLS, 1800 AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL ASSOCIATION, 1901 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, 1802 AMERICAN POLITICAL SCIENCE ASSOCLATION, 1903 BIMLJOGRAPHICAL SOCLETY OF AMERICA, 1904 ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOGRAPHERS, 1904 HISPANIC SOCIETY OP AMERICA, 1504 AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, 1965 AMERICAN SOCIETY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW, 1906 ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN HISTORIANS, 1907 AMERICAN ACADEMY OF RELIGION, 1802 COLLEGE ART ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA, 1912 HISTORY OF SCIENCE SOCIETY, 1924 LINGUISTIC SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 1924 MEDIAEVAL ACADEMY OF AMERICA, 1925 SMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY, 1934 SOCIETY OF ARCHITECTURAL, HISTORIANS, 1940 ECONOMIC HISTORY ASSCCIATION, 1940 ASSOCIATION FOR ASIAN STUDIES, 1941 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR AESTHETICS, 1942 AMEIIGAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SLAVIC STUDIES, 1948, METAPBYSICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 1950 ‘AMERICAN STUDIES ASSOCIATION, 1950 RENAISSANCE SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 1954, SOCIETY FOR ETHNOMUSICOLOGY, 7955, AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR LEGAL HISTORY, 1956 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR THEATRE RESEARCH, 1956 SOCIETY FOR THE HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY, 1958 AMERICAN COMPARATIVE LITERATURE ASSOCIATION, 1960 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR FIGHTFENTH-CENTURY STUDIES, 1969 ASSOCIATION FOR JEWISH STUDIES, 1969Woven cope wit insilksompond tll Byrne wail eatn Constantino lage Mies He ‘entry, ran Sfusey Diocestan, feersnan (Bien. sua avai: ReseDictionary of the Miiddle Ages JOSEPH R. STRAYER, gprror IN CHIEF Volume 11 SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES—TEXTILES, ISLAMIC CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS + NEW YORKCopyright © 1988 American Courxil of Learned Societies Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Dara Main entry under title: Dictionary of the Middle Ages IncIndes bibliographies and index 1. Middle Ages—Dictionaries. 1. Sirayer, Joseph Reese, 19041987 DII4.DS 1982-90907 42-5904 ISBN 0-684-167603 (v. 1) ISBN 0-689-18274-2 (e, 8) ISBN 0-684-17022-1 (w. 2) ISHN 0-684-18275-0 (w. 9) ISBN 0-684-17023-X (v. 3) ISBN 0-684-182 10) ISBN 0-684-17024-8 (v. 4} ISBN 0-684-18, n) ISBN 0-684-18161-4 (v.53) ISBN 0-684-18168-1 (6. 5) ISBN 0-684-18169-X (v. 7) Published simuleaneonsly in Canada by Collier Macmillan Canada, Ine Copyright under the Beene convention A eights reserved, No part of this book nay be reproduced in any form without the permission of Charles Scribner's Son. 91ag 1S a7 9 BC 218161412 108642 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA The Dictionary ofthe Midile Age hs Ieen prohiced with suppoct (rn the National Endowment for che Iturmaitie The paper in ts hook meets the guide'ices for sence aul durshiity ofthe Canine Froxducion Guidlines for Hook Langevty ofthe (Counc an Libeary Rennes Sap rp by Splia Laheman,ELditorial Board ‘THEODORE M. ANDERSSON, Stanford University NINA G. GARSOIAN, Columbia University HERBERT L. KESSLER, The Jobas Hopkins University JOHN LEYERLE, University of Toronto AVRAM L. UDOVITGH, Princeton UniversityAdvisory Committee GUSTAVE ALER, University of Oregon JEANETTE M. A. BEER, Pardue University THOMAS N. BISON, Harvard University JEAN BONY, University of California, Berkeley JAMES F. BURKE, University of Toronto ANGUS F. CAMERON, University of Toromso MARK COHEN, Princetom University E, TALBOT DONALDSON, Indians University AINN DOOLEY, University of Toronto D. J. GEANAKOPLOS, Yale University KEVIN J. HARTY, Temple University ANDREW HUGHES, University of Toronto W.'T. H. JACKSON, Cohumbia University ROBERT E. LERNER, Northwestern University R, M, LUMIANSKY, American Council of Learned Societies ‘THOMAS F. MATHEWS, New York Uninersity BRIAN $, MERRILEDS, University of Toronto HELMUT NICKEL, Metropolitas Museum of Art KENNETH D. OSTRAND, University of New Orleans ROGER E. REYNOLDS, University of Toronto TIMOTHY R, ROBERTS, Jefferson City (Mo.] High School FRANZ ROSENTHAL, Yale University KENNETH M. SETTON, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton ECKEHARD SIMON, Harvard University PRISCILLA P. SOUC E. A. SYNAN, University of Toronto BRIAN TIERNEY, Coreell University KARL DAVID UITT], Princeton University CRAIG B, VITTETOE, Palo Alto (Calif) City Schools LYNN WHITE, Jr, University of California, Los Angeles K, New Yor’ UniversityFaitorial Staff JOHN F. FITZPATRICK, MANAGING EDITOR FREDERICK A. AIESE, Production Assistant JONATHAN G. ARETAKIS, Associate Faitor PETER C, BENEDICT, Editorial Assistant DANIEL J. CALTO, Senior Editorial Assistant MATT KARDOVICH, Production Manager SANDRA D. KELLY, Administrative Assistant JOAN ZSELECZRY, Associate Editor DAVID J. BABIN, Assistant Photo Editor JEFFREY L, BENEKE, Atsociate Fulitor LESLEY ANN BENEKE, Associate Editor W. CUNNINGHAM EISSELL, Associate Editor ILENE COHEN, Associate Editor EMILY GARLIN, Proofreader GEOFFREY B. GNEUHS, Associare Editor ROBERT HALASZ, Associate Editor ROBERT K, HAYCRAFT, Associate Editor PAMELA NICELY, Associate Editor W. KIRK REYNOLDS, Proofreader JACK RUMMEL, Proofreader IRINA RYBACEK, Associate Editor BARBARA SCHULTZ, Photo Editor JOHN SCHULTZ, Photo Editor WILLIAM K. WEST, Associate Editor ELIZABETH I, WILSON, Associate EditorContributors to Wolume 11 FRB, AKERIURST University of Minnesota SURYENTES THEODORE M. ANDERSSON Stanford University StoRDRiFuaséL; StGURD: Stewenmasievtsa Inv FORMA SIGURDARKVIDA IN MEM; SIGURMARKVIAA by Skanes SARAH ARENSON Man and Sea Society, Tivon, Ievaol Suurs axp Siuenunupine, Rew Sea AND PrRSiAN GULE SG. ARMISTEAD University of California, Davis Srasctes Largiectute: BALLADS ANLP. ATAMIAN ‘Sis; Tarsus JANOS M. BAK University of British Columbia Srumes [of HUNGARY, 8&3 STEPHEN, CRown OF ST? ScfeesrEwinvin CARL F. BARNES, JR. Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan SONDEKGO IK; STRASBOURG Cxrmepral, ROBERT BARKINGER St. Michael's College, University of Toronto Seven DraDiy Sins MICHAEL L. BATES ‘American Nuruematic Society Sears an Sientocrarny, Istanuc Lt U. pares Phenter College, City University of New York SHLAMLIK: SEREFE SILVIO A. REDINT Semmerimic Insrausients, Svuvesres H, Pore ROBERT BEDROS|AN Sen€0s; SHADDAnINS; Spanarre ISAAC BENABU Hebrow University of Jerusalem Sreanoin ANNA G. BENNETT. Tamesray, ARF 08; Tanesrny, Mrntericurs. LIONEL BIER Brooklyn Coleg, City University of New York “Tag: BOSTAN; TaxTs) SULEIMAN AJ, BLISS University College, Dualit Sm Oneeo JEROME BLUM Princeton Univorcty SERS AND SeunDow: Russia CE BOSWORTH. Cinivorsty of Manchector SEROKTIGIN; SELIUKS OF Rum; Tang ins AL-Hsar Tarmans WILLJAM M. BOWSKY versity of Californie, Das DENIS G. BREARLEY University of Ortarea Seousivs Scorrus ix SEBASTIAN P. BROCK The Oriental Institute, Oxford Seman Cheisransrry ROBERT BROWNING Dunbarion Oaks Research Contax Scxouanstie, BYZANTINE Chassieat LESLIE BRUBAKER Wheaton College, Norton, Massachusetts Scenes, Cancer; Serasrums Seturtoniuay Sox, Srnaxany; Tasca As iessera LANCE W. BRUNNER University of Kentucky SEQUENCE (PROSA) JAMES F, BURKE University of Toronto Spasaisny LiteKaT Une Rowaners ROBERT 1, BURNS, S. J. University of Califoriia Los Angeles Spans, Crraarian- Mustins Rucarions; Spain, MUSLIM Kinch or JAMES E. CATHEY University of Mzssachaserts, Amborst Sram, Suxin A. CAWLEY, University of Leeds Seon Smmpiaeios® PLAY FRED A. CAZEL, JR. University of Connecticut “Taxantons, EneicasitCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 11 YVES CHARTIER University of Oitawea Sours FREDERICK L. CHEYETTE Dartmouth College Simon be Movtroxt STANLEY CHODOROW. University of California, San Diego Tancren (Carontsr) MARLENE CIKLAMINI Recigers University SNoRRE STURLISON DOROTHY CLOTELLE CLARKE SPANISH LiTekaTURe: Versimiexsion ann Prosooy JEROME W. CLINTON Princeton Univorsity SHIRAZ; Tasiiz SIDNEY L. COHEN Lowisana State University Surrox Hoo LAWRENCE I. CONRAD, Wellcome Institute jor the story of Medicine Sovart, at- JOHN |. CONTRENI Purdue Universivy SCHOOLS, CATHEDRAL Scriory.s, PALACE: SMakacous or St. Minist ROBERT COOK Neweomb College STRENGLETEAR WILLIAM J. COURTENAY University of Witconsin, Madison Tewsatnsm SLOBODAN CUBCIE Princeton University Suicneans ART AD ARCHITECTURE MICHAEL T. DAVIS Me. Holyoke College Soursuct FREDERICK A. DE ARMAS Louilsimna State University SPAMS Lireratuse: Seerisenrar Romans LUCY DER MANUBLIAN Ske WA; T"aLins TAT PS ‘Teron HORACE W. DEWEY University of Mrcbigan Slavic LaNguastS xD ALAN DEYERMOND Westfield College, University of London Srrsust Lerpearonns Spans LITERATURE Tnaxstarions WACHTANG DJOBADZE California State University, Las Angeles Suert Crowees ANN DOOLEY Si. Michee!’s College, University of Toronto Tas Bd Cokween WILLIAM DUNPHY Si, Michael's Callege, Universtiy of Toronto Shoun oF Brananr WILLIAM BAMON New Mexico State University Tectuatocy, TREATISES ON MARCIA J. EPSTEIN, University of Calgary nso JOHN H. ERICKSON St, Viadini's Seminary Schism, EAsTERN- WESTERN Girne. Sekotes, Cousen O85 Srupios MonAsten, SUNAKARY; SYNODIKON OF Oxrsonoxy [ANN 8, FARKAS Brooklyn College, City University of New York Toneae MARGOT E. FASSLER Yale University Srquencs, Late CHARLES 3. FAULHABER Unwversity of California, Berkeley Snaxisit Lava Lirenatuxi x PAULA SUTTER FICHTNER Brocklvs College, City University of New York Sigisneun, EMPEROR JOHN V. A. FINE, JR. University of Michigan Senta; STEPAN Lazamentés, Stevan NeMAN}A: STERAN Prvovendant; Sti:ra Tomas Sreran Tomatevicy Stmrane UROs IL MiLutiN STEFAN URo§ TV Dutay; Steen Vieexe Kesata; Stjeran KOIKOMANICS SYMMEON OF BULGARIA DONALD F. FLEMING Sauins PATRICK K. FORD University of California, Los Angeles Tacteste CLIVE Foss University of Massaciusets, Bostox Sense GUY FOvRQUIEN Université de Lille 13 Senrs ann Sexepoot: Westen Buxorean CHARLES F. FRAKER University of Michigan Seantstt LITERATURE: Cemos ices ROBERTA FRANK Contve for Medieval Studies, University of Tororo SKALDATAL; SkatDIC POETRY GLADYS FRANTZ-MURPHY Jona College, New Rochelle TAXATION, ISLAMIC JOHN B. FREED Ilisois State University Swama EDWARD FRUES Columbia University Siasitano oF St; Masinans ‘Sisenur NINA G. GARSOIAN Caluinhia Utversity Serun Sinaran; TANUTERCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 11 ADELHEID M. GEALT Indiana Unavercty Staxa Bi BoNAvENTURAS SEMITECOLO, NICOLETTOS Sttonr pa Botosina; Sissowe Materia; Sivorta; Seize ARETINO; StIAccIATO; TADDEO pr Barroso; Tanners PAINTING DOUGLAS GIFFORD University of St, Andrews Spats Livpraruae: POPULAR Porrrw ‘THOMAS F. GLICK Boston University Seosite PETER B, GOLDEN Rutgers Universiny SELJIIES: SHAH-ARMAN; SULTANS Tantentans OLEG GRABAK Foge Art Museuns, Harvard University sog JORGE J. 6. GRACIA State University of New York at Buffela ScuDLastIcwsas, ScHoLasTtE Mernan, VIVIAN H. H. GREEN Limeoln College, Oxford Taxation, CHURCH JAMES GRIER ‘Queen's University, Onario Te Deum KAAREN GRIMSTAD University of Minnerota Sunnis S¥aRKAnR; Sviensesmat MARY GRIZZARD_ University of New Mexica SERRA, PEDRO AND JAIME; Served; Tena SicrLtA74 BJARNI GUBNASON Haskol lelands Srrqipuwca Saca JOSEPH CUTMANN Wayne Staie Universey SyaKcocur EMILY ALBU HANAWALT Boston University Suns WILLIAM LIPPINCOTT. HANABAY, JR. University of Pennsylvania Snaenvasea NATHALIE HANI Tarwine oF CaNTeRnuny JOSEPH HARRIS Harvard University Swinitssad ARMAD Y, AL-HASSAN Trervouses, Is-anie RALPH S. HATTON Emory University Sen T FINAR HAUGEN Skreiiues; JOHN BELL HENNEMAN, Princeton University Taxarion, FRENCH ROBERT H, HEWSEN Glassboro State College Sewav, Laxn; Sutxvan Snax Swng; TaRons TAWK': Tits) JOHN HUGH HILL Taxcen (Crusanne) RICHARD C. HOFFMAN York University Texorr oF Lasp, Wes Buxorrax ANDREW HUGHES Gncersty of Toremo ALFRED L. IVRY Brandeis University SOLOMON BEN June ras Ganrron, MICHAFL JACO Brooklyn College, City University of New York Treteacet, Ntccoud 1 Set Soxz0 CHARLES W. JONES Scuoots, Monastic xi JENNIFER £, JONES SEVEN SLERPERS OF ErHESUs; Stow oF THE Cross; Spimice, Cikers; TereaMorniy WILLIAM CHESTER JORDAN Princeton University Sexescuar: SeRGrANT; Sone OF Lawns; Suserruary Laws, EUROPEAN, PETER A. JORGENSEN Unwersty of Georgia Staunban Saca Fors SiGUEDAR SAGA POGLA JACQUES JOsET Unwersitarre tnstelting, Amaeorpere Satem Tow GLH A JUYNBOLL Suna; SUNKTES WALTER EMIL KAEGI, JR. University of Chicago Seriovass ScLoiuas’ Portions; STRATEGOS; STRATIOTAI; Tresara HOWARD KAMINSKY Florida bstornational University Sons, Gerar WILLIAM E, KAPELLE Brandeis Universtiy Srramienvon, KINCLOM oF ALEXANDER P. KAZHDAN Bumberion Oaks Research Center Sevtrrzes, Jour; Semrox Meramncasras MA[ID KHADDURI “The jobns Hopkins Foreign Policy Institute TeHURE OF Lanp, Istamtic DALE KINNEY, Bry Maser College Tatas, Faancesco CHRISTOPHER KLEINHENZ University of Wisconsin, Madison Siereian Poems JAMES E. KNIRK Bniversiieres # Oslo SVERRIS SAGA,CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 11 LINDA KOMAROFF Hamilton College Sranan BARBARA M. KREUTZ Brom Maw? College Sis Axo SinteutEDINc, MEDETERRANEAN Y. TZVI LANGER MANN Hebrew University of Jerusalem ScIENCE, [EwIsH JACOR LASSNER Wayne Ste Unwersty Tavari, At ROBERT £. LERNER Northwestern Unsversity Sean, Port ARTHUR D. LEVINE Unwversity of Toresio Sousazation; Starr; Sunten Is leuseen Lv JOHN LINDOW. University of California, Berkeley SRALDSKAPARNAL) SwoRRS EDDA, FRANCES RANDALL LDP Colorado Stare University Six APTATES MUNDI DONALD P, LITTLE McGill University Tava le DEREK W, LOMAX University of Birmingham SPANISH LITERATURE! SERMONS ERIK LONNEOTH Giiebiorgs Universitet JOSEPH H. LYNCH. Oiy Stave Universiey BRYCE LYON Brown University Seuracis Sion ne Mostront PRE YOUNGER MICHARL MeCORMICK The jobns Hopkins University Siesiatuaes; Sram oF TovEnal; SiicHioMmerteys STYLUS JULIA H, McGREW Vassar College Srumrancn SAGA, D. R. MeLINTOCK University of London SrRASHOURG Oetiiss TaTTAN WILFERD MADELUNG ‘The Oriental Institute, Oxford Sects, Is.anacs SH)"® GEORGE MAKDISI University of Pennsylvania Seioous, Istanme KRIKOR HL MAKSOUDIAN SMBAF LTE Mawrrn; Sonar. Searaneny Srev“avos Avolx “Taxonec1 YAKOV MALKIEL University of Californie, Berkeley SPANISH LANGUAGE MAHMOUD MANZALACUL University of British Columbia Sremeru Szcazroxton IVAN G. MARCUS Jeuets Theological Seminary Scnoots, Jewisi J. ¥. MARIOTTE Archives de la Haute-Savore Swrrartan SHALIN E. MARMON, The Joins Hopkins University Savane, Istantre WoriD JOAQUIN MARTINEZ PIZARRO State Dissriity of Nese York at Stony Brook SvEN AGGESEN RALPH WHITNEY MATHISEN University of South Carolinas SIDONIUS APOLLINARIS BRIAN MERRILEES University of Toronto Sutvie Researceaos, La SIMUKD DE FREINE xii JOHN MEYENDOREF St. Viadimn’s Seminary Seacius oF Raponezst, Svtson tHe New Trxoroctas, St SyNeELLOS THOMAS MONTGOMERY Terre University of Lowisidrs Sanisi LiTeeaTuRts Baek TRANSLATIONS MICHAEL MORONY University of Califor Los Angeles siren MARINA MUNDT. Universitet + Bergen Stuns Doanaasor JOHN H. MUNRO University of Toranto Sink: Terie TecHNovocy: Texrite Wonxees RHOADS MURPHEY Colsonbat University Sine SEYYED HOSSHIN NASR Temple University Sina, Ios. COLBERT I, NEPAULSINGH State University of New York a Albany Spasuse Lrrmearunm: Lyne Porrer JOHN W. NESBITT Dionbarton Gas Research Center Seats awb SientogKarny, Byzantine; TECHNOLOGY, Byzanene HELMU'T NICKEL Metropolitan Museure of Art SWORDS ANP DAGGERS THOMAS 5. NOONAN University of Minmesots Stays, Qnrons or JOSETH F, OCALLAGHAN Fovditam University Scent Paatrpas; SvANTOH ERA TOMAS O CATHASAIGH St. Michyol's Collage, University of Toronto TaRaCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 11 BARBARA OEFISCHLAEGER- GARVEY, University of Ulinoie TaBLioy NICOLAS OIKONOMIDES Universite de Montréa! SroasroxnatOR; TAXATION, Byzarnine BERNARD O'KAN! American Universiry tw Cato Serra DUANE J, OSHEIM University of Virgonia Suey, SyNoD oF RORERT OUSTERHOUT ‘University of Eionois Sota: SYNTHRONON HERMANN PALSSON University of Edinburgh SowLA Sas SrenKa; STURLAUES SAGA STARFSAMA ANGELO PAREDI Biblioteca Ambrosions, Milan Srowza OLAR PEDERSEN, Unwersity of Aarhus Sota CAROL TALBERT PETERS. Squarctone, Francesco NORMAN J..G. POUNDS Carabridge University STEEIMAKING JAMES M. POWELL Syracuse University Sheatiaye Vesmns; Seerey, Rincon De JOSE M. REGUEIRO University of Pemsyleania Spawios Lirerarunc: DRAMA ROGER F. REYNOLDS Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, Toronta Srarions oF THe Cross; Svauan RIVES BRIGITTE BEDOS REZAK State University 0f New York at Stony Broo Seats anb StettLocKarey, Wrsteax EUROVEAS THEODORE JOHN RIVERS ScoWaKERSPIEGEL ELAINE GOLDEN ROBISON Storer OF Gastanoux LINDA ©. ROSE Seroica; SEReioe {y Simms SRANDERMEG: SOCRATES ScHOLAS FTCA; SOZONEN Tanua PeoneensasA; Taeur, Pen ve; Tanastos JOEL ROTH Jewish Theological Seminary ‘TatMub, Exegesis AND Stupy oF STEVEN ROWAN University of Missourt, St. Lows Sunie JAMES R RUSSELL Colertbia Undeersity Stars anp SicitLocnanity, Sasantans: Skanp- WIZAR: SPAHBAD, AL LSABRA, Harvard University Scrence, Ts.are ANTONIO SANCHEZ ROMERALO) Unwersty of California, Davis Sranisi Lorzearune: Das [AR SPRING SONGS TA, SANDQUIST Uneversity of Toronto StavuTE PAUL SCHACH University of Nebraska SVARFDALA SAGA, NICOLAS SCHIDLOVSKY Seicitexon KENNETH R, SCHOLDERG Michigan State University Sranisit Lrreearunes Satie, JAMES A. SCHULTZ, Liniversity of Minos 20 Cricago SOLOMON AND MAKCOLE xiii DOROTHY SHERMAN SEVERIN Westfield College, University of London Spanist: Lireravuer: Tro Stony LARRY SILVER Northivestern University Sross, Vii Svrsn, Haws BARRIE SINGLETON University of London StoceTon, THowas: Srowee, Jous: Surron, Roses PAUL SOLON ‘Macalester College Somat Viaipartt PRISCILLA P. SOUCEK ‘Naw York Universt ERNEST H, SOUDEK Susp, HHINKICiH; TAULER, Jorsatenes, SUSAN SPECTORSKY Queens Callege, City University of New York SuxerT, AL GABRIELLE M. SPIEGEL Unwersty of Maryland Stic oF St. Danis |. STEYAERT University of Mirnesoxa Suen, Cras YEDIDA K. STILLMAN, State University of New York at Binghamton Sunprvany Laws, Ieuastics TAYLASAN KENNETH & STOW University of Heifa Stiv! Caneekak NosTRAE LARRY E. SULLIVAN Lehman College, City Unisersiey of New York Textaooks RONALD GRIGOR SUNY University of Michigan TawarCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME DONALD W. SUTHERLAND University of lows Se1sty, Disseisans Suzeare JUNE SWANN: Central Museum, Northanptomahive ShorS aND Steeananans EDITH DUDLEY SYLLA ‘North Carolina State University Swrnrsiesn, GEORGE 5. TATE Brigham Young University SOLaK.09 ROBERT B. TATE University of Nottingham ANISH LITERATURE Brocrariy; Srantsi Liveracrune: Lost Works J. WESLEY THOMAS University of Kentucky Srapanany Tansaduser B. BUSSELL THOMPSON Spanisn Lizenaris: Haclocearay DERICK S, THOMSON University of Glasgow RW. THOMSON Dunbarton Oaks Research Cont Suor'a Rerravati WARREN . TREADGOLD Hillsdale College Semtsas, PHOTIAN; SYMEON THE Locomsre AL UDOVITCH Frinceiont University Steity, tame, RICHARD W. UNCER University of British Columbia Suns anit SHIPRUTLDING, Noxritean Eurorcar: CHARLES VERLINDEN Staviny, SLAVE TRADE ERICH VON RICHTHOFEN Uniersity of Toronro SpaNTSH LiveRaTURE: Etc Pormy PETER YON SIVERS University of Utah STEPHEN L. WAILES Indiana University SCHRATHL UND DER WASSERGAR, Das: SPERBER, DER; STRICKER, JOHN K. WALSH University of California, Berkel SPANISH LITERATURE: Hactocrarny xiv uW EDWIN J. WEBBER Northiwestons Loivsreity Seanisit LITERATURE Instauerionat, Wonks WILLIAM K, WEST Suevevice ESTELLE WHELAN. Smgux Avr ann AnerateeToRr; Twines, Ista LYNN WHITE, yx, University of California, Los Angeles Tremmotocy, Wester GREGORY WHITTINGTON New York University ScREEN; SEDILIA; SPaNDREL: Snows; Squier, STRINGCOURSES Trrracanc DANIEL WILLIMAN State University of New York at Binghamton SoHOOES, GRAMMAR MARTHA WOLFF Are Institute of Obteage Scuoncaver, Marti JENNY WORMALD Se. Hilda's College, Oxford Scoriann: History VICKLE ZIEGLER Pensylvania State University Seamrep Herntan; Sernvocr An HERE RONALD EDWARD ZUPKO Marquette University Seraeay Suites Site; StoneDictionary of the Middle AgesDictionary of the Htiddle Ages SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES—TEXTILES, ISLAMIC SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES, The Scandine vian languages (modern Danish, Faroese, leelancic, Norwegian, and Swedish) desive from the base common to all Germanic languages, an Indo-Eurs: pean daughter dialece reconstructed as Proto-Ger- ‘manic, (Finnish and Lap, other languages in Scan~ Uinavia, are not Indo-European cad therefore have fro historical connection with Proto-Germanic oF iss later descendants other than the absorption of Joamwords through cultural contacts.) Proto-Ger- manic split into several dialects, including North Germanic or Proto-Scendinavian, ‘The oldest surviving records in a Seandinavian laaguage were written in the cate alphabet and date from about 4.b. 200, In the period before about 550, the language still represented 2 stage close to the East (such as Gothic} and West (ea liest Ole! High German, Olé English). branches ‘of Germanic, but with certain distinctly Nordic forms. The oldest form of the runic alphabet, named the futhack after ies First six fereers, con- tained twenty-four symbols. In Scandinavia, twen- ty-three symbols were used to represent five vowels, i & @ 0, w), sixteen consonants, and two semi- vowels, The approximately 125 inscriptions extant in this “older futhark” were found on stones ot loose metal or bone objects within the modeen boundaries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, as swell as Germany, Poland, and the Ukraine. The form of the symbols remained constant over several cemruries, and the entire fthark, when it was weiicen as such, was always in the same fixed order, This common Scandinavian cultural artifact was probably transmitted on carved sticks, and most of the runic inscriptions, now fost, were made on wooden items. The period 500-800 yields fewer inscriptions, none of which are Danish, Toward the exd of this interhide there emerged feom Denmark 2 “younger futhark” based on the older one but having only sieteen symbols, There are 412 Danish inscriptions in the younger fuehaek, about 12 in Nosway, more than 100 in the British isles, $3 in Teeland, about 30 in Greenland, and 3 in the Faroes—and more than 2,500 in Sweden, some 2,000 of which were carved jn the period 800-1100. Most inscriprions are found on memorial stones. (The younger fushark was further modified in soutseen Norway and Sweden to simplify the sixteen symbols.) The reduc~ tion in namber of umits led to ambiguities. "The rune stood for both # and g she serine for 1, 0, and v; che armane for a, and 9; the b-cune for b. p. ‘mb, and rap; the tune for t dy nd, ancl ae; and the Rerane for ky g, 7g and nk, Diphthongs were not always written as such, The emergence of che younger futhark coincides swith « major restructuring of the phonology oF Scandinavian languages. ‘The semivowel f was lost inicially, and the old rune became a (Proto-Sean dinavian [PSe] *ja%a > ar lyear)). The previous arune then came to be used for nasalized 4. The voiced and voiceless spirants became nondistinc tive—thar is, 3 and p, for instance, were then allophonic variants of tach other, Prosodic rela- tionships changed when unstressed short vowels were deteted—tor example, PSe “dagaX > Old Icelandic (OD dagr (day), *borna> O1 horn (horn). Unstressed diphthongs became monophthongs— for inceance, "sunauR > *sen6R > Ol sonar (sons genitive singular), “kurnai > *korne > OL korai (grain; dative singular). The stressed syllables re- acted tp the shortening by adding more yocalic distinctions. A following j or caused stressed back. yowels co be fronted, as in *déanido > Ol dévaita jndged), *skiuti® > OL shyty (he shoots), “Pau Rjan > Ol heyra thear)- A following « lowered a stressed dori toe or 0, respectively, as in tira > uerR > Ol ter (man) ot “bina > “horna > Ol bornSCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES (horn). A following « or w caused rounding of stressed vowels, as with *barme > OL bore (chil: dren), "trigewR > Ol tryggr (safe). The five short vowels of PSc were thus increased t© possibly nineseen with the addition of y, 0 and @ by iaimlaut from 1, 6, and a, respectively; of @ from a though s-umlaur, of a combined product ¢ from both and w-umlaut of a; and of nasalized variasts created with the loss of 2 following m. There were also long vowels and diphthongs of all types. This, very complex array became simpler in time with the merger of the nasalized vowels with their non-nasal counterparts, and of short @ with e (in the west} for inscance. The consonants were affected by various assimilations, such as “zn, *20 > nis, 08 (*razna > OL raw |house), *gazdae > *ga¥OR > OL gaddr Ipoint|); * Xt > t# (naXt- > OI mai [night), The radiation of phonological innovation in early medieval times has been traced from three areas: western Norway and its settlements in the Faroes and Iceland; the south, with Denmark as the major source; and northeastern Norway and cen: tral and northern Sweden. The oldest changes orig- ed in the west, from which a-umlaut, w-umlaut, and iumlaue spread during the period of the Atlan= tic settlements. ‘These innovations show the stron- gest effects in the west, with decreasing application towaed the east. OF thus has bolt (woods) through a-umlaue from PSc “hulta, whereas the Danish and Swedisi form is bult. The effects of eevmlaut similarly decrease towaed the east, as with OL horn, Danish (Da) ders, bur Swedish (Sw) pars (children) ‘or OL migra (men; dative plueal), but Olé Dary ish (ODa} and Old Swedish (OSw) marmon. An example for éumlaut is OL séstr (he shoots) but OSw skiitter, The west was also the source of nasal assimilation during an early period—for instance, PSc *brant- (steep) > OF bratir, Da brat, but Sw rants of the loss of v before r {Ol reid vs, Da vred [wroth!); and of later changes, the number and importance of which decreased as the southern area became more active In Denmark in the tenth century there started a process of monophthongization, whereby such con- frasts as PSe *s¢ain- > Ol steinn : Da ston (store), Ol auga : Da oje (eve), and PSc “raukiR > “revkr > OL reykr : Da rox’ (smoke) were created. ‘The monophthongization of these earlier diphthongs spread north into Sweden, giving the impression of an original and basic east-west dialect boundary. Two other major innovations began in Denmark bur have remained restricted to the southern area, The continental Scandinavian system of secondary’ ical”) accent was replaced in Danish dialects by no secondary accent in words of more than one syllable—where Swedish and Norwegian have it— and by a glottal stop in monosyllables—where Swedish and Norwegian have just the primary {Gynamic) accent, (TThe loss of secondary accent in Faroese and Ieelandic was probably an independent phenomenon.) ‘The correspondence to monosylla- bles in the eailicr forms of the language is shown by Ol aky : Sw deer : Da ager [a-?yar (field), che lateer ‘with a glottal stop. The other major innovation in Danish, likely resulting from increased dynamic accent on the stem vowel, was the change of postvocalic p, t, & to 6, d modern |5), g (modeen -y] of O). Thus there are cognates like Ol gapa: Da gabe (gape), Ol gata + Da gade |gada| (street), and OL bok : Da bog [bo 77) (book). The “softening” of , & K extends northwaed into the southern prov: inces of Swecen and Norway ‘An imporcant innovation, whose application was more consistent in East Scandinavian, was the “breaking” of e to ea (> ja) under the influence of 4 following a (or > jg with following or 1}. As examples, Poe "helpar: > OU dlpa: Da byelpe : Sw bdipa (help) (but PSe *stelan > OL stela = Sw stata steal], PSc *feta > O1 fet : Da fjed : Sw (jit [step], and PSe erpu > Ol jor’: Da, Sw jord can be cited. The east also innovated in the simplification of nitial consonant clusters beginning wich b. The logs of initial b can be seen in such examples as OL Fblaupa : Sw lopa : Da lobe (leap, run}, OL not : Da nod (run), O brajre = Da ravn (eaven), Ol bjdipa + Sw Aidlpa (jeipal (help), and OL hustr + Sw wie (white), The east also displays progressive -umlaut {Sw hyélpa) and the development of fi 10 Da tune: Sww «me, as in Da have [haw?n] + Swe amen vs. Ol hpfir (haven, harbor). From around 1000 into the 1300% the erm dons tunga (Danish tongue) was used for the still rather uniform Scandinavian languages, even for western dialects like Icelandic and Norwegian, and as late as 13401~1360 the cerm was used by Eysteinn Kesonnaien fx dee puein Lag, The varlowsdlaioess certainly were mutually understood throughcut the Middle Ages until morphological simplification of Danish, Swedish, and Dano-Norwegian, on the one hand, contrasting with the deep conservatism of Icelandic and Faroese, en the other hand, gradually formed an east-west bactier to comprehension. The specifically Danish innovations eventually erected a barriet a¢ the Oresund.SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: BALLADS BIBLIOGRAPHY Kissin Arnsson, Quantity i Usovicl Phorelogy U9AC), 8O-I21: Oskar Handle, Die Gliederamg des Nordgermanischor (1973), 24-95; Bina | Hoge, The Scandinavian Lansteges (1976), 97-223, and Seandina- va Language Strastares (1983), Haagen and Thomas Uo Markey, The Scondmavian Languages (1972), Finn Hiodecboy "Noraesprily”in Kelirhistorish eben for nordiskriddeuiderXIl(1967': Peter Skawteup, “Hor lees danshen bv wh in Fetsrift tl fora Salven, Kal G.Liongern, ed. (1948), and “Dansk tunge,” in Kuiturbistorisk lekribon for mondik middelaer, 1 (3957) Janes E. Cevitey |Sce slso German Language; Indo-Faropean Languages, Development of, SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: BALLADS. In Scandinavia dhe ballad is defined much as it is in English and Seottish teaditions: itis folk song thar. rells a story. Even when this simple definition 1s aunplificd, Scandinavian and British traditions ee main in close agreement: the hallad is a folk song, ‘whose origin is most likely to be traced back ro che Prench dance songs of the Middle Ages; it employs a language rich in commonplaces and tells its story from an impersonal point of view, tending to focus iis parrecive on one or two key scenes; itis always ssamg to rounded meloeies in strophes of two or four fines wich end rhyme and is characteristically asso ciated with a lyrical refrain. Seandinavian and British ballad traditions differ solely with regard to this last point—whercas in Great Britain only roughly baif of all ballad types have been recorded with a refrain, in Scandinavia the refrain is almost always preseat. Although ballads are considered to constitute a medieval genre in Scanilinavia, most of what can be learned about them stems not rom the Middle Ages but, rather, from songbooks of the nobility and antiquarian anthologics of the sixteenth and seven- tench centuries, and from the folk tradition of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Evidence that ballads were performed in Scandinavia as early as 1200, the date usually given for the beginnings of the ballad tradition there, is so slight char some scholars have suggested that rhe ballad might large~ ly be a postmedieval phenomenon. Sources from the Middle Ages have very litte to say abour the ballad dance, and in each case the information they give is equivocal. ‘The Ieelandic Borgils saga ok Hofiida (ea. 1220) mentions that at a wedding held in 1119 at the farm of Reykjahdlar, there were “dance amusements"; bur itis impossi- ble ro determine whether these dances were per- formed to the singing of ballaes or of some other songs—or, for that mauer, whether they were a feature of ewelfta-century Icelandic culture as re- ported in the saga or 2 later practice familiar to the thirteenth-century saga author and mistakenly at sributed by him to an eaclier age. Similar questions are raised when we consider the thirtcenth-century Danish chronicle Rydérbo: gent, which mentions the custom of dancing at court in she tie of King Svend in 1157—are these indeed ballad dances or come other kind of dance, and has, the author anachronistically attributed court danc- ing t0 the twelfh century? A feesco from about 1380 in Orslev Church in Skalskeor, Denmark, is often assumed to depict the ballad dance, but its testimony, 100, 18 equivocal, On the fresco a row ‘of dancers—women wearing crowns and holding, hands with young men in harlequin dsess—is step- ping ro the right; however, the inclusion in the fresco of an animal blowing a horn suggests that this dance was to instcumental music rather than 1 ballad song. Even though none of the scattered medieval sources seems to bear certain evidence of ballad dance, the mary references t dance in extant ballad texts make us confident that it was 2 univer- sal featare of the medieval Scandinavian ballad performance. The refrain is especially rich in such references. The Danish ballad “Black Iver” (The ‘Types of the Scandinavian Medieval Ballad (TSB), F23) has an interna! refrain that goes: “You tread a dance!" and the refrain wo the Faroese “Guttorm in Harearmot” (TSB E39) goes: “Let’s stamp hard on the floor¥Let’s not spare our shoes'/God will rule where we'll dance another Yule!” By the aineteenth century the practice of performing ballads in the dance had died out nearly everywhere except in the Faroe Islands, where ir still eurvives. The Facoese dance: as we know it probably resembles medieval practice quite closely: the dancers form a ring, taking three steps to the left, right foot brought against left and back again. ‘They repeat this series of steps unti] the end of the ballad. Only one melody that may have been used as a ballad tune has been preserved from the Middle ‘Ages. [twas ecorded in the Danish Codex: Runiews (ca. 1300) unider a text fragment chat reads like hallSCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: BALLADS ‘of a four-line ballad strophe: “I dreamed a dream late last night/ot silk and velvet fine.” ‘The melody is inthe key of D with an ambitus of D to A. The next recordings of what may be ballad tunes are found in hhymnals of the sixteenth century, in which ballad- like melodies were occasionally used to carry the words of tie new Litheran hymns. The first certain recording of 4 ballad melodj—io “Olaf Strange- son’s Jousting Match” (TSB. D300)—was written into 3 hallad manuscript in the late sixecenth cen- mary by the Danish collector Anders Sorensen Vedel. Although medieval sources tell us nothing about the details of the pectormance of ballad melodies, modern Faroese practice again points the way—it suggests thar ballads were not sung, but chanted by one or two lead singers, who rested their voices berween stanzas while the rest of the dancers carried the metrically more complex refrain The earliest known ballad rexts are extremely fragmentary. Preserved in-medieval_ manuscripts are some eight or ten fragments no longer than a stropke that—jike the verse from Codex Runicus— sccm balladlike but cannot be associated with any known ballad. The leelandic Sturliga sage con tains two of these: the often cited quatrain “Lopt is, in the islandsy/gnawing puifin bones!Swemund is on. the heathsyeating herries alone!” and the refrain- like “So are my sorrows heavy a lead,”” The first recordings of what must cectainly be ballad texts are from the tteénth century. The oldest of these is a yarbled strophe from che Danish “Angellyr and Helmer the Champion” (TSB £90), which was written by the cartographer Claudins Clavus on his map of Greenland from 1425. Two teirains have been preserved from this period: the one from “Holger the Daneand Burman” (TSB E133), which vyas wrieten under the figure of Holger Danske in a fresco on the vaulted ceiling of Floda Chaech in ‘Sédermanland, Sweden, and one from a Marsk Stig bated (TSB Ci4) used by a seeibe as a pen testin & Danish manuscripe from 1454, The longest text from the medieval period is a fragment of seven stanzas from The Knight in Stag’s Disguise” (5B A43), in 2 Danish manuscript from the 1450s The first complete ballad texte from the six: teenth-century songbooks of Danish ard Swedish noblemen reveal a number of different metrical forms. The two principal ones, the couplet and the ‘quatrain, together dominate the corpus. The coup let, regarded as the older of the two, has four siesses per line: “Her ér en jomfra pi yore andyog him vii aldrig have mand!” (There is a maiden itt ur land, and she would never have a man's from the Danish “The Knight in Bied’s Disguise” (TSB A44)). In the quatrain stanza the chymeless odd lines contain four stresses and che thymed even ones, three: “Ebbe han tjénes i kengent: géed/bade for piild og fé;iPéder, hans bréder, lader bypze-et skibyfhan ecjsce op sejitea” (Ebbe serves at che king's court for both gold and fee; Peter, his brother, bas had a ship built he raises up the mast tree; from the Danish “Ebbe Skammelson" [158 D251), Here and there in the corpus of Seandinavian ballads there are strophie forms that vary somne- ‘what from the predominant ones. Best known of these are che repetition stanza, the “Little Karin” stanza, and the “Proud Ellen” stanza. (‘The last two are named sfter exemplary Danish hallads—TSB B14 and D241—in which these strophie rypes were used.) The repetition stanaa is « coupler, the last line or line and a half of which is repeated as a leadtin to the following coupley as can be the Icelandic “The Ballad of Gunabild” D231): There | sew-with my ewo «yes, the archbsshop lying by her side. Refrain: Leeally did wish to depare frosn the world. My wo eres, the archbishop lying by her side “There | saw for a seconal ume, by ber ling five knights in a line Refraie: really... ‘The repetition stanza probably achieved its cartiose popularity in Denmark, where 9 percent of baliad types utilize this sophie type, and from there spread to the Faroes and to Iceland, where it must have been especially favored—it i used in fully 20 percent of all ballad types. Like the repetition stanza, che “Little Karin” stanza is a variation of the couplet, but in this case the four stress ine has been extended to six stresses: “Och kira mina hofman, 1 stillen edert lagy/mens jig far gi cil kyrkan ate vacka wep min far” (And my dearest gentlemen, please sertle down your zroop, while Ito charch do hasten 0 rouse my father ups from the Swedish “Duke Silverdale” [TSB A45)). ‘The “Little Karin” stanza was particularly popular in later Swedish tradition but also found admirers in Denmark, The “Proud Ellen” stanza is 2 qua- train in which the even lines have been shortened from thes stresses to two, and the rhyme is almost always masculine: “Op da vagned den ange bid’SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: BALLADS og, véndee hun sigstfeg béder dig for den averse Giiddu sla ikke mig’ (Up then woke the girlish bride, and she turned around: “I beg of you by the Highest Power, don't strike me down; from “Prond Ellen's Revenge” [TSB D241)). Like the repetition stanza, this strophic type seems t0 have attained some degeee of popularity first in Denmark and then spread elsewhere, specifically to losland, where it was especially beloved as a ballad meter, and to Sweden. The frequent inclusion of the refrain in ballad manuscripts isa hellmark of Scandinavian tradition and has readily led to the supposition that it was a tare ballad type that was performed without one. “There are two types of refrain: che end refrain and the incernal refrain, The end refrain—used with both couplet stanzas and quatcains—consists of a single verse line, usually of from three to eight stresses, that is sung at the close of each stanza to round it off—for cxample, “Do put your words well,” from the Danish “King Valdemar and His Sister" (TSB D346), and “Yonder my sweetheart awakens under the linden tree,” from the Danish “the Knigh?’s Rurie Spell” (TSB £37}. Only in Faroese tradition is the end refrain regularly ex: tended t0 a lengrh of from two to five lines. he internal cefram is found mainly in couplet ballads, in which itis sung following the first line of the stanza, with a supplementary end refrain fol lowing the second line, The Danish “The Maid at Court” (TSH D4) offers a good example: “There ‘was great joy and even greater glee—In the green weod—Sir Ove and proud Ingelil will soon mar- fied be/—To the maiden's bower riding.” Al though, as in this example, the internal and end refrains need not be rhymed, many of them ate linked by half chyme or even whole thyme. In a yery small number of ballacs, the wording of the refrain is varied somewhat from stanza to stanza as the story progresses, bur this seoms to reflect the sing ing style of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries rather than medieval tradition, ‘The refrain can serve any one of a number of fanctions in any given ballad text. Often it echoes the major theme of the ballad, sometimes reletring © the most important dramatic act—for example, in “Proud Ellen’s Revenge”: “She betrayed him while he slept.” Sometirnes the refrain helps to set the mood of the ballad: in the comic Danish * Palle’s Wedding” (TSB D153), the refrain i inerry one: “The leaves are coming out green” whereas in the tragic “Hildebrand and Hilda” (TSB, Ad2), also from Denmark, it strikes a sad note orrow is heavy when you bear it alone.” Nunter- our refrains completely ignore che ballad story and refer to the occasion of the ballad performancs— for example, the relrains noted above that mention the ballad dances. Ina mimber of older manuscripts, the texts of some ballads begin with one-or more lyrical iatre- ducrory strophes that have no connection with the ballad story itseli and are often in some metrical form other than that of the song shey incoduce. One or several verse lines from these introductory strophes usually provide the refrain used with each stanza of the ballad. In the leclandic “The Ballad of Alexander” (TSB D337), which is in quatrains, che last line of the opening three-line strophe is used in this way: "So itis in this worldyothers you must always doubt.—Alexarider has bis ship fitted owt” These lyric stanzas were once viewed as the scat- tered remnants of medieval dance strophes that, when combined with narrative song, gave rise to the ballad genre. Today, however, these introductory strophes are not thought to be che original source of the refrain; cather, they are seen as late embellish- ments, signature verses, usually incorporacing and expanding upon the refrains of the ballad: for which they were composed, Eyer since Svend Grundkvig's pioneering edition of Danish ballads, Davonarke ganile folkeviser, Scandinavian ballad types have customarily been grouped according to theme, In ‘The ‘Types of the Seandinausian Medieval Ballad (1978)—a systemst- ic catalog of the entire Scandinavian corpus of $32 ballad types—the categories are six: (A) ballads of the supernatural, (B) legendary ballads, {C) histor- ical ballads, (D) ballads of chivalry, (BE) heroic ballads, and (F) joculor ballads Ballads of the supernatural, numbering seventy: five types, relate stories about witcheraft and runic charms, magic transformations, strange creatures, in nature, and ghosts. The themes of these ballads are very widespread—found chroughout the ballad, literatures of Europe, for example, are variants of “The Elt-Shor” (TSB A63), about a young man who refuses to dance with an elf maid and dies from her curse. Popular throughout Scandinavia and wich = close parallel in Scottish tradition is “The Twa Sisters" (TSB A38; Chadd 10), about how the guilcof a woman who has drowned her beautiful younger sister is revealed by a musical instrument, usually @ harp, made from the dead girl’s bores. Widespread throvghout Scandinavia are "Sir Stie’s Runes” (TSBSCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: BALLADS Ad), in which a nobleman casts runic love spell on the wrong woman and must cope with the conse quences, and "The Maid in Bird's Disguise” (758 A16), about a hunter who breaks the spell cast by a woman who has teansformed her stepdaughter firse into a doe and then into a bird. “Azge and Else” (7B A67) is less widespread but of interest because sts story—about a young woman who so greatly mourns the death of her fiancé that he is disturteed imhis grave and goes to her bower to tell her nor to srieve—is an echo of the final episode of the Fddic poem Helgakvida Hundingsbana I Before the nineteenth century, ballads of the supernatural were condemned for the superstitions they contained, and it was not until the Romantic age that editors and scholacs came to appreciate their archaic elements of beliel, In his headnote to “The FlfShot" in Danmarks ganile folkeviser, Svend Grundtvig discussed the many European variants of this ballad type, concluding that it was stemmed, as did perhaps the genre as a whole, from Brigeany, the home of this ballad’s fullest text. This theory was further developed by Francis Child and Paul Vervier. Axel Olrik has studied attitudes toward supernatural beings ex pressed in this group of ballads and has nosed shar they vary irom what appear to be more archaic ones ‘of dependence, fear, and resignation to later ones of freedom, sympathy, and optimism, Working with Olrik’s ideas, Eense Frandsen has divided these hrallads into three chronological gronpings: the first reflects pagan man’s fear of nature's power; the second, the confidence of the Christian; and the third, the use of supernatural themes to achieve a sentimental or picturesque effect. Legendary ballads,numbering thirey-seven types, deal peimarily with Christian themes, such as the lives of che Virgin Mary and of Christ, the lives of saints and marty:s, miracles, and visions. This group 4 most richly represented in east Scandinavian tra~ dision: Danish tradition coneaine shiety types and Swedish eighteen, whereas in the entire west Scan- dinavian area (Norway, leeland, the Faroes) a voral of only twenty-six eypes is found, Ballads about Mary and Cissist are most popular in Danish tra- dition—one example is “The Flight to Egypt” (TSB 3), in which Mary instracts a farmer to harvest newly sown grain froma field tharshe and Jesus pass ‘on their journey to Egypt. Popular throughout east Scandinavia are ballads abour miracles, such as the restoration to life of lovers or the healing of cripples, though perhaps the mest interesting of Aiese types, “en Lost at Sea” (TSB B26), is Found in both easteen and western regions. In this ballad crew of men lost atsea runs ont of food and decides thar someone must be sacrificed, but when they cannot bring theriselves to ear him, they are saved by Mary in east Scandinavia and 2 dove in west Scandinavia. Much moze widespread throughout Scandinavia are ballads. abour saints and martyrs, some of which have parallels in British tradition—for exam ple, “St. Stephen and Herod” (79B B8; Child 22), in which Stepheo sells Herod about porcenss of the birth of Christ and ie subsequently punished, 2nd “Maria Magdalena” (198 B16: Child 21), in which Christ meets the Magdalene at 4 well (or steeam) and assigns her a penance before shriving her. Found only in fragmentary texts from Norway is the most thoroughly studied of the legendary bal lads, “The Dream Ballad” (TSB B31}, in which a man sleeps from Christmas co Twelfth Day and then goes to church to tell about his dream visions of heaven and hell, and of Doomsday. Because of their Catholicism, legendary ballads were supprossed in the sizteenth-eentury songbooks ‘of the nobility. However, thac they must have con- tinued to exist in ora] tradition for a long time after thatis attested by she fact thatthe bulk of our extant texts stems from broadside prints and nineteenth- century oral tradition. Sverker Ek has argued that these ballads were of strictly popular origin and that they were performed in association with religious celebrations ar local cule centers Historical ballads have been characterized dif- ferently in the two major works that have sought to catalog entire corpora. In the first of these, Dansmerks gamle folkeviser, all ballads contain- ig references 10 historically known persons were grouped under this rubric. In The Types of the Scandinavian Medieval Ballad, however, the editors have chosen to restrict this category in two ways: (1) the events celated must he historical, with exter nal corroborative evidence of this historicity; and (2) the events treated must be of national rasher than regional or local significance. These ore restrictive criteria have reduced the number of historical ballads by nearly rveo-fifths, feom sixty eight eo forty-one, with most of those removed reclassified as ballads of chivalry Historical ballads were especially popular in Denmark: over half ofthe types in The Types of the Scandinavian Medieval Ballad concern events in Danish history or give a Danish view of conflictsSCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: BALLADS between Denmark and Sweden, The earliese events commemorated in ballad are found in two exam- ples from the wellth century—the killing of the Danish king Erik ll Emune in 1137 (TSB C1) and the strugale in 1157 among three pretenders to the Danish throne (TSB €2). Inthe thirteenth century, memorable pesple and events were celebrated in no fewer than nineteen, differont ballads, In Danish tradition the figure of Queen Dagmar inspired four ballads: two abour her arrival in Denmark to meet her furure husband (Queen Dagmar and Sir Steange,” TSB C3, and “Sir Strange and Dagmar's Lady-in-Waiting,” TSB D277); the third, about her effors to help the poor and oppressed ("Queen Dagmar in Denmark,” TSB. GH; and the fourth, about her death in childbirth (Queen Degmar’s Death,” TSB C6), In Swedish tradition the Folkung family inspized three ballads, all celling about the abduction of brides: “The Nbduction from Veeta Convent” (TSB C8), “Sir Lavrents and Bengta Sunesdatter” (TSB C10), and “Folke Algotsson” (SB C16). In Norwegian tradi- tion three ballads relate the deeds of the pirate Alv Erlingsson: in “Little Alv's Viking, Adventures” (TSB C12) and “Licte Aly in Gresané” (TSB C13), heis successful against the Hansa fleet; and in “The End of Little Alv” (TSB C17), he is captured by a ‘man who. recognizes hima and is taken to the queen and then executed. Only six ballads were composed about happen ings in fourtcenth-cencury Scandinavia, the most noteworthy of which arethe Norwegian ballad (pre served only in Faroese tradition) “Maid Margaret” (TSB C22) and the Danish “Niels Ebbesea" (TSB C15), In “Maid Margaret” Princess Margaret of Norway is sold by two treacherous companions into marriage with a foreign count, and lateris burned at the stake when no one recognizes her upon her re- mr to Norway. {x “Niels Ebbesen” a count from Holstein, who has conguered northern Jutland, act uses a local Danish patriot of treason and is lacer slain by that pacriot and his followers. Almost all of the twelve ballads composed about events of the fifteenth cencury and the first rwo. decades of the sixteenth treat the political conthieis that raged within the disintegeating Scandinavian union: "Sten Sture the Elder and the Dalecarlians” (TSB C35) tells of a Swedish victory in 1501/1502 ‘over King Hans of Denmark, and “King Christian Il in Sweden” (TSB C38) relates the story of King ‘Christian's taking of Stockholm in. 1520. In Svend Grindevig’s view, ballads giving an ccucate account of an event were probably com- posed soon afterward, whereas ballads that were inaccurate were likely to have been composed after some time had elapsed. Grandevig’s ideas have been, challenged by later generations of scholars, who have pointed our flaws in his reasoning; for exam pile, ballads seeming to give a very accurate report ‘of an event may in fact have been composed much later with the aid of written sources; and, on the other hand, ballads deemed inaccurate may none- theless be quite early, reflecting a partisan view of events not found in other sources, There is today reluctance t0 make sweeping generali the relationship of historical ballads to the events they describe, although there is wislespread agree ‘ment that historical ballads should be treated like any other historical documents as far a8 dating is coneerned—one must have compelling reasons to regard a ballad as much older than its earliest Ballads of chivalry constieute the largest and most varied group, umbering 440 in all. Erotic themes predominate: successful and unsuccessful courtship, seduction, rape, abduction, incest, ad: tery, jealousy, and crimes of passion. Among the most populer ballads of chivalry ate ““Esbern Soare” (788 D16), “Proud Ellensborg" (TSB D72), “Sir Palle's Wedding’ (ISB D153), and “Valdemar and Tove” (TSB D258). In “fsbern Snare” a knight rests the skill at needlework of the girl he wants to marry, is delighted wich the results, and proposes to her. In “Proud Ellensborg” an enterprising woman fetches her dilatory fiancé from abroad, where he is about to marry nother, An equally enterprising woman in “Sir Palle’s Wedding” ticks the man who wants to rape her by substituting for herself her carriage boy dressed asa woman. In “Valdemar and Tove” she queen is jealous of King Valdemar’s mistress, Tove, and decides to kill her by locking, her ina steam bath (in the Danish, teelandic, and Norwegian versions). ‘Other themes frequently treated in ballads of chivalry are death and escape from death, combat, revenge and punishment, rurder, and execution, Of ballads dealing with these themes, the following swore sung throughout mos: of Scandinavia: “Syend in Rosengard” (TSB 1320), “The Hasty Answers” (TSB D324), and “King Valdemar and His Sister” (TSB D346), Like the Scorrish ballad “Edward” (Child 13), "Svend in Rosengird consists of a conversation between a mother and her son, in which she asks where he has been and why there is aboutSCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: BALLADS blood on his sword (or foot), and he confesses to the murder of bis brother. In “The Hasty Answers” 2 girl is accused hy her father of having taken a lover, bbar she denies having done so uneil she is shown his severed hand, in some versions she then commits suicide our of grief and remorse, but in others she tokes revenge on her father by setting fire to his house and burning him to death, In "King Vat dlemnar and Hlis Sister” the guecn plots the seduerion of the king's sister, then tells the king and encour: ages him to punish her. Included amoug the ballads of chivalry in The pes of the Scandinavian Medieval Ballad are the welistic ballads,” a term coined by Grundtvig for long, multi-episodie ballads often containing international epic and folktale motifs. “Paris and Queen Ellen" (TSB D381), for example, cells the story of the love affair between Paris and Helen, and the siege of Troy. The tragic love story of Tristan and Isolde is found in varying forms in ballads sung in Denmark, leeland, and the Faroes (TSB D383-1386), The category of heroie ballads is the second largest, numbering 167 types, and consists primar- ily of ballads of west Scandinavian origin. They are very similar to the legendary sagas (formaldarsdgur) composed in thirteenth and. fourteenth-century Iceland—theit stories are told foosely, in a broadly «epic manner that is quite distinet from the concen: trated dramatic style of other ballad carezories (except for novelistic ballads, which are thought to have been modeled on the style of the heroic ballads); and they, too, relate the adventures of great champions pitted against both human and supernatural rivals, Bese known of the herbie bal: lads are those composed in close agreement with Vplsunga sega and bidreks saga af Bern, about the adventures of Sigard the Dragon Slayer and his facal involvement with Gudrun and Brynhild: the Nor- wegian “Sigurd Svein” (TSB E50}; the Danish “Sivard Snarensvend” (TSB E49} and “Sivard and Brynhild” (158 E101): the Swedish “Sivert Snaren- sven" (TSB E49}; and the sprawling Faroese excte “The Ballad of Sigued,” consisting of four parts— “Regin the Smith” (TSB E51), “Brynhild’s Ballad” (TSB F100), “Hogni’s Ballad (TSB ESS), and “Aldrias? Ballad” (TSB E38). Also typical of this ‘category is che burlesque “Thor of Havszird”” (TSB F126), which is a recasting of an Eddie poem, Dryniskiviba (The lay of Thrym), about how Thor dressed as a bride in order (0 teirieve his stolen hammer from an amorous giant. The last category, jocular ballads (seventy-seven types), is a new one—scholars have customaily regarded hese aot as ballads but as vulgae folk songs belonging 10 2 Inter age. But even though, many individual types may be ephemeral because of theis wopicality, she category itsell 1s probably as old as the rest of the genre, One of the oldest and most widespread of the jocular balladsis “Lave and Jon" (TSB FE), which tells how an unsuccessful suitor manages to trick his rival and sleeps with the bride oon her wedding night. Equally widespread is "The Domesticated Farmer” (TSH F33),in which » farm er does all the housework for his lazy wife and is scolded for his trouble Ballad collecting in Seandinavia began in Den. mark with Anders Sorensen. Vedel’s work, which led to the publication in 1591 of his Ee uendrede ndvalgte danske viser (One hundred selected Dan- ‘sh ballads), based on the songbooks of the Danish nobility, the oldest of which was Hjertebog (The hheast hock), from the 1550". Vedel’s edition of bal- Jads of principally historical or at least pscutto-his. torical consent was supplemented in 1657 by Mette 3joe’s anonymously published Tragica, which fa- voted ballads with erotic themes. In 1695 the aca- demician Peder Syv reprinted Vedel’s work, adding toita second 100 ballads from hoth written and oral sources, Vedel's and Syv's editions gained consider- able currency throughout the far-Flang Danish king dom, especially in the provinces of Norway, Iceland, and the Facoes, where ballads feom them weze sung both in the original Danish and in translation During the Enlightenment of the early eighteenth ceatury, ballads were despised by the educated as a vulgar display of superstition and ignorance, but their continued popularity among the tux! and urban working classes is attested by the printings of broadside texts and the seprineings of Syv's edition In the latter part of the eighteenth century, incerest in medieval traditions was reawakened; symptom atic of the times was the appearance in two parts (1780-1784) of B, K. Sandvik and Rasmus Nye- rup's collection Lewninger af mviddel-Alderens dig tekunst (Relics of medieval poetry}, which was clearly inspired by ‘Thomas Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765). Nyeeup immersed hienselt in new ballad projects, arsong them assist: ing Wilhelm Karl Grinum with his tcanslation Altdiinicche Heldeniieder, Balladen und Maireben (1811) and collaborating with W. H. F. Abraham. son and Kaud Rahbek in a re-edition of Syy’s collection with a music supplement, which ap-SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: BALLADS peared as Udualgte danske viser fra middelalderen (Selected Danish ballads from the Middle Ages; 5 vols, 1812-1814). Meanwhile, in Sweden, Arvid August Afzelins and the poet Erik Gustav Geijer, inspired by the netional Romanticism of the times, were preparing, their somewhat flawed edition of Swedish ballads with a music supplement, Svenska folk-visor frén forntiden (Swedish ballads from the old days; 3 vols., 1814-1816). In Norway ic was not unt the ‘nid 1800"s that there was any interest in recording, ballad texts; in 1853 M. B. Landstad published Norske Folkeviser (Norwegian folksongs), which, like Geijer and Afeetius’ work, was more distin- guished by patriotic fervor than by good editorial Dractice. A smiall selection of Faroese ballads, Fariiske Receder, was edited by Vencestaus Ulricas Hammershaimb (2 vols., 1851-1855) The 1830's and 1840's saw the beginnings of Scandinavian ballad scholarship and the develop- ment of critical editorial principles, chiet among, which was faithfulness to the source text. The first critical edition of ballads with commentary and notes was Adolf hear Arwidsson’s three-volume Svenska fornsdnger (Old Swedish songs; 1834— 1842). However, itwas not until the 1840°s thac the work of the Danish comparatist Svend Grundrvig catalyzed the study of ballads in Scandinavia, His, most imporeant contribution was his exemplary twelve-volume edition of Danmarks gamle folke- éser (Denmark's old ballads), volume | of which swas published in 1853; it was continued by Axel Otrik, Hakon Gritner Nielsen, and others until ts completion in 1976. Grundtvig is also responsible {or the ediving of both the Ieelandic and the Faroese corpora: his collaboration with the Icelander Jon Sigurdsson resulted in the publication of the two: volume [slea2k fornevee¥ (Old Icelandic balladss 1854-1885); and with Jorgen Bloch he edited che Faroese corpus (1871-1876), although their manu script, Corpus carminum Faroexsum, remained ‘unpublished uncil Christian Macras undertook she task in 1941, In 1934 Orto Andecsson published his ecition of the compus of Swedish ballads sung in the ethnically Swedish districts of Finland Folkvisor {Ballads}, which is volume V.1 of the series Fin- lands Svenska Folkdiktning. Since the late nineteenth cencury there have been a number of efforts 10 collect ballads. from oral tradition, Most remarkable is that of Evald Tang. Kristensen, a teacher from Jutland, whose varied colleetion of fotklore incltides about 3,000 ballad texts, a few of them never before attested in Den- mark. His texts were published in the series Jydske Folkeminder (Jutish felklore, 1868-1891) and in later volumes of Danmarks’ gamle joikeciser. In 1902 2 Danish musicologist, Hjalmar Thuren, crav- led to the Faroe Islands vo tanseribe from oral tradition melodies of native Farcese and Danish ballads by way of preparation for his monograph study Folkesargen pa Farcorne (Folk, songs in the Faroes; 1908). His student Griner Nielsen fol- Jowed him there in 1924, and again in 1927 and 1928, when he made wax phonograph recordings of ballad excerpts. In 1958 the modern tape record- et was used in a collecting effort sponsored by the Swedish Broadeasting Corporation, in which all of Sweden and Swedish-speaking parts of Finland were canvassed, with particularly cich results from the Finnish Ahvenanmaa (Aland Islands), A similar expedition was sponsored (© the Faroe Islands it 1959, and at thar time approximately forry hours of recordings, mostly of ballads, were made. Although since Kristersen’s day collectors have not expected to discover previously unknown ballad rypes, Mor tan Nolsae cid just that when recording the repe:- twires of several Faroese singers inthe late 1960's and early 1970"s, But these new ballads—Gislar's Ballad” (ISB E112) and “tlint’s Songs” [TSB E127} must be seen as the last gleanings after a very rich harvest, BIBLIOGRAPHY Erik Dal, Nordisk folkevisefovskning siden 1800 (1956), and, ss editor, Dawish Ballads and bole Sones, Hensy Meyer, tans. (1967); Svetker Ek, Norsk kdempa visa téstuordisk tadition: Et frs6k tlltudelnmy au dee nordiska folkvise materiale (1921), Forrand-Forty: A Selection of Danish Ballads, Alexander Gray, ed. and. rans, (1954); Ernst Frandsen, Folkevisen: Studien « mid delalderens poctishe ltteratur (1935), Oro Holzapfel, Debliogrophie zur mittlelterlichen skanutinavisehon Volks brallade (19751; Sigurd Beenhard Hustvedt, Ballad Coit isin in Seandinavia and Great Brain During the Eigh- teenth Contury (1916, rape. 1971}, and Ballad Books and Ballad Men: Kaids and Resexes Britain, America, and the Scandmavian North Since 1809 (1930); Bengt R. Jonsson, Svale Solheim, and Eva Danielson, eds., The “Types of the Scandinowsan Medieval Ballad (1978): Kut Licstol, ed, Folkevisor (1931; Axel Olciky el. Book of Danish Ballads EM. Smich-Dampier, erans. (1959) Richard C. A, Priory tansy. Ancient Danish Betlads (1860); Johannes C."H. R.Steenstrup, The Medicus! Popular Ballad, Edward G. Cox, trans. (1914, repr. 1968); Ross Warrens, trans, Schewedizche ValkesliderSCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: GRAMMATICAL der Vorzeit (1857), Danisehe Volkslieder der Vorzeit (1858), and Norwegische, ielindizche, fardicche Volks: lieder der Vorzest (1866); Peter Johann Willatzen, trans., Alvislindischo. Volks-Bulladen uid Heldonlieder der Faringer (1805). Parnicis Convoy [See alse Dance; Denmark Eddic Poetry; Faroese Bal lds; lceland; Searlunga Saga; Sweden; iteeks 92g; Vplsunga Soga.| SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: GRAMMAT- ICAL. Grammar teaching came to Scandinavia in the eleventh century along with Christianiey. Gram mar, a6 the first course in the trivium, was a key to the student’s entry into che learning of the Roman church. Only Latin grammar wes taughe in the schools established in connection with the cathedral chapters, and later the monasteries. The standard textbooks were the Ars grammatica of Aclius Donatus (ca. 350), especially the Ars minor and book Ill of the Ars maior, and the Institutiones _granmaticae of Priscian (ea. 520). These were ped- ‘agogical, descriptive-normative grammars and had 1 be supplemented by some use of the vernacular ‘ofthe pupils. In England, Actfric had composed his Donatus Angliae (commonly rafsered to as Gram ‘mar, ca. 1000}, in which English glosses accompa- nied the Latin text. A single leaf is preserved of an Icelandic parallel, in which the conjugation of amo is presented with native translations of the forms ss well as the grammatical terminology: “AMABIT han skal elska; EY PLURALITER ok margfalld- liga, AMABIMUS ver skulum elska. ..” (AM 92 4, reprinted in Olsen, pp. 156-158). Beginning with Abelard (ca. 1079-1142) and Perrus Helias (fl, 1142-1166}, European farailiari- ty with Aristotle's speculative logic led tothe rise of a new, philosophical grammar. I: reached its great- cst development in the work of the thirteenth- century modistae at che University of Paris, so called because they were concerned with the modi significandi (modes of signifying), « first step to ward a universal grammar of human langnage Four of the most renowned modisiae—Martinus, Boethius, Johannes, and Simon—are given the by- name Dacus, suggesting that (by @ medieval confu- sion) they may have been Danes. Roman Jakobson has called Boethius “one of the greatest Danish contributors to the theory of language, and we do 10 not forget that it was Denmark which throughout many centuries gave to international linguistics a Tong lise of supeeme thinkers” (p, 295). These men were, however, active in Paris, and we know noch- ing of theie possible influence on work in Scandi navia. ‘That Latin grammatical teaching was effec tive there is reflected in the Latin oi suck historians as the Dane Saxo Grammavieus (fi. ea. 1200), but no native grammatical literature is presesved out- side of Iceland The Icelanders early made themselves famous as recorders of native lore, Parallel with the writing of religious and secular (even pagan} matter in Old Ieclandic went an active interest in the language itself. The framework was that of contemporary Latin grammar, but the effort of applying its cace- gories to a very different language led to original Solutions that in some cases foreshadowed much later, even modern, linguistic chinking, Four gram- matical treatises are preserved, chanks to theit be ing appended to manuscripts of Snorri Sturtuson's Edda (ca. 1220; known also as the Prose Edda or Younger Edda). The association is appropriate in the light of Snotti’s purpose: to describe che content and form of skaldie poetry, which involved close artention to metrics and poetic figures, then re- ‘garded as a part of grammar. ‘The treatises imme- diately peccede or follow the section entitled Skald- skaparmdl (The language of poetry), in which Snorti expounds and exemplifies the forms and metaphors of skaldic poetry. But the treatises are not by Snorri. Fxeept for the third, they are anonymous; scholars have dated the first to about 1150 and the last so abour 1340. Explicit attribution in one mannscript and internal evidence have permitted the ‘Third Grammatical Treatise ts be identified as the work of Snorni's nephew, Olatr borSarson “Hritaskald” (the white poet; 1210-1259), FIRST GRAMMATICAL TREATISE Preserved only in the Codex Wormianus (Ws 4, 1360) and withoue any separate heading, the First Grammatical Treatise (GT) must bave been copied at least twice, leaving us on many points doubr as to the wording of the original. This is particularly disturbing in regard to the examples used to illustrate the discussion. ‘The FGT is not only che oldest, but alsa by far the most original and interesting of the treatises. Only seven folio pages long, i provides the materials for a phonemic analyss of spoken Icelandic in the first half of theSCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: GRAMMATICAL twelfth century. The analysis is an incidental result of che author’s dissatisfaction with the current adaptations of the Latin alphabet to Icelandic. Knowing thatthe Fralish had added and subtracted levters in writing their language, he proposed to do the same for leclandic, “in onder chat it might hecome easier to write and read, 26 is now custom aty in this country as well, laws, genealogies ot sacred writings, and also that historical lore which Ani Thorgilsson has recorded in his books with such understanding wit” (Heugen ed., 1972, p. 13). This treatise is roughly contemporary with the earliest preserved Icelandic manuscriprs, and_it reflects 2 well-established tradition of writing, The First Grammarian (FG), as we shall call him, then treats successively the vowels, diphthongs, anc con- sonants, with the goal of composing an adequace alphabet for Icelandic. Accepting the five Latin vowels—a, eo, he proposes to add four more. ‘These he defines as phonetically intermediate. and suggests corresponding complex symbols to reflect their positions: 9 between a and o, ¢ becween a and 2, 0 between ¢ and o, and y benveen i and u, His phonetics is one-dimensional in each tsiad the new yowel is spoken with the mouth either more or fess “open! than are the other ewo. The result is nevertheless correct in placing what we now know as the “umlaut” vowels in relation to the standard five-vowel system of Latin (and Proto-Nordic}: lesopes og eg by ow High ttit oie y= eres mid fitt ft + * FA FY owe Having propounded his system, the FG replies 10 possible objections hy producing what now are called “minimal pairs," embedéed int sentences 10 show that every change of 2 vowel produces mean- imghul differorces: “A man inflicted « wound (sar) on mes [inflicted many wounds (spr) on him.” He then uses the same method of commutation to establish that each of the nine vowels can be “spoken in the nose’ (uasalized). He proposes (0 mark the nasals with a superscript dot, and again he produces a minimal pair for each vowel contrast. In view of the absence of manuscript evidence and of aasal vowels in modern Icelandic, this part of his argument has been quéstioned. Yet each of his, examples is confirmed by the known etymology of the words he cites. What he could nor know was, 1 thar 2 following nasal consonane had been lose before the turning of the vowels into. nasals (a provess similar to thar which produced ¢he nasal vowels of French). Finally, he proves thar each vowel, oral or nasal, can be either long or shoe, and hhe proposes masking the long vowels with an acute accent. Accordingly, each of his nine vowels can appear in four guises—Y, V, ¥, V—aiving him an alphabet with thitey-six vowels. The feature of length is well artested and remains unquestioned, Ie has been noted, however, that the short nasals are not strictly phonemic, since they occur only in the vicinity of nasal consonants, The FG may also have been confused about the distinction of short e and g, which may already have merged, according co Hreinn Benediktsson (p. 141). ‘The creaument of diphthongs is more problem atic. The FG proposes six, theee lalling (ef, ey, 2x) and three rising (i, io, ui). ‘The falling ones are well attested, though later developmenss show thar the first clement must have Fhictuated considerably. The rising ones caused him difficalty (being neither convincingly diphehongel nor completely enumer~ ated), especially ia (later ja). He chose to write it ea (and 10 presimably as 20) on the authority of a searury-old skaldic yerse in which ia had (excep- tionally) been disyllabic. In adapting the consonants, the FG needed fewer changes: was added (as it acady had been in Old English); # and q were ceplaced by ¢ 2s being te- undanys yco represent the semivowel wand forthe duster ds (or 8) could be dispensed with. To save “time and parchment” he would allow gfor ng, for ds (gs), and capitals fo geminates (including K for 2), His nly linguisticeonteibution here waso iden- tify consonant length as distinctive, again with min- imal pairs: spr (outlawed) —sekker (sack); fs (eager newt plusal)—fies (masculine singular), In these analyses the FG demonstrated his mas- tery of the Latin grammatical tradition without once referring to 2 specifie textbook source. He went beyond it by applying its principles to his native tongue in ways that were not completely darified until the twentieth century. His medieval Jittera (Old ledandic: staf) foreshadowed the mod- cen phoneme, shile his minimal pairs showed an understanding of the principle of contrast. Hee hos enabled modern linguists 10 identify with great asaurance the phonological units and the overall system of the earliest Ieelandic, even prioe to the oldest preserved manuscripts. Earlier scholars have made valiant efforts to break through his veil ofSCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: GRAMMATICAL anonymity, concentrating on one Halle Teitsson (1085-1150), of whom it was said that on an expedition to Rome in his sixiy-fitth year “he spoke everyiwhere he went the language of the people as if he were born there.” However, Hreinn Benedikts- son (pp. 201-203) regards the problem as uainter- esting; and the latest critic, Federico Leoni, is inclined to consider the essay as 2 compilation “einer islindischen gelchrten oder halbgeichrten Gemeinschaft” (of an leclandic learned or half learned group). In his new edition (1975) Leoni has expanded the European framework of the FGT, bar his cavalier dismissal neglects ehe FG's skill, so rare in the Middle Ages, in applying grammatical theory vo vernacular practice SECOND GRAMMATICAL TREATISE “The Second Grammatical Treatise (SGT) is pre served in Codex Wormianus and, more fully, in Codex Upsaliensis (Us de la Gardie 11) of che Belda ‘ea. 1300). Its editors, Verner Dablerup and Finnur Jonsson, dismiss ic not only as poorly preserved but also as an insignificant contribution {but see the new edition by Raschella). The SGT has not heen as intensively studied as the FGT in terms of ‘ts sources; 0 far nene has been found, Its peemacare to reject its contents as mere scholastic learning While the EGT is 2 phonemic analysis intended to establish an alphabet, the SGT takes the alphaber for granted and provides what would now be called a study of Icelandic phonotactics, the distribution, in eontext of its phonemes. The author presents his analysis in two different, but structurally congru: ent, diagrams, one circular and one tabular, The lextets are divided into those thae occur only inieial ly (p, 0, b, 4), before and after vowels (b, o,f. 2, B. Loans fy Po; th BY themselees (4 05H, 95 @, 40, vs ey, of nonsyllabic i), geminated (capitalized: B, D.P.G. KL. MNP RS. Tyand only finally (8, % % €). He seems co be at least aware of the FGT (length mark, capitals for geminates, merged vows els). He makes am interesting if obscure comparison Of his diagram to the keyboard of a musical instru nent. [nis essay he provides some of the informa- tion about distribution that the FGT regretted he did not have the space to include, The dating is uncertain: 1200 to 1250 has been suggested THIRD GRAMMATICAL TREATISE The Third Geammatical Treatise is preserved in three main manuscripts: Codex Wormianus and wo manuscripts feom the Arnamagnaean collec- 12 tion, AM 748 4° which contains fragmems of the Poetic Edda) and AM 757 4, both from the four tcenth century. The latestavailable edition, by Biérn Olsen (1884), is based on AM 748, chough the Worinianis text is also printed in full, Its supposed author, the above-mentioned Olafr, traveled to the courts of Denmark and Norway (1239-1241) and followed in his uncle's footsteps both as a skald and as a collector of native lore. Trained as a ceric, he is known to have conducted a Latin schoo) from about 1250, which may be when he wrote his treatise (and his reason for writ The text is hased mostly on Priscian and Do- natus, both of whom are mentioned frequently. After an introducticn on the nature of human language, he goes on 10 apply (or misapply) their doctrines to Icelandic phonology. He (or a later redactor) interpolates « section on the munic alpha- bet (which he calls the stafrof, after the Old English stefrof or -reaw); here we learn of his discussion of runes with King Waldemar II of Denmark. Ateribu- tion by Olsen (pp. xxty-xxy) to a lost work-on. runes by one Thérodd Riinameistari is firmly re- jected by Finnur Jasson (1901, pp. 934-935). The phonetic classification of the vowels is based noc on the aperture of the lips, but on their presumed place of production in the oral channel. The syllable is defined, as are the parts of speech, in slavish depen- dence on Priscian, The interest of this seetion is in the vivid translations of the grammatical terms: participium as blutiekning (parv-caking), interjectio as medalorpning (berween-throwing), These were not adopted into modes icelandic, but others were—for inscance, fornafix (pronoun) and sa senging (conjunction). A second section restates for Icelandic pupils pars of Donatus’ Ars maior Ill, known as the “Barhacismus.” This is rhetoric, a listing of the many “barbarism” and "solesisins” of which the poets had been gailty, as well as the “tropes” and “metaphors” with which they had ornamented theit style, But no attempt is made to tzarslate the Latin {really Grcek) terms, except for throwing in an oc casional leefandic equivalent. The author's contri bution is to provide Icelandic examples from skalcie poetry to replace the Latin ones. in all thirey-four named skalds are represented, plus many anony’ mous verses that may be by the author FOURTH GRAMMATICAL TREATISE ‘The Fourth Grammatical declared continuation of the preceding treatise, but Treatise is a selfSCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: RELIGIOUS by a diffecent author. It closely follows Alexander of Villa Dei’s Doctriale and Eberhardus Bethu. niensis’ Graeciserus (both e2. 120) in listing the colores rhesorici of the classical poets. One pities the Ieelandic schoolboys who were faced with such terms as ephexegesis and antipophora, even if they ‘were exemplified and explained in Icelandic. On internal evidence the author must have worked in the 1340°s. He has been identified with one Bergr Sokkason (@. 1350), who may also have written the prologue that joins the four treatises co Snorni’s Edda (Jonsson, p. 938), Aside from the treatises there are only fragmen: tary Ieelandie materials, incinding a few glosses The fiest and second treatises are precious contri- butions to phonology; the third and fourth are more nearly allied 10 the school of poetic analysis, exemplified by Snorri. Here the old native skaldic tradition joins hands with the newly Feared rhero ric of the classics. BIBLIOGRAPHY Sources: Manuscript facsimiles include Codex Worm dtvas (The Younger Edda): MS. mo, 242 fol. in the Arnemagnaean Collection tn the University Library of Capernhagen, intro. by SiguiSur Nocdal (1931), Frag ‘ments ofthe Flder and the Younger Edda, AM 748 J and 114.0, insta. by Elias Wessén (1945); Seorre Surlasons Faldo: Tippsalachondskrifien DG 1, intro. by. Anders Grape (1962) Editions and commentaries inlude, chronologically Rass Rank ed, Sorra Eells (1818), 297-353 (haved only on Wornianes) Svcinbidn Fgilison, ed. Hada Srorva Senrlusonar (1848), 159-212 (base on all the codices ancl MSS mentioned); [Sveinbjérn Egilsson and Joo Sigwésson), Lda Suorra Suulesnmar: Ea Sion zonie Sturli, 4 vole (1848-1887), tranelation an com- mentary in Latin, 1 (1852), 1-248; Biden M. Oben, Den hredje og flarde gramatiseeofhandling i mores Edda (1884); Verner Dahlerup and Fanuc Jmson, Den forte ‘og anden gromatisheafhandling i Saorres Fada (1886); Giutay Neckel and Felix Niednet, rans, Die jngere Eada mit dom sogenannton ersten grammatischen Trak ‘at( 1925, repr. 1966); Bina Haugen, Fst Grammetical “Treatise: ‘The Earliest Germonle Phonology (1980, 2a rev, ed, wth bibliography 1972); Frei: Renedicason, fe, The First Grammatical Treatise (1972) Federicn Albano Leoni ely Hf primo tattoo grammatcale lar these (1975); Fabris B. Racchella, The Socalled Second Granmaatical Treaties An Orthographic Pattern of Late Thirceenthcentury leslie (3982) Studies, Michael Barnes, “Notes on the Fist Grate al ‘Treatie," in Arkiv flr nordisk flelogi, 86 (1971: Hleirich| Hef), “Grammarischer Trakeat” in 13 Kindlers Literatur Lexikon, Ml (1967); Micinn Bene diktson, Early Icelandic Script (1985); Sveien Bergsvcins- son, “Wie ale it die ‘phonologische Opposition’ in sprachwissenschaftlicher Atiwendhing?” in Archit. flr ergleichende Phoretiky 6 (1942); Geotlrey L. Buri Hall, “The Middle Ages," in Historiography of Lingus tes, Thomas 8. Sebeok, ed (1975; Lucy Grace Collings, “The ‘Mlskaidxfresi and the Latin Tradition in Tee lane (M.A. thesis, Cornell, 1967}, contains an English translation of part 2 of the Third Grammatical Treatise, Corpus philosopberam Danicorum medit azvl, 8 v0ls. (19551979), Tryggei Gislison, “Sprikvieenskap,” in Kidhucbistorih lesikon for nordish eiddelaider, XW) (1971); Anne Hotsmark, En eamdah scholastic jr dex 12, drbundee (1936), and “Grammatise lireratur: Om modersmilet,” in Kuburbistorick leksikon for nordssk imiddelatder,¥ 1360); Roman Jakobson, “Glosses on the Medieval lsighe into the Science of Language,” in Ma anges linguistiques offerts 2 Emile Benveniste (1975); Finn? Jonsson, Dey oldnoreke og oldislandske tera tues histore, 1.2 (1301), 921-933 Heinrich Kel, ed, Gravinatic! Lavint,8vale| 1857-1880}, Fedecica Albano Leowi, “Beittige aur Deuumg der iskindischen “Ersten grammatischen Abhanding,'” an Arkin. fr mordisk floss, 921977}: K. |. Lyngby, “Dan oldnordiske udtale oplyst vel dan aids athandling om setskrioningen | Snonra-Exkl, "in Ttdskrft for pbilolog: og pedagogik, 2 1861}; James WW. Marchand, “Two Christian Skaldie Fragments," in Arkiv for nordisk filologi. 91 (1976): Adel Noséen, “De nordiska »prikens nasalecade vokaler." in Arie for nord flblogt, 3 (1886): Bora M. Olsen, Runerne i dew oldislandeke ttenatur (1883); Magna Olsen, “Den forste rarmmatiske avhandlingy Ti kkonimentaren og om forfateren,” in Ari fir mordick filoiog, $3 (1937); Hermann Palsson, “ytsta malfret ritgerbin og kpphaf ‘alenckear sugnaritunas,” in Skin, 139 (1965); Robert H. Robins, Anctent andl Medieval Grammatical Theory in Exrope (195 1}, 69-90, Heinrich Ros, “Grammetisk litteratur: Vedrerende latin,” in Kulthistorisk teksikon for wordisk middelalder, (1960): Dink Arup Seip, review of Holesmark,” Ex islands scholachicus fra det 12. dure, m Norsk tide skrift for sprogvideuskap, 9 (1938); Biarne Uvestad, °-Gecin sce ul siprir': Toolsand Tradition in the First Grammatical Treatise." in Historiognaphia linznistca, 3 (197615 Julins Zupits ol, ries Grammnetik wad Glos sar (1880). Tamar Havers [Seoalso Aetftic; Alphabets; Aristotlein the Middle Agest Classical Litecary Studies; Donatus of Fiesole; Grammar; 03 Saxo Grammaticus; Saorei Stusluson,] SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: RELIGIOUS. The medieval ecclesiastical literacure of ScandinaviaSCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: RELIGIOUS and Iceland in the vernacular is best divided into three categories: (1) epic lirerature such as apocry’ phal writings, saints’ lives, revelations, and visions; (2) homiletic literature, setmons, biblical commen- tries and translations; 3} theological handbooks ot books of instraction and schoobsooks of various kinds, prayerbooks and other wriings connected ‘with private devotion. Much of this hireratire has close affinities with similar literature in Latin, for- ign or native, ane must be seen on a background of teaching and preaching, Not many of these works can be classed as original in content, but striking examples of successful adaptations of foreign writ ing can be found that show how this branch of Scandinavian literature influenced native, secular ‘writing in form and style. Ie illustrates the recepzion ‘of Christian fand mostly Latin) culture in courtries that became members of the universal church faisly late. istianity was introduced in the North from the ninth century onward, fiest in Denmark and Sweden, and later in Norway and lecland and the ‘other North Atlantic communities (the Faroes and Greenland). It cannot be known when exactly the area had become totally christianized, especially not Sweden and Norway, but the end of the mis sionary period proper can be conveniently put at the time of tke extablishment of an archdiocese for the countries at Lund in 1104. No ecclesiastical Tigerature in the vernacular has survived in conte porary manuscripes from the missionary period Our understanding of the founding years of the Seandinavian church is built en foreign sources or gleaned from nonliterary sources. The oldest excant manuscripts of ecclesiastical literature in she vernacular are from Norway and Iceland about 1150, and from Sweden and Den mark not much earlier chan about 1300. Until the archdiocese of Lund was established the countries of the North had belonged to the ‘metcopolitan province of Hamburg-Bremen, and it would be reasonable to assume that all foreige influence came from the Continent and through the archsee, the more so as the first archbishop of Hamburg, St. Ansgar, was credited with bringing Christianity to Denmark and Sweden around 830. However, a strong dircet influctce [rom the Bricish Isles can also be discovered in all che counteies, and the early use of the vernacular in writing in Norway and Icoland was most probably inspired from En: gland. In 1152 Nidaros in Norway (present-day Trondheim) became the archses for Norway and 14 the North Atlantic countries, followed by Uppsala for Sweden in 1164. This threefold administrative division of the Seandinavian church (Lund, Nids- 165, Uppsala) fasted until the end of the Middle Ages There is no doube that the vernacular was used in teaching and preaching from the missionary period on, and it is possible to acquire some unider- standing of the character of the earliest Scandina- vian church liverature—a period that properly be- Jongs to literary prehiseory—from a close serutiny Gf the homilies and saints’ lives written in Norway and Iceland already in the twelfth century or of contemporary Latin lteratute from Denmark, Swe den, and Norway. Most works in the earliest period of writing and probably also in the pre-literary period belong to categories 1 and 2 and are tcanslations or adaptations of traditional church literature, such as Gregory the Great's homilies and dislogues or age-old sain’ lives. Iie were possible to describe the character of the Scandinavian church Titerature of che twelfth century in one word, that word should be Carolingian, for most of the inspi- ration seems to have been drawn from the works of Charlemagne’s scholars, Alcuin, Paul the Deacon, and their circle. ‘As the cencuries passed, new inspiration was sought in somewhet yourger centers of learning, such as Bologna, Paris, che English or German universities, or various religious houses outside Scandinavia and Iceland. In Scandinavia the oldest monasteries were the Benedictine souses in Lund, Odense, and Nidatholm, established about 1100, son followed by other m neries, and by numerous Dominican and Franciscan houses from the thirteenth century on, From the end of the fourteenth century and to the end of the Middle Ages the many cloisters of the order of St, Birgitta (1303-1373) in Scandinavia and Finland were prominent centers. of literary activity. The Scandinavian church reflected current European. fashions very closely in ics vernacular literature, and it was only rarely to the fare in theological or spiritual marterss in such areas the Scandinavian contributions ro Latin learning and literacute car ried more weight. teries and nun EPIC LITERATURE Legends of the saints were an important part of ‘chureh life, and it is aot suzprising that a very full repertoire of saints’ lives is among the earliest writings. One of the earliest layers of Old Norse~SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: RELIGIOUS Icelandic prose epic is hagiography, and the genre continued to be popular and ative until he end of the Middle Ages. Several collections of saints’ lives are extant (lor instance, AM 645.4%, Cod. Holm. 2 fol., Codex Scardensis, Reykjahélabok). In Sweden am effort to make available in translation lives of the most commonly venerated saints began about 1300 and resulced in a number of fine keyendarics ([Fornsvenska legendarier and others}. {n compat son the Danish repertoire is quite modest, althous in Demnark the hagiographic legend was also the most important category of epic prose in the Middle Ages, The importance of European hagiographic Weiting is reflected in the face chat legends about local Scandinavian saints are modeled, sometimes very closely, an foreign lives of popular saint, such as St. Martin in the ease of confessors, All categories of hagiographic epic are found in Scandinavian literature, from the gences of the primitive church—biblical apocrypha, acts of the apostles, and passions of the martyrs—to the full: scale vita, which coulel encompass the life of any martyr or confessor in the chreefeld composition vita, passto (or mors), and miracula. More than 100 saints (or groups of saints, for instance the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus) have had their story told in the so-called beitagra manna sogur, sagas from the 400-year petiod of active interest in hagiographic literature in Iceland {and Norway). Some of the lives are found in mare than one version, such as the postola sOgr (sagas of the apostles), the biskupa seiguer (bishops' sagas}, and sagas about the most popular saints of the North, such as St. Olifr of Noeway, or favorite saints from other countries, such as St. ‘Thomas of Canterbury (Tomas saga erkibyshups) and Sts, Marsin and Nicholas, Toward the end of the Middle Ages a new wave of interest in hagiography swept Scandinavia. In Iceland and Sweden this cesulted in an updating of the repertoire, which came to inchide saints whe can best be described as saints of fashion, such as the Fourteen Holy Helpers, St. Anna, mother of the Blessed Virgin, and Gregory on the Stone. Most oF these new lives are based on printed sources in Low German from about 1500, and they reflect the close connection at the end of the Middle Ages between northern Germany and the Scandinavian counties. Hagiography as serious entertainment in the Ger ‘man-Scandinavian area survived the introduccion of printing, and a fair number of Low German prints from before and alter 2540 belong to this category, However, the Lutheran Reformation thar followed a few decades later put an end ro the lively interest in saints? legends in the North. ‘As in Latin hagiography and elsewhere the cor- pus of saints’ lives was constantiy revised in order to make the legends fuller or better. One result of such revisions is a series of long, some would say overlong, Icelandic legends of the fourteenth centu- ry such ay Tveggia postola saga JOns ok Jacobs (Saga of the two apostles John and James) or version Il of the Nikolaus sage ertibyskus, padded wieh additional material and re-edited in an elabo- tate, florid style. But revision of the corpus could also take another course toward the relative brevity found in the legends of Legenda aurea, the widely usec and much-admired legendary by Jacobus de Voragine (d, 1298), Legenda aurea is the source of many legends in Scandinavian literature, and a number of miracles of Mary found in the tich Acelanclic-Norse tradition can only have come from this work. ‘An important section of this category is the vast Marian literature in the Scandinavian senaculars, ‘The growing veneration of the Biessed Virgin from the twelfth century os throughout the Latin church is mirrored closely in the liturgy and the literature of the Nordic countries. The apocryphal stories of hier life, the Gospel of Pseudo-Marthew and the Gospel ofthe Birth of Mary (Evangeliei de nati tate Mariae), were known in Iceland already in the twelfth centary and became the chief sources of ‘Marin saga, a vompilation of the thirteenth century. Pseudo-Matthew was also used in Danish and Swedish weitings of the fourteenth century and lates. The Assumption of Mary is told several times, either based on some version of Transitus Mariae ot taken from St. Elizabeth of Schénau’s vision, in Old Norse from the twelfth century on, in Swedish and Danish in the fourteench century and later. Mary's laments under the Cross are given in yarious ver- sions (Danish; Mariaklager: German: Marienkla- gen): three Icelandic ones, four Danish (the oldest of thor found ina runic manuscript frorn the first half of the fourteenth cencurys Stockholm, Royal. Li- brary, MSA 120), and two Swedish versions, They are based directly oF indirectly on Godirey of St. Victor's Planctus ante neseia or the so-called Trac~ atus S. Bernardi, attributed to Ogerius of Trine (d.1214). ‘The most copious section of Marian literature, regarded by some as a special genre, is the corpus of miracles. Some of them have ancient sources, butSCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: RELIGIOUS ‘most of them have been recorded from the eleventh century on, attesting to the increasing popularity of Our Lady. The Teelandic collections are probably the largest in any European vernaculac, and long seties of miracles are also found in Swedish, During, the last hundred years or so before the Lutheran Reformation this class appears to have been by far the most popular epic church literature in prose in the north, In Iceland several miracles have been recorded in metrical versions, Hagiographic poems in the vernacular seem to be known only from Iceland, with the exception of a few Marian poems from the late Middle Ages in Sweden and Denmark, he oldest known poem of this type is Geisit (or Olas drdpa) abourSt. Ohatr of Norway, composed by Einarr Skiilason about 1152 and rected by the poet himself in the cathedral of Nibards, shortly after the archdiocese had been founded, Plicitus drdpa is ancther easly hagio- graphic poem, about the Roman martyr St. Placid, or St, Eustacs, Gudimurdar dripa, in honor of Gudmundr Arason, from the fourteench century, \was written by his biographer Arngrimr Brandsson Gee Gudinundar saga biskups). There are numes ‘ous other poems, mainly from the later Middle ‘Ages, which rell about saints otherwise known from Icelandic Norse prose legends, and are often, but rot ahways, based on the prose versions. A specific Icelandic genre of epic poetcy, rimer, criginared in the fourteenth century and has been popular in Iceland ever since. Among the oldest mur is a:poem about -the:deat-of Su Olafe-of Norway, Oléfs rima, attributed to Einarr Gilsson (/L 1367-1369); itis one of very few poems in this gente with a hagiographic theme. Visions constiture an important class of epic church literature whose origins are to be found in the apoctyphal apocalypses, such as tha: of St. Paul or the Descent into Hell (Descensus Christi ad inferos), Through Latin versions these and similar works became known in Norway and leeland al~ ready in the twellth century, in the rest of Scandi- navia probably somewhat later. In the early Middle Ages ir was mainly theough the works of Gregory the Great that visions of or journeys to the other world became popular cle- ents in pious stories, A complete translation of Gregory’s four books of dialogues into Old Norse was mace in the twelfth century (much of this teanslation is still extant). Later on one of the most popular visions was that of Tundalus (Visio Tmug- dali), composed in the twelfth century and soon 16 translared into many languages; an Old Norse translation was made pethaps as early as the mid thirteenth century (Dugeals lerzia), two Swedish versions from the fifteenth cemury are known, and although no Danish versions exist, the story was known in Denmark in. Latin versions from the thisteenth century on. These and other versions, such as that of Gundelin (also known from lee- landic versions), Gortskalk or Tharcill, have often been claimed as sources of or direct inspiration for the visions fonnd in Norse-leelandie prose (such as Olafs saga Trygguasonar and two versions of the Gudmundar saga, with Rarnveigarleicla) or poetry (such as Sélartio8). The Norwegian poem Drawn kvaede, of uncertain, but much disputed, date (re- corded in the 184073}, has sometimes been thought to belong to the medieval tradition. Revelations have more or less the same back- ground as visions, or at lease they belong t0 the same literary category or subeategory, and it is perhaps nor worthwhile in a survey «0 distice guish the two genres. Mystics of the ewelfth century and later became well known in Scandinavia: Bliza- beth of Schénau, Mechthild of Hackehorn, Bon- aventura, Heinrich Suso, and others, The Swedish Dominican Petrus de Dacia (d. 1289) wrate about Kristina of Stommels, but the most original comer: bution to the genre in the north came from Sr Birgitta of Vadstena, whose revelatfones were te- corded and edited in Latin by her confessors. Hee revelations were first printed in Liibeck in 1492, but well before that they had become extremely well known in Scandinavia and elsewhere in Europe. The Latin revelations were translated into various vernaculars in the fifteenth century, The: early Swedish translations, some perhaps even in St. Birgitta’s original draft, and the Swedish version, oF part thereof, could therefore weil represent a more original text than the Latin standard edition. In het field of literature St. Birgitta’s contribution to late medieval literature is by far the mosc important from Scandinavia HOMILIES AND SERMONS Homilies and sermons were very much part of the missionary activity, and there is good reason to believe that the most popular komiliarie the Latin church, such as Paull the Deacon’s, were known in che North, wholly or in part, inthe early years of the missionary period. It appears likely that some texts of this category were translated as early as the eleventh century in Norway and Iceland,SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE: RELIGIOUS and the oldest extant manuscript in [celandie (AM. 237a, fol.) from about L150, consists of two frag: ments of heniletie texts There was no obvious ceason why the Norwe- gian-Lcelandic church should cultivate a homiletic Tterarure in the vernacular, since it was almost a rule elsewhere in the Latin church thar homiliaties ‘ox soucae-books for the preachers were in Latin, while the delivery of course was in the vernacular Once again it has been suspected that the inspira- tion c© use the vernacular may have come feom England (Aelfrie and others). The early Norse manuscripts show clearly that the taste in homletie literature in che far North was quite Catholic and conservative, Most of the txts found in translation or adaptation in Old Norse manuscripts are such as ean be found jn any great Latin homiliary of the day (Alanus' or Paul the Deacon's}, as always with a preference for the Cato: lingian repertoire. The great masters were Gregory the Great, whase forty Gospel homilies were teans- lated already in the twelith century, Augustine, Bede, Carsarius of Arles, Maximus, and a few more, ‘Two almost complete manuscripts from about 1200 are our main source for a close study of the early homiletie tradition in the archdiocese of NiBarés: the Icelandic book of homilies (Cod. Holm. 15,4") and the Nerwegian book of hornilies (AM 619.4). No single source for either of the two Old Norse homiliaries has been found. They are compiled from several sources, mostly Latin but in a few cases possily Old English. Ie is moreover ceason: able to suppose that some of the sermons or hom- ilies are original compositions inspires by eontem- porary preaching elsewhere in the church, for ‘which no written sources exist: The most illumminat- ing exemple of what has been called “personal authorship, iti a framework of ecclesiastical tradi- tion’ (Fredrik Paasche), is the Dedication Homily. In the Dedication Homily the anonymous hom lise interprets the various parts of a timber church (hence the popular, bur somewhac misleading, ame of the text, the Stave-church Homily, often found in scholarly literature) in two series of sym- bolic meanings. His spiritual outlook resemble closely that found s0 often in ewelfeh-centuey exe- esis, when architectural symbolism was immensely popular, Whether the homilise was an leclandet or 2 Norwegian will never be known, The Dedication Homily is iound in both books of homilies (in AM 2374, fol, and in an Ikelandic manuscript of the fifteenth century) 17 ‘The Norwegian book of homilies is organized very neatly after the church year, whereas. the composition of the leelanidic-cne is much less ti. In the Norwegian hook there are two parts chat cannot be classified as homilies or sermons: 2 translation of Alcuin’s tract De vireutibus er vit and a Seanslation ofan Old Breach poss, a debate of the body and the soul erroneously called Visio Paudiin the manuscript. The debate is probably the oldest surviving Norse translation from Old French; iiscwo or three decades earlier than the first French influenced courtly romances written. in. Norway Both Aleuin’s eract and the debare could have been, and probably were, used from the pulpit. ‘Very litle is known about the homiletic reper- toire in the Norwegian church province from about 1200 on. Only few and scattered texts have sur- vived. In Denmark and Sweden, where no early sermons or homilies im the vernacalas ace known, 2 good number of texts can be found from: about 1400 on. They are mostly inspired by she new style in pulpit eloquence introduced by the méndi orders, The best-known late medieval collection of ser tons in Danish is Christiern Federsen’s, printed in Paris in 1515 and again in Leipzig in 1518, com monly called che Jertegnspostil, Christier Peder sen, who later became one of the leaders of the Protestant movement, was an industiows book: man—editor, printer, author, eranstacor—and has been called the father of the Danish language, Knowledge of the Seriprures was nvosily tans Imitted to a wider audience through peezching and the liturgy, and there seems to have been no single carly eranslation made in any of the Scandinavian languages of either the whole Bible or a substantial part of i. dn the books of homilies and similar texts, ‘where considerable rambers af biblical quotations are found, itis easily detected that most quotations are ad hoe translations from Latin, ‘An Old Norse teanslation of the first books of the Old. Testament (up to 2 Kings), Stiérm. has various layers from the thirtsench and early four- teenth centuries. The first pare (Genesis and eigh: {cen chapters of Exodus) of the corpus, as we iow i today, is copiously annotated with material from Petrus Comestor’s Historia scholastica, Vincent of Beauvais’ Speculunt historiale, and various other sources. This, the youngest part of S¢jdrn, owas written at the instigation of the Nocwegian king Hkon Magnusson (¢. 1313), ‘A Swedish translation with commentary from a