Dictionary of the Middle AgesAMERICAN COUNCIL, OF LEARNED SOCIETIES “The American Council of Learned Societies, organized in 1919 for the purpose of advancing the study of the huainanities and of the humanistic aypecrs of che social sciences, is nonprofit federation comprising forgythree nasional scholarly groups. “The Coxineit represents the lnmanities in the United Srates in the International Union cof Academies, provides fellowships and grants-in-aid, supports resea reh-and-phmning conferences and symposia, sul sponsors special projects and scholarly publications MEMIER ORGANZA HONS AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL, SOCIETY, ¥748 AMERICAN ACADEMY OM! ARTS AND SCIENCES, (780 AMURICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY, 1812 AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOUIBIY, 12 AMERICAN NUMISMATIC SOCIETY, 1858 AMERICAN PIIILOLOGICAL aSSGCIAION, 1849 ARCHAFOLOGICINL INSITILIT OF AMERICA, 1879 SOCIETY OF BIBLICAL BV ERATURE, 184) JATION OF AMERICA, 1583 1 ASSOCIATION, 1854 [AMERICAN ECONOMIC ASS3CIATION, 186 |AIMUERICAN HOLKI ORE SOCIETY, LEB AMERICAN DIALECT SOCIETY, 1889 AMURICAN ISYCHOI OGICAL ASBOCIATION, 1892 ASSOCIATION OF AMARICAN LAW SCHOOLS, 1900 AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL ASSOCIATION, 1901 ANIDIRICARS ANTEMOROLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. 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St. Mark's, Venn, nunresy Or AY2ANTVE FoTaKAi’ CortReTION, BUKRARTLN 8, SASHINEHON,Dictionary of the Tliddle Ages JOSEPH R. STRAYER, EDITOR IN CHIEF Volume 1 AACHEN—AUGUSTINISM CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS + NEW YORKGovncil of Learned Socieries Copyright @ 1982 Ane Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data ‘Misin enuey under vist Diecinnary of she Middle Ages. Includes bibliogenphies and inden. |. Mid Ages—Dictionaries. 1. Strayer, Joseph Reese, 4904 DUANS 1982 90807 RSHH ISBN 0-684-167603 9. 1 AACR (= LienaRY ‘ Nr ro YY This book published simultaneansly in the United States of Arnerien alin, Caeadee— Conyrigh under che Berne Convention, Al eights ceserved. No part a tis heels may be reproduced! in any form without rhe permission of Charles Sevibner's Sors, ISS7SILISISIZIY -Q/C 218161412 1DS042 RSTED IN TH UNITED STATIS‘ OF AMELIA “The paper in this howk mers the guidelines Far permanence and duesbiliry of the Cammistee ts Proalnetion Guidelines for Book Longeviey of she Comned on Libenry Resources, ‘aps prepared hy Joseph StonehillLaditorial Board THEODORE, M, ANDERSSON, Stanford University NINA G. GARSGIAN, Colurnbia University HERBERT L. KESSLER, the fobs Hopttins University JOHN LEYERLE, University of Toronzo AVRAM L. UDOVIICH, Princeton UniversityAdvisory Committee GUSTAVE AL JEANETTE M. A. BEER, THOMAS N, BISSON, University of California, Berkeley JEAN BONY, Universuy of California, Berkeley JAMES F, BURKE, University of Toronto ANGUS F, CAMERON, University of Toronto MARK COMEN, Princeton University E. TALBOT DONALDSON, indiana University ANN DOOLEY, University of Toronto B,J. GFANAKOPLOS, Vale University KEVIN J. HARTY, Temple University ANDREW HUGHES, University of Teromto ROBERT E. LERNER, Northwestern University RM, LUMIANSKY, American Coriell of Learned Societies THOMAS F, MATHEWS, Netw York University BRIAN S. MERRILERS, University of Torome KENNETH D. OSTRAND, "the Ohio State University ROGER . REYNOLDS, University of Toronto TIMOTHY 8. ROBERTS, Jefferson City (Mo.) High School FRANZ ROSENTHAL, Vale University KENNETH M. SETTON, fnstiute for Advanced Study, Princeton ECKEHARD SIMON, Harvard! University PRISCILLA P. SOUCEK, University of Michigan E. A. SYNAN, Unitersity of Toronto BRIAN TIERNEY, Comeff University KARL DAVID {IIIT Princeton University CRAIG B. VITTETOR, Palo Alto (Calif City Schools LYNN WHITR, Jn, University of California, Los Angeles Bi, University of Oregon furdue UniversityKeitorial Staff MARSHALL DE BRUHL, MANAGING EDITOR CAROLYN G, PATTON, Administrative Palivor CHRISTIANE L. DESCHAMPS, Associate Editor JAMES F. MAURER, Assuciate Bdilor G, MICHAEL McGINLEY, Associate Buiter DAVID WILLIAM YOORHEES, Associate Faditar RUSSELL J. MANDELMAN, Paitorial Assistant STEVEN A. SAYRE, Editurial Assistant JOP. HONIG, Associate Feditor ELIZABETH L WILSON, Associate Kiditor JOHN FEPZPARIGK, Copy Faltor H. ABIGAIL BOK, Assistant Heitor EDWARD FERRARO, Assistant Hditor JANET HORNBERGER, Production SzpervisorPreface nerest in the Miséle Ages has grown sremendously in ee lage half-century. In the 1920's Charles Homer Haskins was genuinely concerned when he covld nor recognize the name of a fellow medievalist, whatever his specialty. Now is difficult ro know all che workers in one's own specialty. No single publication can keep folly abreast of the exsrreat activity in this burgeeaeig disexplines no single center—noreven the grcat consorrinas ac Foaronto aud Los Angeles—can cover every field in which atedievatisrs are now working. ‘This simation is difficult enough fos mature scholars tis bewildering and at virwes dlisheartening to younger people who, no matier how wide their reading las been, constantly encounter unfamiliae wedieval names and terms, Although teachers can help, wo teacher ean be equally familiar with the terminology of the history of act, lay, bteranire, mesic, aumismatics, philosophy, theology, and technology. Even after 2 lifetime of reading ene still Hinds unfamiliar mimes and ideas, and ench generation aks 20 the lists Moreover, as che stidy of the Middle Ages hs delved deener inea at proilems, it has also expanded geographically and in subject matter, The first medievalists were aware, of conse, ehze western Rutope in the Michlle Ages was only a fragment broken off from an older cwvilizarion thet had ceatered on the Mediterranean. lucleed, con {nets had always existed between che western European fragment and the Muslin Fragmunr (Syria, Faypt. and North Africa}, Except for she Crusades, which involves all three areas, students of western Tropean medieval history have paid litse atten tion 10 the work of Byzantinists and Arabists Gr to the cole ofthe Jews in transmitting ideas froin east to west. This ‘ncellectual isolation was possible, though hardly commendable, s0 long. as medievatists were concerned mainly with political, legal, aud instintionat history. Hur with the emergence of economic history, she history of philosophy, antl, above ail, the history of science as fnportant fields of investigation, i has beeome inspossible 40 ignore the Byzantine, Jewish, and Muslin contribarions, They wece the sources from which western Hurope drew its macerial and intelectual Iussiey silks aad spices, alyehrs and astronomy—andl evea an audergcedate finds himself confronsed by references (o the scholars and techniques of thesa civilizations Recognizing these problems, the American Council of Learned Societies called a eoalerence easy in 1978 to diseuss the possibility of preparing a Dictionary of the Midi Ages, which would not only be & practical guide for the novice and a useful reference work for dhe advaneed smdent bur would also serve as 2 valuable rou! far the professional scholar. The conference decidled thar suck a work was indeed nec- essary, and the ACLS undertook éo organize the projeet. A grant was secured {rom the Natiguad Engewment for vhe Humanities, and Charles Seribner’s Sons aqeeed to act as publisher. An editorial hoard representing varions disciplines and interests was ixqreface nnterest in the Middle Ages has grown tremendously in the fase half-century. bn the 1920's Charles Homer Haskins was genuinely concerned when he could nor recognize the name of a fellow medievalist, wharever his specialty, Now it is dificult yo know all the workers in one's own specialty. No single publicarion can keep fally abreast of she current activity in this burgeoning disciplines no single conter-not even the gecat consortiunis at Torontoand Loe Augeles—enn cover every Beld in which medievalisrs are nove working. This situarion is difneuly enough for manure scholacs; iris hewildering and ae tines disheartening to younger people who, no matter how wide their reading has been, constantly encownser unfamiliar medieval names ancl terms, Alchough ceachers can help, no teacher can be equally familiar wich the terminology of the history uf are, law, Hrerarure, music, numismatics, philosophy, theology, and technology, Even after a lifetime of reading one still finds unfamiliar names and ideas, anc eaeh generations adds to the fist. Moeeaver, asthe shudy af the Middle Ages has delved deeger inca wld problems, it has sho expanded geographically anc ix subject mtior, The fiesr medievalises were aware, oF couese, thar western Eusspe in the Middle Ages was only a fragment broken off roo an older civilization that had centered on the Mediterranesn, Indeed, con- tacts hae always existed berween the westem European frayment and the Muslim fragment (yria, Egypt, and North Africa). Except for the Crusades, which involved all three areas, students of western Bxiropean medieval history have paid little atten rion ro the wark of Byzantinists and Arabists or to the role of the Jews in transmitting ideas (rom east vo wert This intellects ivolsion was possible, chough hardly consmnendadley so fong 98 medievalists were concerned mainly ‘vith potiteal, legal, and institutional history. Rut with the emergence of econamic history, the history of philosophy, and, above all the history of science 2s important fekds af investigation, i¢ has become impossible x0 ignore the Byzantine, Jewish, and Musliny contributions. They were the sources from which western Farope drew ics materi and inselleereal luxuries silks nnd spices, algebra and astronomy—andl even an undergraduate finds himself confronredt by references ta the scholars and techniques of these civilizations. Recognizing these problems, the American Council of Learned Societies called conference early in 1978 co disenss the possibility of preparing 4 Diesianery of the Middle Ages, which would not only be & practieat guide for the novice and a nsefut reference work for dhe advanced student but would also serve es a valuable tool for the protessional scholar. The conference decided thar snch a work was isnleed nec> essary, and the ACLS undertook to organize the project. A geant was secured from the National Endowment far and Charles Scribner's Sens agreed to act as publisher. An editorial board representing vacious disciplines and inzerests wasPREFACE formed. It was charged! with drawing op lists of articles ro be commissioned! and wick reviewing them in order to ensure thar ne important topie had been omitred. fe was decided that the chronological limits of the Dictionary should be roughly ate, $00 16 1500 anc! that sts geographical scope would ke Kimized to rhe Latin West, che Slavic world, Asia Minor, che lands of the caliphate in the Bast, and the Muslin: Christian areas af North Africa. A seale of article lengths was estabtished comprising major articles of 10,000 words to definirions ad idensitications af 58 ro 100 words. Although in some cases an editor fele ¢hat a ropic had een given inadequare—oF exeessive—attenrion, on the whole there was unexpected unanimity on the assieae nent of word lengths. Alter all chose factors had been taken into account, ie hecame evident that the Dictionary would atu to approximately twelve voemtes of abou 600 pages each. The next task was te find authors for the 5,000 0¢ so articles rhag had emerged. Colleagues ‘were micst heipfel in accepting the often anerous job of condensing the knowielye acquired in years of stady into a felw pages, and in suggesting ather scholars eompe- tent ta write on topics that they themselves could nor undertake. Fach edieor assumed responsibility for finding authors in his ae her own azea of specialization. The over lapping among ropicx dealing with ecclesiastical, jncellectual, anc political insctu- tional history proved a decided asset: ic is most helpful to examine the same personage cor evens from differens perspectives. “Thar the grest majority of contributors to the Dictionary are teachers ar Aaeriean ‘or Canadian universities is nora inanifestasion of chauvinism bur, eather, xecornition that our firse obligation was ta students ia North America. Nevertheless, if she eank- ing authorities 1 particular subjeers are European we have not hesirated sa ask For theie help; we are expecially grateiul to Professor Charles Verlinden, among others, for his series of cemarkable articles, Anather recurrent probleny concerned bibliographies. Many studenss, even at an advanced level. can read only one foreign Janguage, and some do nor posseas even shat ability. This lack is especially unfortanace with regard te Geriwan, since so many important contributions to mediesal scholarship. have been made in chat Ianguspe: ‘The bibliogeaohies, therefore, are maile up largely of works in English, be we hve tried co selece those works thar include bibliographical references to important works in other Inngsaaes. The work is illustrated! where aecessary, particulary {1 the articles dealing wich the history of art. We have also made Liberal use of maps, attempting to combine a moxern rendering with eeprescauations of geonraphical areas as they were ar the time under discussions Ir should be cleas thar the Dictionary is intended for use at ehree levels. High schoo! students will find definitions and explanacions of medieva} terms and ideas that arise in their ceading. Those ar the yniversity level will ind fureher inéevmation on the people, events, and concepes of the Middle Ayes. Finally, there is the specialist, and every medievalise is» student theoughour his career, for the deeper ene digs, the wider the gaps By combining previously fragmenced areas of medieval studies, she Piesionary cenders the field really surveyable xo scholars, offering them a singular meansaf coordinating the various branches af medieval scholarship into an accessible andl coherent whe, Many people have played important rolés in she protluction of the Dictionary, R.M. Lominnsky and James Sele of the Americans Couneil of I earned Societies were unfailingly enchusiastic and supportive. The Kdicocial Board labored King, often at the scetifice of their awn work, to produce the list of topics, commission articles, and reaul che manuscripts. ‘The National Endowment for the Humanities, of course, hasPREFACE, made the Dieviowary possible chrough its genesous subvention. Che publisher, Charles Scribner, rs has been! an enthusiastic partner in this enterprise from ies inception, as fave the editorial staff lec’ by Macshall De Brubl, che Managing Faitor, and Janec Hoenbeager, the Production Supervisor. And we arc all deeply inlebted to Cazolyn Patton, che Administrative Editor, for hee unstinting, efforts on behalf of ehe project, Jessen R. Srna Princeton, Bil xiContributors to Wolume 4 ROBERT W. ACKERMAN Stanford tinworsity Anes Rav Anoka Venere DOROTHY AFRICA ‘AxpaN oF LiNoeanne; ARMAre TUDSON BOYCE ALLEN Maryurtie Unevarsity Acerssusai AULIORS GORDGN A, ANDERSON University of New Bnglord, New Seuith Wales Aus Anita; As SuRLIL PHRODORE M, ANDERSSON Stanford University AUtanvans ATLANTA 3.6, ARMISTEAD University of Pennsylvonia Aurea Je Boosts BF YOM TOV ASSIS Hebrew University of forusatem AueanaNtt, 38030 288 [bit BERNARD 8. BACHRACH Unversity of Mamesora LAMAN, AF AN ALAKKG RENCE WAILEY Unversity of Western Ones, Tallin College Anemosian CHANT DRIRDRE BAKER. University of Toroato, Centre for edict! Studies ALERRID OF Must or Tans Ari ionsws CARL F BARNES IR. Univarsiny of Mieligars Anz, Gin reste, AcimAR Arenaghis Arias Carutnntats AANTQUABIAWIS ANT AKLIIAROLAGYS Ancriapototse ge ME DteYaN Menuntin rs STEPHEN A. BARNEY University of California, leuine ALLEGonS RORERT BEDROSIAN, ARISHARES LaSrIWH10° | MANETTE M. A. BITC Purdie Universiry AULscony, Fane a BEESTON' Unoenity of Oxford Aas, Btlscano; Alan Lancuncr HUGO SEKKER Ohio Stade Universi.» Aumsicrt yus Jonansnene HANS BFKKER-NIELSEN, Gulense University ANA Sa Biss JOHN F, BENTON California Institute of Teehmolony Amati PIR: ARRALD OF Yinawovs JANE BISHOP Catinnbi Universioy Anase asi BRIO ANS THOMAS N. BISON University of Galiforaia, Device Auacns (80-117), Anacson, CROWN 0 (171479) xiii Nf. BLAKE University of Sheek! ks Monirnnt JONATHAN M. BLOOM. Harvard Universay AcniAMD Aer RENATE BLUMENFRLO-KOSINSKI Colanbia University Ave (uw SANDOR BOKONY! Husgarien Academy of Sciences, Arciveofogrent Institute “xssints, Buarny Animas, Fools DIANE BOKNSTFIN ‘Quiens College, Chy University of New York Ania GE BOSWORTH University of Manebester CALVIN M. BOWER Universtiy of Notre Bane ‘Agus CHANY JOBIN F, BOY University of Toronto, Contra for Nerdvnal Stuties Aron cananitsy Atestoun Conrivistions CHARLES M. BRAND Firs bon Cologe Aiowo# | Renton: ANDHOEKOS Kournos; Anerten MICHARE BRETT University of London, School of African and Oviental Studios Aen an ALSUAICONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 1 MARIANNE G, BRISCU Newberry Library, Clheoges ‘Aas Prasicant LESLIE BRUBAKER Wheaton Colley Asoo ARDACAEAS ALPES AGRUS Dig Abauiaants; AUAGMES ALSARTICA; ALIA ANE Opts Ana, Poxtantig ALTERNATION fom Aurrawarinc Susans Amie: ‘Anumiesronyy Ami xy ARASL AS "AweIne oO» Daw ANDRCHTSEN, ‘ANDRA Ds Puunzts ANC ANGER GF RéILANS ASK GIS [ANIMAG SIV: ANNO} AnnUiserationy ANTEMENDILN, Awtinuanos or Tie 185: Arocaaxtar, Tn.usextios on AES Abe Bcwevon: Aawisainy ANT, ARCHANGEL) ARERIVOLS, [Arexxauiuny ARK oF THF Covenant, Nama Cries Seve Liveleaus Ascesion, "ASUMMUION OF Tie Vatcing Are ‘Arwes, Mount, Monusinyss vw Ants, GRNE A. BRUCKER University of California Berkley ‘AUBERT, LON Barnes ANTHONY BRYER University of Bieminghans, Geutee for Byzantine Stuaioe Arpxios 1 or Tesmzoue ONDE BULTINER, Conll University ‘Avats yan Peon ki CHARD W. BULLIET Columbia Chnversity, Midilte Bast instituse Aropr EH LAH —AKAOH OE Wak ALLEN CARBANISS University of Mississippi Asowan ANGUS CAMERON, University of Torato, Centre for Mediewal Stes ANGIO-SAxON LiretacUne AVERIL. CAMERON, University of Loon, King’s College Acsiaias COLIN CHASE Unuwersity of Toronto, Centre for Medieval Sinies SRementier--Wesnvnayys Muse sh Gun AuratD tuk Gaias ast ‘Taanst ans ANGIO-LATIN Powray ROBERT CHAZAN, ‘Queue Collage, City Unversity of New York ANV-SMITISH: ASHKENAT FREDRIC L, CHEYETTE Aihwrst Caley AjorceNsians WANDA CIZEWSKI Pomiicad tastiture of Mediowal Studies, Torani ‘Apaat ono Lirtie Binge MARSHALL CLAGETT Iissitute for Advanced Study, Princeton AAGHIoIHDES RoE MivDle ACES. WILLIAM J. COURTENAY Univwrsity of Whuconste AccIDENT, ACTUAL WILLIAM CRAWFORD University of Tovanto, Centre for Modioval Shdies Aupranirs Monicus, GPORGE G, P. CUTTING: Enwiry University quran JOSEPH DAN Hebrow Unversity of Jerusalem: ARICALYAG LETURATURE AND Mowain, Jewist PETER F. DEMIOWSKI University of Chica AN EP Anil ASGUNANCE LUCY DER MANUELIAN [AL AMAR ANI, MONUMENTS OF, ‘AnSENLAW ANTS ABIARAE Uastrtaear ROBERT DESLIMAN University of Tavosto AncrarSSKON ART How. pEWweY Univsrsity of Mighigan AGireAMRUR AND NUEEREION usw xiv WACKTANG DIDMADZE Califormut Stare University at Los Angeles ALavtnbys Avtous SiON JERIULYNN D. DODDS Gofumbia University AsTURiAN ART CHARLES DOHERTY University Cotiege, Dublin Abin Mx: Gamarns MICHAEL W. DOLS California State University at Hlayronse Ane, Iasi 1M. DONNER Vale Gniversity r= ANAS NN AnD al -MUTTIAN a Tw asin Am iM Yan “Aub AUC IGN al-Zunayy AnD aby Amt Susvans An [as Assay FAH IMR ALEAS PETER W, DRURY Univmnsity Cole, Carey Assit Lrnusawe CHRISTIAN EWERT Dentschee Avcbaolegischas tncit Madrid ALMOHAD AKT; ALMORAUID AKT ANN F, FARKAS ‘Attn JERE FLECK University of Maryland Atvissias, VF HOSS University of Magsactnustts Aaron ia; ANTON KLAUS GAMBER, Lanurpiaivssenschaftticbes bast Regensburg Anquiutia, Kis NINA G. GARSOIAN Cotumbie Univarsny Ait AnIN Danas! 5 ANHN Shenk; Avatena, Ginacaaonys Awenia: Hlsteiey oss ARMENIA, Sociat Staucrun AMNIAN Musica Eninatis; Axsicins/ ASAKUNI. ARMENIAN ARSE Is ‘Aaraar (ARTAXATA)> M. GEALT Lindiora Universtyy ‘AGNOvA) DI VENTURA; AcrisTINN, GhovANNry ALARM: ‘Aeuvenienos Aner 8 Oa AN TUNIO DA Viena, AROSE Veneziano, Anna Catarins Avexouns, Aunsarey; ANNOLIE DE Canino ARR; ASI, SAH Francesco GELLINEK, University of Florida ANNOLIED OWEN GINGRICH Smithsonian Astrophysical Obsernaiary | Asmonan THOMAS F. GLICK Boson Universiry AGRICUETURE AND NuTRIviON CTH Mm renanea REGION: PETER B. GOLDEN Rutgers University AUP ARSLING AQ QUINT ARGIN: rane, GORDON K. GREEN: Wilfrid Laver University Ags Nova ROBERT HALLEUX University of Liege Aueuaer ANDRAS HAMORI Princeton Universicy AU NUWAS: ARDLIAL, ste AKAIKE Tnrsrnts, Poss Anais Porm ERIC P. HAMIE Uniaevsity of Chieago, Center for Balkan ane Slavie Stes Aon EMILY ALBU JIANAWALT Basten Univesity ‘Annis Kounns, CONRAD HARKINS ‘Sains Bonaventure University, Fronciscas lnsiiemee ‘Auexanoenoe Hates 1. PL HARVEY University uf Lomdoun King’s Collepe Atjawiiano Laver CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 1 EDWARD R. RAYMES University of Honston RB, HELMBOLZ. Washington Univorsity, St Janis Anreunaenero Manna HEATHER HENDERSON University of Toronto, Contre far Medicunl Studies AARFIIHOAN PROSE: PRUs RSIORKS JOHN BELL HENNEMAN University of Youve Acancourt, Barts et JOHN HENNIG. ‘ANGHt MICHAEL HERREN York Universiry Ania ROBERT H. HEWSEN Glassboro State College Aunawts (Caucasinn Aves Ravens ‘reais, MOUNTS AREI8, AKC: AkMENIAN PRITDARCHY ROBERT HILLENBRAND University of Plinburgh Aumnmen MICHAEL J. HODDER Sothoby Parke Bayne ar: Anon JASPER HOPKINS. University af Minnesoue ANStiA nr Cansrennrey GEORGE F. HOURANI State University of New York at Abert ASHE AR, AIH ANTONIN HRUBY Umversey of Washington AGKrRMANN AUS DOAN, Die PETER HUENINK, Viesur College AACIION, Pata CHAREL ANDREW HUGHES Uuivorsity of Farente Anan Dita Rasshis Acwis, ASTIN ANTIAHONL UAnrinroner, ANTIMONY) xv SHAUN F.D. HUGHES Purdie University Ans Sais Bocsvrtos MOSHE IDE, Hebrew University of erasalen ARUIAIN AMMAMAM LON Same EPHRAIM ISAAC siiaee for Advanced Study, Princerenr ‘snyssina (Ertorsh ALERED L.1VRY Bendets University ‘Angasnr ity DNB WT HL LACKSON ‘Chuombia University KEXANTAR ROMANCHS JAMES |. JOHN Conseil Unoarsity AMRAUVEATOR; ALSHAMETS D. W. JOHNSON Catdithe Universiey of Ameviea ADOIIONISH ANTANENM WILLIAM CHESTER JORDON Phisceton University Aweryints Fraier, Fasc, Sica. PETER A. JORGENSEN Unisersity of Georste Ava Firs Sac WALTER EMIL KAEGIJS University af Chieage AkatTa AwarouKON, Tannen; ARMENiaKON, TM: RICHAID W, KABUPER University of Rochester Ansty, Couns of; ANOURMER Anecns, Counres; AS7t; Assam, Ruuatror SUBDHEN J. KAPLOWETT University of Comrectiont AN w DYD KASTEN Hispanic Semiary of Medieval Stasis Anan X ALEXANDER P. KAZHDAN Dumbarton Outs Research Center AGRI ULtUREAND NUFKITION GBvzanemeCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 1 THOMAS K DAIS LONN ROTH Anatinans Laneuser Asean ‘nnpalachion Slate University Vatborg Uhaversty Uiesn nts Anata Ses Anemos ‘Atoms Son Kaye Mec (nme usar sor Tae"; sor I Oman One MARILYN KAY KENNEY H.R. Lov Muna} Uraversy of Teventa, Contre for Univers uf onda, West ; era Sis College JOAQUIN MARTINEZ-HZARRO ‘Aermuni Comeau, Wea BncaerSAsons, Ons AND Ober Coege Micanron Absa Gr Dats Asst SA 1 : arnintne ANGELIRYLAIOU cuando ac Bann ANDRUNIKOS IT Par AKQECKCS; Uninersityy College, Galteay THOMAS PF, MATHENGS: ‘Awunones IIL Panaranccs Annince: Mise. Con-Ginne New York University, institute of fine Ans faa me LADIDUS 1D, MACHESNEY Atcarrecrune, LnuNGies Asters University of Catifermia, cork Cavers seagate of Cl Arcana BANN MATTER ere ; Univers of Peunssoenia n MICHAEL McCORMICK, | anc Wangan 1 ety of logo Nsteor tee BRIAN MERRIL ‘er, Caner Tabor KALPU MeInsERNY Se aaa ‘hers, Suatasormte Wniversty of Newe Dome, ee ee aan Medien pastors ‘ANowate7 Chon ARUNDEL JACOB LASSNER AQUINAS, St, ‘Titomtas, Psaaren “ . Wayne Sate niversity " ans son. KENNA JOHN MEVENDOREF LAMATINSS ANHNTING Hortifiont University DAMIAN RIPHL LEADER Ciniva Mase Tivos of Toronto, Cente for MARIN MeNSAMARA Anonentnine Aes wediewal Studies Sacred Heart Missionaries, Dubie ‘Burroganss 31 HANASIUS OE Aanous rie ELDuR; Arrsinmids THE Arora Brava ALEXANDRIA, Sti A'THOS, MOUNT UNGER WILLIAM MACOMBER. a : MARK D. MEYERSON R, WILLIAM LEGKIE, JR. Si Joins Uuerat, 1 Monsey apc, Centre for Manuscript Library ALExANORIAN RITg ANSI HEE Rave University of Toronto, Contre for Medineul Staries ‘Auanecary von Seu ager mene Medioual Studies ‘Asuaccn oy U rane MARILYN S. MILLER Pontifical institute of Medieval Studies, toronto AaNeR OW BRESCIA JOHN G, MAGEE Pontifical nsttite of Medieval Stes, Pereno ANGELA Mani, Forscx; ANToRINes, RICHARD LEMAY Giny Uninersty of New You, Graduate Censor Auanie Nonna M. MORONY ROBERT E. LERNER GPORGE HL MAIESKA University of Califor. Los ‘Northwesiern Oniversity Chivers of Maryland Angeles ALexatnnic oF ROT, ANTICRSI Anasen Aum ARCHIBALD R, LEWIS ALAN MAKOVSKY DANA A. NELSON University Of Messtchusetts Princeton University University of rizona Ans Arana ALERANONE, LnRO Ht BERNARD LEWIS KRIKOI HI, MAKSOUDIAN HELMUT NICKEL Princeton University Calum University Merropolitan Museum of Ar, Netw ASSASINS Agcwen rons York NCiHORTONG AMKURIS, ARMENIAN, Asis ano Anant LESTER K. LITTLE, ‘upnabeyy Aggeean Csikcn, Sonith College Doe r¥ans tov Counts, MAIN Ni DHONNCHADEA, ‘pian IV, Ponty ANEKENY OF ‘Asian Cues), SeRUETIRIS University College. Cork Papua, Sts ANTHRO Amsurnins FIN LeNvanG Sumo; Abani St xviCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 1 MARGARET F. NIMS Honsiicad bustiute of Medi Studies, Pormnte Ans Porte TIMOTHY #. NOONE, University of ‘Foronte, Centre for Medien Studies AAbpLuFR OF BREMEN: Arann, Ss Acne Pisa; Antaris OF ise FRANCIS OAKLEY Willis Callege Au, Pear DONNCHADE O CORRAIN University College, Cork Arp Shin BRIAN 0 CUIV Dakin institute for Adlosmead Srudiee ‘Acatt age Na SENOWATI NICHOLAS OWONOMIDES. Untoorsity of Montreal cera PADRAIG P.O NRILL Univercity of Norte Careline at Chapel ft Abkseic act Mat: CORSE: ‘Aroceyinny, Jeet PETER D, PARTNER Winchester Calfege Ausowautz, Cranial, Gity ANNA 1 OLAK PEDERSEN. Universry of Aarhus Aan iagy Spies AIMCO AsrRowUMEy, EUROEAN HRANRLIN J. PRGUES bio Stage University Assi2e, ENLSH, DAVID A. P, PELTERET Univezsity of Toronto ‘Anno (Anta) pr SrCieanmain-nes Pais ADEoARAN OF Louis AuiiMak Or Cheanannes Ain CEDues ’ Stosnianus Acas oF Convey; Asses EDWIN I. PLACE, Mass 2 GUL ELIZABETH WILSON POE Tlane Urivarsity Aiea: ARNAGT Dani NANCY A, PORTER University of Toran, Centre for Medtgat Stulies wari onsuser Luxbtans ANGIE RAM fF So. Raquaeas ANG ity 81.5 NSH gor Brsarr: AnseuW oF Lit; Anwrou DAVID 5, POWERS, Cprnelf University AUwS Tax, KoAnse JAMES F. POWERS Cailege of the Haly Crocs Anrostsy |” Axaiaon WADAD AL-QADT American, Diversity of Batra agin Ant D0 AIARY LYNN RAMPOLA University of Feronto, Gate for Medieval Siaties texans IIL, Pore LORGE RENTZ. The Johns figoins University Nasi, Haste ROGER F IEYNOLDS Pontifical Inctiure of Medieval Stes, Toreato ‘Avr ALL Saners’ Dav: At Sous” Day; Aryan —ALT« Amato: AgCNSION, BRAS ORT D.3, RICHARDS Univessty of Oxford |S, Hane ML AG, RIGE University of Toronto, Contre for Meciovat Studive Anneorocns LINDA ROSE. ‘Aunixcru: (HoIRHy ALLHLENG VEN; Amonns: AMOHION MARRY &, ROUSE University of Californe, Los Angeles Altantrranion, Hisony oF KICHARD H. ROUSE University of California, Las Angelos AUrIRBELZATION, Misranr xvii VEQPILO F. RUIZ, Brooklyn College, City University of New Fav AG MOCAVANES; ANDALLSIAE ‘asriaias-Lizoy (P1E-1032), JAMES R. RUSSELL Cohiba University AMpeSIs Cmagni, ARYARIRIS) 1 GEORGE SALIBA, Coltonbua University Astonnae/AsikoNonty, IARC Perkin SCHATHER University of California, Davis ‘Asm VON Plata 407 RAYMOND P. SCHRINDMN iJessish Theolegical Seminary of ‘Anetica ‘Awugitine Besv Ma Hane Ka NICHOLAS SCHIDLOVSKY Pumbarton Guks Researob Coster ‘ARAN KT OS; ASMATIKON ANNEMARIE SCHIMMEL Harvard University Ast 15.08: JANICE L, SCHULTZ, Canis College, ilps Abaw oF ST-Vietiog; AUELARD Ow BATH ALBERT SPAY olurade Gatlege Janowvnaus 1V HARVEY L. SHARRER University af Coifornia. Santa Barbara ARCHURIAN LT LATOR, fan Por bcs ans LON R. SLM BY ‘Sonne Hivoss Oniversity ‘Ancunaer, Srauisee LAURENCE K, SHOOK omit Iostizwte of Mediewal Nenaties, Toronto ‘Amicon FeruRyy ALIN OF Ves Aucusrasror CaNreaaeiny LEAH SHOMKOW Gaiversity of Toronto, Contre for Medieval Stairs AcatiAusor Rawtinta, 8; ALMA: fy Monte Casing ALN Gt Mr Aunianusr Sains, Aranoer FerisiseCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 1 BOAZ SHOSHAN Ben-Gurion Untoorsity of dre Ngee AUEXANDRI CYRIL. SMETANA York University Auicisriany Canons; Agcustignane Prasns ROBERT SOMERVILLE Columbia University Avexanne N, Pore PRISCILLA SOUGEK Netw Vor University, institute of Pine Aves Acuiany Wane: AuMad MEAs ASCENSION OFTHE PROVE MARY 8 SPEER Rugers University Apiyerie Ro RUTH STHINER Carbutie University of Amesiea ‘ensts Dal tse) ALAIN J. STOCLET, Unwersity of Toronto, Centre for Medieval Studies AoM:nROO! LANs AON Ob Furuke; Amanuuasor Mires AWsnus MANCELUNU AND ne Hiruny, Anau M. ALISON STONES University of Miamesons Aster NouMAS ART JOSEPH IL. SURAYER Princeton University Apvocksiy Armar oF Saxon, Abusiasy; DYHANASIANS RICHARD B, SULLIVAN tebigan State University ncn RONALD G. SUNY Unversity of Michigan Anos HON ALD FE. SURTZ Preston University Avoloni, Lino ns E, A.SYNAN Pontifical Pusttate of Meatewsl Studley, Toronto Anskinor LAoyg ATROOr Veeeuns AGSUSHINNOF RINN2, Sta AAUGustss JOSEPH SZOVEREFY Aner ALAGE-MARY M. TALBOT. Hirde College ‘Axa (Maceporsna: PRINS Arnawasvs ly PATRIARCH OF Coos ative ts ArraLniTes, Mca ELAINE. G, TENNANT Univessiey of Califorsia, Berkeley Avaanasra Flekinnnuess CLAIBORNE W. THOMPSON ‘usa PAULINE A. THOMSON. University of Toromro, Cente {or Medieval Siaties Amawicis; AyaTUsoF MaNr® Cassis; Anse ag IPOF Loe, RW. THOMSON. lursard University Acar ancien RICHAKD TOPOROSKL University of Taronra, Se Michael's College Anmonost, St PETER TOPPING Dunbarion Ouiks Research Grnser AssizesoF Rowan DAVID R. TOWNSEND University of Toromo, Centre for Medieval Sradice Arnie Bana; Asrren cia Lanny ‘ARNUE-OF MU AS ISADORE TWERSKY Harvard University Aananate Gu Davtsor Posiisis KARL. D. UIT! Prineston University ‘Avewson er Nicoxer KRISTINE'T. UTTERBACK University of Toronto, Centre for Medieval Studies Annoinor sr. Eanetnane GEORGES VAIDA Contre Nutional dé ta Recherche Stionniiqua, Paris ‘AweawaM Bar HIT xviii ANNE HAGOPIAN VAN BUREN, ‘Tufts Universty AAunvier, Davi JFANETTE A. WAKIN Cohonbia University Ano Hata WILLIAM A, WALLACE Catholic Usivessity of America Awisroria 1 ite MASbLY Atos ANN K, WARREN. Case Waster Res ANNeHORT A Ast ye University fut: SUCCESSION ANDREW M. WATSON University vf Taranto AGC urna ans NurFEtION (TH Tsuanuc Wonsn) W. MONTGOMERY WATT University of Edinburgh Auan JAMES A. WEISHEDPL Ponuiical institute of Medieval Studies, Toronto Alareras Masons: WINTHROP WETHERIEL University of Chieuge Avatar Lite New Yook Lumersity Amasit Ane aap Acie Foss Aulmce LYNN WHITE, J. University of Catifornia, Les Angeles Acisitace ab NzRrON {Nove Rec) NIGEL WILKINS University of Cambridge AbAM obi. HACE DANIEL \WULLIMAN Suate University of News York at Byun ANGHEVES GABRIELE WINKLER St fobm's University Ankeny Rove KLAUS W, WOLLENWEBER Memorial Tniversity of Newfowradlert Aristo esuny PrvaCHARLES. WOOD Dartonontl College Armanacts BASILS. YAMEY Gniversity of London Accountine: CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME | JAMPS 2, YARRISON, Princston University Aunonavinss Atay Mountains DAVID YERKES Cobimbia University Apuratc xix MARK A, ZIER University of Toranta, Contre for Medieval Strdis Auexanner Vs ANbatw or Sr Vicron RONALD EDWARD ZUPKO. Marquette Universiry Acar, Aiaicr, Auvaosy AuerDictionary of the Middle AgesDictionary of che Widdle Ages AACHEN-AUGUSTINISM AACHEN, a city in west centeal Germany in the modern grace of North Rhine-Westphalia, was sigx nificant ducing the Middte Ages because ofits ars0- ciation with the Carolingian ancl Holy Romtan ert pires and che German rulers who tried ro arty on the Carolingian traction of a unified Europe. Viest occupied hy the naive Celts of Ganl, Aachen beearie 8 modest Roman avikrary establishment in he fist cenary 0, especially atteacrive because of the baths made “possible by the warm springs rising hove. The Romans named the site Aquie Grani (Covaters of Granus") after « Celtic god worshipped! Chore, After the Franks eecupis! the rea in che Blth century, Aachen’s history was obscure for about three eentaries In the fate eighth century the recently established Carolingian caters of dhe Feaakish kingdom yave Aqoae Grani {or Aquisgearum as it was now called) new prominence, Arcraeted by the springs. che site's strategic sdvantsyes as base for his efforts to ube due che Saxons, and the existence of kirge émily landholdings in the area, Charlemagne decked to develop a major royal residence shere. Between about 785 and 805 several important steuctuces were built, inelncting 2 chapel {ill standing) » great hall containing royal living quarters and facilities for goveramental activities, and a large bath. This com plex, knows as the palace (palotitem). remained the focal point of life in Aachen daring most of the Mide alle Ages. As the chicf royal residence dusing the Brst half of the ninth century, Aachen was che conser of tense activity. Emperors were ecowned shere, and popes and foreign emissaries visited she palace, from vwhhich a majur part of the aaministeative activity for the huge empire was conducted. Royal vassals con stancly cane, especially to take pars in the royal ase semmbties and ecclesiastical synods, which helped shane legislation om macters affecting all aspects of Hife in the empire. The royal chapel was the cencer of the vigorous religious activity thir provided models for che ceforins being promoted by the ex perors and the popes. Charlemagoc gaehered at Aachen a circle of scholars (Gomeimes called the Palace Acivtemy), whose efforts stimilaied the ex tural revival know as the Carolingian cenaissance Especially iaportane for the Luewre was the burial of Charlemagne in the coyal chapel in 814, With the collapse of the Carolingian empire in the late ninth century, Aachen ceased to be a soyal residence and lost is importance. As 8 restlt of the partitions of the empive arranged berween 843 and 870 ta provide kitigdoms for various members of che Carolingian family, the city beeaine a royal outpost ou the extreme western feinge of the kingdom of the East Franks in the duchy of Lotharingia (Lorraine). te ws rescued from obscurity by Otto f, whose fam ily had replaced she Carolingians as rulers of Gee many in 919, In 936 Orto decided 40 boll his cor nation in she royal chapel, an action incendedt to link his dynasty wich the fame and accomplishments of Charlemagne. Ftom then anil 1531 almest every Holy Roman emperor was crowned at Aachen, gi ing it 9 powerful symbolic cole in ehe history of me+ dieval German monarchy. Several kingremperors took special steps to exale the.mewory of Charlemagne. After exhurning and reburying his remains ina splendid sarcophagus, wo TY chose the royal chapel as his awn burial place. Frederick | Barbarossa arranged to have Char Temagne canonized in 1165; the fame of the new saint, along, with many relies linked 0 his memory, began to attenee numerous pilgrims. The monarchs favored Aachen’s churches and monasteries with rich endowments, extended privileges to ity cesi- dlents, and protected is against the efforts of lacal princes to absorb je into their principalities. The in- terest of Gerinan cultes im Aachen extended beyondAACHEN its symbolic value in linking monarchy to she glo- rious memory of the Carolingians. From Caroling gian times on Aachen lay at the center of important royal estates, which che German monarchs took an active incerese in exploiting, acting chroagh royal ‘officials who exercised eonsiterable dicect authority ‘over the town's inhabitants, fn shore, during, mach ‘of the Middle Ages Aachen enjoyed special states as an imperial city. In the lacer Micelle Ayes the eitirens off Aachen played an increasingly important role in the tlirce- tion of civic affairs. A small community of mec chants ancl artisans hail aleuadly develosed in Char Femagne’s time. {¢ grew slowly in succeeding centuries, pacely because uf imperial faviors but more impurtantly beewuse of Aachen’s involyentent in the ‘expancling trade berween the Low Conntries and the Rhine Valley. The growing inthuence of the mer chane-artisan group was ceeognized in 1166: when Frederick | granted the city an important charter ssiving personal freedom to its citizens and constitute ing them as a legal corporation entirled to cert right. of self-government. Later cancessions from the monarchs expancled their conteal over taxation, judicial affairs, exonamic regulation, and relasion~ ships with local princes. A tawn government, Featur= ing a council and clected burgamisters,cleveloped in the thirteenth century. Growing commerce and increasing control over theageicultural produetion of the sureounding cous tryside brought considerable prosperity to Aachen in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and made pos- sible smpuceant building projects: 1 major enlarge- ment of the cicy walls (1.326), the replacement of the old Carolingian residence hall with a ime city hall (1334-1349), and che addition of 9 Gothic choir to Charlemagne’s chapel (1355-1434), Urban life was sometimes disturbed by conficts berween sich meschants, who controlled the city eouneil, and the increasingly exploited crafisizen a these guilds, Despite these tensions, fs most affluent days as.an imperial city. As the Mid+ dlle Ages ence! perhaps the most ominous threat wat the growing power of local princes, anxigus to pai independence {rom the weakening imperial govern mene and to enlarge cheir tersitorial holdings by ab- sorbing locaiions that had long enjoyed imperial peoteetion and favors. BIBLIOGRAPHY Karl laymanville, Die Kurstdamtondior der Stade ‘Aaehesr, 2 vols. (19116-1922 Dietmar Flach, Untersuchrng 2 AACHEN, PALACE CHAPEL en aur Verfassung wid Verweatiang des Aachenar Reichs ‘gues von der Karolingeraett bis zur Siew des 14, Jubr- Enmdoris £976); Joset Fleckenssein, Die Hofkapelle ser destschen Koinge, 2 vols. (1959-1966% Kabert Fon, te suucienir ot la Bdgarate de Charlemasgue dns PRonpire ger ruaniqne médigval 1950); H. Hofer, "Die EntwieWlung. der kommmmaien Werfassuig and Verwalraay, der Stade ‘Aachen bis zum Jahee 450," in Zeitschrift des Auchener Geschichesvercin, 23 {1901}, Walker Kasomeres. Gee echichtliches Aachen, Ind esl (1957) Aloys Schulte, Die Kaiser- and Konigskronnungen 20 Aachen, 83153) (1965) Richaed E, Sullivan, ArselasChopell Othe Age of Charlemagne 1963). RichaaeB Suntavass AACHEN, PALACE CHAPEL. Charlemagne’s pa ace chapel, situated! on the southern edge of te pal= atine complex at Aachen, is the major Carolingian building still stancling. Conseeucsion on the chapel boegan probably in the early 724", and by 799 it was well on its way © completion. On is consecration, allegedly in 805 by Pope Leo IN, oF earlier perhaps, the chapel was dedicated ww Cherise and she Virgin, Charlemagne wax busied there itr 814, The chapel was once the cencer ofa larger ceremonial progean, now lenown only in plan, which included chapel ane nexes fo the north seid sourh, and an atrium «© the west. Although later additions crowd around and ‘over it, the chapel itself remains, from a structural viewpoint, virtually unchanged. The chapel plan condenses cencral and axial space. A sivtecn-sided exterior mass encloses an o% cagonal shaft of space char constitutes che chapel’s cose, Secondary spaces of the ambulatory and gallery turn round the periphery of the octagon. The axis across the central space is fixed at the eastside by a rectangular sanctuary [replaced in the fourteenth cconrtity by the present Gothic choir), and ar the ent rrance side by a westwerk of identical depth, The emperor's throne was placed in the gallery, or tei bune, of the wostwerk, on axis with the alears ia the (worstory sanctuary. ‘The limits of inxecior space are cleasly szated in structural terms, The central core is marked off at points of the octagon plan by heavy piers, by flat el- cevation walls of arcades and cornices at ground level, and by column screens inseeted into the gallery ‘openings above. Iris covered by an eight-sided clois- ter vault and lighted dicectly by windows in the drum from which the vault springs. The lower spaces outside the core are vaulted by a rigorouslyAACHEN, PALACE CHAPEL ‘UPPER PL LEER i ha LOWER PLAN'® 5 TRANSVERSE SECTION @-& Palace Chapel, Ascher, Si anys na PL HSA HISTORY OF ARLE comezrie system of alternating square and triangu- lar compartments: the ambulazory i eovered by an annuie geoin vault, and the gallery by barrel-vauleed culls on diaphragm arches. The axes af the gallery vaules point to the center af the plan, ‘They rise in hhcighe from outside in and race che drum of the ¢eenral getagon. A rich array of surfaces and furnish 1 originally creared aa impression of Byzantine aiagnificence. Liste of this survives today, hut some idea of the wealth of furnishings may be gathered from Angiligert’s and Flariull’s accounts of che im- perial church of St. Riquier. ‘The palice chapel is an eminently Byzantine ar- cchitectural typs, aad San Vitale at Ravens has long Geen she most freauently proposed model. Bee such Gerivation from a model does not imply that the chapel is an exact copy. This holds, as well, for the many progeny that the Aachen chapel ise inspired alter the year 800, Charlemagne’s chapel is a north+ ern building horh from che srandpois of construc: tion, as a freestone building of iinmense structural strength, ind from thay of design, as an assemblage of separate surfaces and spatial units, Ir has recently been demonsteated that its schemaric design is based ‘on a rule of modular prime relationships. The palace chapel is afso an archizectaeal symbol of Chare- ‘maga’ imperium. Its pride of place was understood buy his snecessors, for whom the chapel coneinned to bye the focal poine of German kingship. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Chariesaoyne, Conrcit of Borope exhibition caralogue (1965); Walter Hoga and Lsnege Rony Phe Paw of Si, Gal £(9979), IH4=S15 Leo Bogor, "Die Pfala Karls des Grosser in Aachen,” in Wolfgang Brauafels, ei, Kurt dev Grosse, I (1565-1967), $24-572; W. Eugene Kleinbauer, “Char Femagie’s Palace Chapel at Aachen ene Its Copies” si Goat 4409654, 2-11; and Fee Keeusch, “Kirche, Ateivm sind Parcikue dor Anchoner Paty,” in Brauch, ed A63~ 523 Pere Hues ABACUS. See Mathematics, ABASGIA. See Georgia. AL-SABHAS IBN CABD AL-MUTTALIB 1BN HASHIM (c2. 567-ca, 653), merchant it the Mecx enn aribe of Karagsh, paternal uncle af the propheeAL“ ABBAS Mubaramacl, and eponymous ancestor of the Abe basid dynasty. He is soid ts have traded with the ‘Yemen in arcimaties, whieh he then sald ce pilgrims to Mesa. He appears to have heen clnse te: his neph= ews Nawfal ibn al-Harith ibn “Abd al-Mutfalib and Habra ibn al-Haith, whe may have been his com= rneecit) andl finnncial pariners. ‘Though never the formal chief of the clan of Hashim {a position held successively by his half brothers al-Zuboyr, Abi Talib, anid AbD Tahabl, al" Abbis was nonetheless an influential member of the cla, presitmably be- ‘case he was financially better off than many others. His relative wealth seems 10 have enabled him ro purchase from Abi Talib the siadya, the right co dist tribure wearer to the pilgrims co Mesea’s sacred on clave from the well of Zamzam, although some ‘tains thar he inherited this cultie ofee dicectly from his father. Some accounts state that he controled the riféda, the disteibation of food ta pilgcims {lucrative boecate it inched! the righ to eax the Koraysh i ‘order to purchase the food), burr ethers put this fune- tion in the hnnés of his nephew Newfal, Ab“Abhis’ relations with the Prophet and his ar titude toward eaely Islam are very difficult 9 discern clearly. Many of the historical accounts of his life wore set doven in writing under the fst caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty (749-1258), who uscuraily had ‘vested interest in demonstrating that cheir ancestot al Abbi was an enrly and pious follower of Mu hhamunad, and in effacing any acconnts that suggested otherwise. On che other band, after the accession of the Abbasids, al“Abhis also became the caryet of an intense counterpolemie generated by rhe Abiprsids? iain rivals for political legitimacy, the descendants of AIT ibn ABT Talib, anc their supporters, rhe Shia. The maiority of the aceounts about al-" Abbis thus geil us moze about the Abbasid-Shiite polemic of the eighth and ninth eentucies chan they Jo sbout she life oF als “Abbas himself Te does not appear, however, thar ale Abs was an early adherent of Islam, He garcicipaced om the Meevan side at the battle of Badr (6242, was taken prisoner by the Muslims, axl ransomed himself trax icions tu the effect that he {and indeed the whale clan of Hashim) wen eo barele hesitaatly may he ef forts 10 erase the stigma of this episode, Accouncs claiming that he gave quiet protection to Mulan mad early inthe larcee’s prophetic career, er that he converted secredly at an early dare, seem likewise ro be apologetse efforts to offset traditions placing his conversion only relatively fore in Mularamnad’s life, av the bactle ofthe Trench (627) or after the eanquest AL ABBAS. ‘of Khaibar (628), Indeed, he inay well figure among those praminerst Meccans who joined Muhammad im the year or so after the Treaty of al-Bludiayhiya (628), during which cine vhe political tite in western Arabia was curing rapidly in Mulgarnansds favor. Mubarnmad acknowledged al-Abbis' impor cance and helped secure his allegiance by recognize ing his right co the sigaya and by awarding hia 200 camel loads of dates from Khaibar per atimum gpon his conversion to Islam, He made ak“ Abbas and bis nephew Navefal “foster brothers" and assigned them cergcte of land adjacent co the moscue in Medina, where they took up zesidance. Al--Abbis is said t0 have participated in the Muslims’ conquests of Mecea in 630 (whete he may have helped persuade soine of the defenders to subunit), Funayns AlTAE, and Tabok, Alter Mubammad’s death (632) his suevessars continued 40 grant al-FAbbas recognition as « key elder member of the Propher’s clan of Hashim. A clispute beeween ai-" Abbas and the second caliph, “Umar, over ak Abbas’ house, which the caligh ‘wanted ra purchase in order €0 expand the masque, was resolved amieably when al“Abbas donated its Umar eventually awarded al-Abbis 9 very high stipand—second only 1 those received by the Peopher’s widlows—-when he ser wp the eau fsx vend register co distribite rhe booy andl tax receipes gathered From che conejwests in Syria and Iraq, In general, however. al-“ Abbi is not mentioned ‘often during the conquest period. Certain aceounts suggest that he went £0 Syria wieh the Muslim high command in is final yeas, bur it seems more likely thar, being r00 old to trdertake the rigors of «eile Jeary ot adzminisecative past, he spent most of his ase years in Medina a$ aa influential and informal ad= visee to the firse caliphs, AINLIQGRAPHY Con Mishtin, Stra (Alfred Guillaume, tr The Life of Muchaonncdd [19SSD. index al-Winielt, Kieab absmaghaer (4966), ides: al-Tabart, Anal (1879-1901), sndex Ib» S0°d, Fabra, LWA 11998), 1-22; lon Hajar ab" Asqalar, bigalia fF samy af-sabtba, san; Theedlos Nehle&e, "Zur tendensiiwen Gestalrung dce Urgescluelce des Istirns,” in Zaitecrit der deatscben morgenlndischen Gesellebafe 52.1898 ign ML Downie sb; Badr Hsien; ale [See aso Abbasids; ‘Abd al-Muet HindagbiyadABBASID ART AND ARCHITECTURE ABBASID ART AND ARGHITECTURE, falls into thtee phases ‘The first, 750-836, was characterized by cont nnsity with the preceding Umayyad period. The niost important monument was che cxpital eity of Bagh- dad (Madinar alsSalam), the defensive walls of which followed a cireular plan, with four main gates, The caliphal palace and the Great Mosque were located in the center. ‘Fhese monuments ace known entirely through deuaited deseriprians in Arabic texts. Other montmients that have been convincingly attribured to this phase include a stone mibcab (prayer niche) now in che frag Museom, and four pancls from a ‘wooden ininbar (pulpit), in che Metropolitan Mu seurm of Art, New York. The eaeving, in both seone and wood, fs noteworthy for its three-dimensional, organic quality, characteristic also of Umayyad sculpture, The second phase, 836-883, is considered the “classical” period of Islamic aet, not only cefee ‘continuity with earlier petiads bur also eseablishing the pattern for anistic development throughout the Islamic weld for some tire ra core. tt spanned the Stucco pn in bevlal sgl. Samarra, ninth cuntry. 04g ABBASID ART AND ARCHITECTURE brief interval in which the city of Samarrs supr planted Baghdad as the Abbasid capital. The strucrures excavated ar Samarra incladé ewo congregational mosqoes, two caliphal palaces, and any private houses. Special mention is owing to the Great Mosque (848-852), with its detached spiral rajnarot, and (o the palaces, which were built on che stave eriple-tract plan hae had characterized tase Umayyad palaces. The palace known as al-[avssq al- Khiqint (begun in 836) yielded a nomber of wall paintings, The characteristic feacures of the human figures that constiruce she "Samarza figure syle heal alresdly appeared under the Umayyads: dispropor- omately large heads with round chins and staring eyes, the pmpils as if sexpended from che upyer fids; seallopec! haitlines; locks curling before the ear Iicratie poseures; and siny feet, The impact of this style can be observed in the approximately conte porary wall paintings from Nishapue in Iran, ia the ceramics of Fatimid Egypt, in twelfth-centucy wall anal ceiling paineings from Cairy anel Palerma, and in manwseripe miniatares from lran and Spain, Carved stucco decoration sas patsiculatly prom= inent si Samaera ranging from fairly naturalistic plone forms reminiscent of the Umayyad period 10 the “beveled” style, in which cuevilinear forms in- terlock so thae ir is impossible to disvingnish figure from ground. The latter was subsequently adopted for media as disparate as wood, ceramics, rock cyst tal, amd glass throughout the Islamic workd. In adé ition, she ceramics of the Samarra phase reflect par ticular inventiveness, Heside imitations of "Tang Chinese wares, designs in cobalt blue on white glaze nel in metallic luster stand out. Both che fatter show close tiex with mach earlier Nabatean painted pot- tery. particularly i the famous “peacoek’s eye” pat= tern so characteristic of Abbasid lasterware. The ap* peal of she luster technique was $0 great chat an leagi craftsman was sent to make luster tiles for the Great Moscme of Qayrawan in Tunisia (862-863). hm sions of lusterware were produced in northeastern tran, The impact oF the Samarca court seyles east be measured not only by their Longevity and geograph- ical scone but also by theie acceptance in segments ‘of sociely outside the couct. A series of wine boteles painted with “trademarks” in the Samarra figuce style were ovade a¢ nearby Christian mmemasteries, tras by craftsmen eusicle coure ceeles. Furthermore, designs célated 10 those on hister ceramics and Koran ilhumination occur in a Jewish manuscrips ik agrinacion a€ Tiberias in 895.ABBASIDS Mies (pryer webe), 4a 800, aay ansnon, pata “The ehird phase of Abbasid arc, 883-1959, is vep= resented by few surviving monuments. Most promi- hrent are rhe northe-s and soxdhern gares o€ the city cof Amid (wow Diyarbakir, Turkey? in northern Mes ‘opotarcia, with thet carved inseriprions and animal reliefs, produced unsler the patronage of the caliph al-Magtadir in 909-910 and refleering, des vent it the capital at abour the sme sime. ABBASIDS Al-Muatadit also issued two splendid silver mee dallions of 3 type intredveed by al-Murawakkil in the mineh centity. Such medallions continued t0 be seruck in gokd oF silver; the last inserihed example vas issued by the caliph al-Qa’im erween 1038 and 1063. Although the Abbasid caliphace laseed unit 1258, most works of arr and architecture produced aleet ‘945 are desigstaced by the names of ee prineety fea ilies thar held secular power in various parts of the empire (for example, Buyids. Artugils, Zand, Sel- jks, Ayyubids]. Only from rhe reign of he caliph al Nagir liDin Allah ((180-1225), whew the caliphate tenjoyer! « resurgence of power, has evidence ui Ab- hasid artistic patronage survived, most aorably the “Talisman Gare ar Baghilad, now desevoyed. mytogeapity J Lasuner, The Topography of Bagiviad in the Karty Middle Ages 9708 K. A. C. Creswell, Farly Musline Are bitectere, UV 940), 38-36, chaps, 1X, X1, XBL M, 8, Di rasiich *Stodlies in Slaosie Oenammne, Soune Aspects | ‘Omaiyed snd Eaely * Ablesid Ornament," rs slunnien, 4 (1937), 293-357, op. figs. 13, Die Ausprabieng von Se rast I-VUBerlin, 1923-1948). }Geihe, The Classical Sel Ilamaie Paving 11988), 1113; stinghaucon, “The “weyeled Style” in the PontSaniarran Perc,” GC. Miles, ely Avebaeologien Crieutala ft Menmoriann Frnt Herzfeld {I9SD}, F2ARK, AL Lane, Barly Islamic Buttery 0947), chaps. 3-5; E. Kithnel, "Die abihisivice ne Viet fayencen” in Ars Fslamica, 141994), (49-159, D.§, Rice, “Deacon er Drink: Some Paintings feom Samarra Reve amined," iu rabies, § (1958), 13-33; J. Walker, "A. ue Medal of the Sele ‘uphrildeg,” in H. Inghols. cl, Coutenniat Publication of the Autorieun Niumivaratie Sociery (1958), 61-695, Force Wusan ABBASIDS, che second Islamic dynasty af caliphs, which riled from 750 to 1258. Ar the zenith of their power eht Abhasids governed ormains that exteuded frora gansral Asia to Norch fica. The dynasty tank its mame from al Abbie ibn “Abd al-Mupralib, a member of che clan of Hashim and the parernal uncle of che propher Mobaninad ‘Yhe Abbasid branch of the Thani Hashier loss nox seem eo have played a very prominent role in the political affoins of the early Islamic state. No menher of the family was seriously considered for supreme rale during theABBASIDS. aly caliphate, and when the Umayyads seized con trol from the Band Hashim and! established che frst dynasty of ealiphs; the Abbasid response was muted evens feft for their Kinsmen, the Ais, ro take up the challenge sgainst the usuepative regime in power, Onc of the Alid pretenders, a certain Aba Miishimn {bp Mubertmad ib al-Hanatiyyah, eas ahowt to die ‘without any surviving male offspring. Me was appar- nely unwilling co turn over che sacred suthoriry that he held 10. orher members of his own family, ancl in- stead transferred this authority, egether with his revolutionary cadres, called the Hishimiyya, to his Abbasid kinsman Muhammad ibn Ali ibs ° Abe Allah ib a-SAbbas arovne 716. The latter orga~ nized 9 clandestine revolucionary movement with centers in Haq and Khorasan, This movemene was but one of several revolution- ary groups thar sought the overthrow ol che Unnayyads. Ir ultimately suceceded where others had. failed, because the Abhasid leadership preferred x0 keep & low profile. The nave of che biden Abbasid Jeader, oF imam, was known go buts few trusted 69° exatives. Moreover, the Hskimiyya eschewed open revolt, preferring instend 10. waic for a propitious moment when the proper combination of forces conlkt be asseinbled to bear against che armies of the Unsayyads. ‘This policy created tensions within the movement, for there were those who desiced 10 pro- ose. more aetivist stand. In the end, the more guarded approach to revolution won our. It was nor until 747 thar the Abbasids were prepaced tu set de- cisively, The internal breakdown of order in the Umayyad staze, and more particularly the eutbeenk of tribal warfare in Khorisin, produced the necese sary preconditions for an open: revolt ‘The Abbasid eliene Abi Muslim, who had served the family in Khorasin, co-opred the disaffected local Iranian populace, although it is clear that the snajor fighting. units of the Abbasid army were Arab tribesmen and rhar the political ane military leader- deavn lneyely from The old Acab setters in Khorasin, To whar extent the evalition of forces raised by Abi Mustim wits guided! by ideological caviceens andl to whar extent their allegiance was de= termined by economic self-interest eanor be deter= mined with cerzainty. In any event the Abbasid ar= mies, displaying the black baeners of cevolution, moved triumphantly fcom Khotisin to Iraq, and then into Syria, the heartland of the Umayyad re- sme. Aler several bicverly fought eogageraeres, che Unnayyad army was froken and the dymasey was sub- ABBASIDS sequently ended. ‘The entire ruling family (with one exception) was pur r0 death in a series of executions, and the bodies of their forebears were exhumed. The Abbasids emerged frons the confer wih al- most theie entire revolutionary apparatus inact. As their army displaced che Umayyads in region after region, the revolutionary cidrey became an acting government according tea plan originally voneeived during the phase of clandestine operations, Since the ‘Abbasid family was enjoined (o remain in the back- ‘ground, inordinate power thereby accrued co two particular agents, Abii Mustim in Khosdsain and Abi Salama, the director of revolucionary operations in frag, The discourteous treatment meted out by Abit Salama to the Alpbasid leadership, which had nat yee emerged [rom hiding, and the suspicion that his tiex to the Abbasid cause were aot cotal and hence sss- pect, alerted the Abbasids t0 seek action. Once Se was focally invested! with power, Abu "r@Abhis, the Gest caliph of the new line, sougihe fo rermave ver tain revatutionaries and to replace chem with various relatives, who along with Abu "+ Abbis, now caine our into the open. Abi Salama was assassinated along. with several a:hees, Ab} Muslim was 10 be Killed somewhae lates. ‘With the death of Abu "I Abbas in 759, the Ab- basie house was planged into civil evnflict, The rw contenders for the caliphare wete the nondescript ‘elder brother and heit-appacent Abd Ja far al-Man- stir, and his parernal uncle “Abd Alish ibn Alf, the conqueror of Syria and “extirpator” of the Umayyad line. Objective realities seemed to predice a victory for the uncle over Aba J2"Far. who was last-minute choice for the calipkare. “Abd All3h ibn Ali, how: ‘ever, miscalealzzed and songhe 4 rely on the old army of the Umayyads that had gone over the Abbasids following the collapse of the old re- ime. He surnedl against the Khorisin army under his command, in effeer forcing thee into his adver~ saries’ camp. Rallying behiral Abi Muslim, who had nor yet been eliminates, the Khorisanis brought Abii Ja‘ar to power, and Secame the prop aport which bis regime came to rest. Abi Muslim, wha now con trolled the army and the treasuries to support ity had ‘emerged as oth the savior of the ew regime and the greatest potential threat to it. After some dif cule diplomatic maneuvering, Abi Jafar had his for= ‘mer ally put t0 death, Following the civil conflict Abs Ja tar rook off on 2 bold path to sesteucture Abbasid goverciment. ‘The caliph’s relatives, who were s0 prominent in the catliesr years of the regime, wore slowly bur surclyABBASIDS removed from positions of iwmpoctance, particularly in the provincial government, lest they use some re sional sinecure in an attemps to promare their own interests, ‘The government itself was greatly ex: panded and staffed with 2 highly centralized burea eracy very often made up of clients, or mare, With this change came a dlisciner decline of Arab lender ship and. privilege. In effect, the Abbasid) eax liphs beginning with AbD Jafar preferred ro cou dct the business of government through agents tied ‘exclusively to themselves rather than to rely on per= sons with wellesrabtished afiliations co tribal and other political units of importance. ‘The clients at court and within the imperial bus reaucracy certainly wielded considerable influence, bout the substantive power ofthe regiene continued 0 reside in its military Forces. tt was, therefore, only 2 question ef time before the caliphs aiso applied the principles of clientage to that most central of inst- tutions. The free sriny could noe be manipulaced:as an entity, but it was possible co establish personal ties with smpoctans clements of the military establish= ment. This was accomplished by dispensing patron= ge in a manner beneficial ro both subject andl sov- exeign. Within two decades, a loose coalition of tribal forces fram Khorisin was teansformed into a welkdisciplined professional army. By plansing Khorisini Force in the new Abbasid capitals in ling, incipally ar Baghded, the Abbasids were able wo i sill an esprit le corps in military contingents pre~ viously wracked by tribal dissensions, The Abbasid ‘aemy founcl cohesiveness tn unfamiliar strroundings by stressing the comnmon geographical affiliations of the past. “The Umayyad raling insticution, which was pred- icated on the special privilege of « relatively small Anais aristocracy, soon gave way 19 polity chat was move broadly delined. A universal outlook displaced the nareow tribalisin that hindered the previous y- nasty and helpee! bring about its downfall. The dsr placement of anarchic eribal sentiments allowed for the creation of a highly ceneralized authoricy. The governmental strives created by abMansiie re~ Reczed the incredible complexity and breadth of a greet imperial regime. Rank, and the privileges of rank, were clearly defined ina highly elaborace and carefully encoded protocol ‘The guographical epicenter of Abbasid authority was al-Mangie’s great capital at Raghdad, an ag plomeration of urban sexslements thar dwarfed any thing that had heen erected previtwsly in che Near Fase. This “navel of the universe” contained che ABBASIDS. inaguiicent Round Ciey, an administeative complex that featured the caliph’s palace, che mosque, the government bureaus, and the residences of various public officials. According to the original coacep= fion, the civilian populace was generally denied ac> cess to che Round City, and the innermost a¥ea, cou- taining the residence of the caliph, could he approached only through an elabvorace series of gater ways protected by an imperial guard, which wos used as well for ceremonial purposes. In every re spect, the Round City was the mecaphar for Abbasid role, Here was the caliph encased within walls of monunvental architecture and susrounded wish highly centralized bureaucracy of staggering climen= sons, He was thus sicoated é0 the center of @ cound srmeture, equiclistant from the agencies of govecu~ tment, which were in ror centered within a wider urban secting that wat at the center of @ province (rad), which bisected the domains of the Abbasid state ‘The creation of an Abhesid imperial style stemmed fron a keen awareness of the desisabilicy of integrating image and fonction in candueting the alfairs-of government, Some see this asa residval re fluence of Iranian otigins. At the extreme, seh views lead to the picture of an Abbasid state that w: essentially a new Ieanian empire, atoeic one dressed the formal attire of Persianized Islan. These ar tributions sceim a¢ best vagues and at Worst isrele- vant. With or without 4 Persian past, the Abbasid ruling instiration hael to be significantly enlarged and increasingly eersralized. The Abbasid imperial style may therefare be seon as resulting fear the in- ermal dynamics of Abbasid rule. “The carly Abbasid caliphs paid carclud aetention to the ideological foundations of cheir rele and gen= erally sought to imbue their office and eheie govern- iment wich celigious significance that had not beer soressecl under the Umayyads, It has been maintained thot the Abbasids generally championed orthodoxy ancl conformity in order w wed a ceymopolitan em pire ingo a unitied polity based ona common faith and a common way of life. Orthodox thinkers were thus wooed, and the religions establishment gener- ally received che bencie af the caliphs’ favor, Con- versely, movements deemed heretical were fully per secuted, ‘The occasional juxtaposition of heretical ‘groups and social protest: would seem to indicate thae religion and politics could not be considered separate concerns even wher extremist views were formulated. Bur the real theeat ro Abbasicl vole was eheir ownABBASIDS. xinsmen, The Alids had never reconciled themselves co the Abbasiel dynacty and eciected the claim of Abr basid legitimacy through the dying Alid Abs: Hashim, They maintained thar the suered authority was transferred chrouigh she Fauimid fine of thelr fawily, and they emphasized their political activism vira-vis the Umayyads: They thus calfed attention to deamatie eases of mactyrdom that had no paeallel tn the house of al-" Abhay. The high political profte of the Facienics during the years of Umayyad rae had a powerful emotional appeal among the genersl pop- lace, particulaely in Irtg, In order «0 counter these argumenss, the Abbasid caliphs, in pastiewtar AbG Johar al-Maasir, encouraged che creation of a re> jonist history bat established hem with proper credentials to role, Much of this historiography chat was assembled rider offciat patronage has become batt of the historical record, Nevertheless, the. sez ment on behalf af eke Alids would nor dissipate. Foztunarely for the Abbasids, the Alids more afte than nor aceommorlated themselves to the naling. dy= rrastys but, o” accasion, various Alid pretenders e2 couraged followers 10 take up arms ut cheir behalf. These eflorts invariably ened in failure, Far the ‘outset, the Abbasid regime was also beser by various provincial uprisings abet which Tiree is knosvry In any cate, such local rewolis do mot seem ro have se~ sigusly threatened the rele emanating From Baghdad. Although che svecessors oF al-Mangir confidently bole on the foundations thae he had established, che internal contradictions of the Abbasie raking insti tation led to a period of incipient decline, The corr tinnous loyalty of the military was nor a foregone conclusion. Unlike clients in governinent service, the nemy commanders, backed by their professional consingents, hae che means eo effect significant ae- tion. The imperial army had a vescectinserese in the alfairs of the Abhasid state and was pacticularly seu sitive in economic and political stresses, Dieulties thar could not be resolved in localized! covet ine rrigues often required the direes ineervention of the amy, thereby adding new and volatite 10 the existing stricture of Abbasid society. The highly personalized system of transferring, power within the ruling family fan outgrowth per- haps of the cevoluionary experienced served to ex- acerhace existing, tensions. The internal cobesion of the Mansarid family began to exacks with the deach fof the thied caliph, al-Mahll, in 785, as his sons Varin al'Rashici and Masi airHad? were pitecel againgr each other by ambitious court Figures. At caches as they were to a patticslar prince of the ru ABBASIDS ing fine, many leading elients acted as provoeateurs in an effort ta enhance che positions of their patrons and thereby their own forties. Shadow yovern= ments were created co serve young Abbasid priners who were considered for rule, and the once-reliable array of alMansir's ereation became a vested inter est group available to che highesr bidldee wish she prerequisite credeneials co cute Ie would appear thar alRashté, whe came to power when his brother and vival was murdered, wes aware of the internal problems hesesling the house of al“AbDis. In order eo ensure thar the runutsnous ‘events sacrounding his father’s succession were not repeated, he laid down a rather elaborate scheme of seceession. Mubainmad al-Amin, the eldest son, was rnominaeed as heie-apparents he was in corn to be fol- lowed by "Abd Allah sl-Afa rau and a third son, who, it eurned out, never became x serious contender for the caliohare. The unique feature of the plan was thar each of the latter sons was given the governorship of « vase exion while rhe caliph sil ved, Alessia temained at the capiral in Baghdad and henec was able to se- cure the support of central administration. Alea fin more than butanced his brother's. potential power, by comtrofling, the vast territories to the cast known coflectively as Khovisin, Bayt and dhe west wwere'left ro the thicd brocher in the line of suecese jon. In such fashion each beother had s power base to ‘maintain his eigheful claim should che cival tprother wish eo displace hin from the line of succes sion in favor of his own progeny. Itmay well be shat al-Rashid also soughs in this fashion to decentealize the empice, which ‘nad grown adininistratively cum bersome, while at he same time mainnaining froily cansz0h over aft its domains. The ctlioh himself teft Baghdad for the regional capital ar a-Rifiqnh, alt though his reasons for this moxe are not clear. “The ceign of Hirdn al-Rashid is generally re- pared asthe zenith of Abbasid ghrcy, and yer it may be chought of as an edifice of rotting woud covered by # lustrous shellac finish, The proviness ro the west, although they conrinued 40 tecognize the car liph’s swwerainty, beeame in effect local hereditary governorships,shovaly serring a pattern shat as «0 engulf the dynasty over a wide geographical area int years to come. To the east, a series of regional cone Aicts was a cause of concern, Moreover, the came fpaigns againse the Byzantines, which were pursued by al-Rashid with more vigor than his predecessors, proved inconclusive, Toward the end of his rule, ak Rashid, alecady disenchanted wich the politics ofABBASIDS: Raghilag, incarceeated the entice Barmakid family, a group of distinguished civil servants who find been ins che employ of the regime since the clandestine stages of the revolution. The consequences of this act are n0t entirely clear, but, given its unprecedkstted scope, iti likely co have seriously affected the daily functioning of the administearive agencies of the government In any event, the caliph’s successor al-Aunfa in mediately sought to remove his brother skMa? mi from rhe line of succession, The plan was to bring Ihim to Baghdad, thus isolating him frova his regional power base in Khorasan, The laccer vacillaced, but an the advice of his client-confidants, he stand firm, theceby setting inte motion 2 long and debilitating civil war which oncled wich the death of-al-Amin in 813, The war between the brothers has been viewed 2s a conflict between the Persians of Klhorishis and the Arabs of Trag. Such an interpretation is not sup ported by the available data. The conics, whicl Tucked an ideological dimension, must be unter stood in terms of economic ancl political considera tions, At the heart of the issue were the benefits tha were derived fram ealiphal partonagc: which army and which bureaneraey was 10 be favored by the lrother who ultimately beesme the micontested amir asimard? (Commander of the Faithful), The war only served to underscore & basic weakness ef the Abbasid caling institution. ‘The army would not betray the caliph on behalf of a non-Marslim enemy. hhut iss primary responsibility was the preservation of ‘order within the boundaries of Islam, Hlere the ives ‘af loyalty and authority could become exceedingly complex, particularly when the caliphare was con= tested by cwo patties that carried bona fide creden= tials co rule, In such circumstances, the military cue te be governed by strong attitudes of selfine rerest. Sinee periods of conflict often resulted in auge momed service pay, the agency of government ‘whose primary charge it was to preserve public order had developed a vested interest in continuing chaos. ‘The emergence of al+Ma°nin’s caliphate marked the beginning of a new era in the history of the Ab- hhasid state, Political life would never be as i) was in the past. A fine line hax! been crossed, pointing to the inherent weakness af she ealiph and the ruling, insti~ tution thar served him, The army, whieh formed che baclebone of the Abbasid militsey, wae divided into rival factions. ‘Che Baghdad regiments, defeated but not crushed, reeained the eapacny to undertsine she Soundations of Abbasid role. As 2 resulr al-Ma xin 10 ABBASIDS lid nor reruen to Baghdhe unc six years after his accession to che caliphatc, anc even then it cannot be said char Baghelad became his peernanent capital. Te was in Khorisio that the caliph dispensed his favor upon his loyal followers, Following rheir sae- cess in barele, the military commanders were given rovinoial governorships which in time became he- reditary Fefdoms. Although they cecognized the si- inty of she caliph, chey eventvally limited his e fective authority. In the course of time they would siphon aff the manpower necessary to field the Abe i the revennes available to the israrion by withholding raxes. Bur the effects of al-Ma°inii’s policies woul nor be felt for some time, Fle was a vigorous rler who still commanded respect, as iid his brezher and sue~ cessor alMultasim. An innovation begun by the former and more fully implemented by che inter nevertheless created an insricucion shat was fo shake the fonnditions of the regime, ‘The conduct of the war had taught rhe Abbasid sovereigns a lesson about the reliability of the fre armies. The notion cf creating a liens arimy was understandably ex- tremely attractive, This led ulbimately w the intro- duction of Tarkish slave regiments. Althonsh the farther subjugacion of Transoxiana under al-Ma?- iin had broughe significanr sumnbers af Turkish slaves ro che center of the Islamic empire, it was lefe to a-MuStayim to form them into elite fighting units, lr should be made etear thae the Turks were nor recruited exclusively (9 guard ehe caliph but were brought in relatively Inge units t0 join the Aghting commands. Assuch they did not replace, but supple mented, the contingents of the regular army, The ar tractive Fennues of these ninits were their absolute ties wo the caliph a8 4 resul of their servile stays and theit well-known prowess, particularly a6 cavalry. The bors between the “Turks andthe caliph superseded all previens ties of loyalty, which were torn asunder when the Turks entered a servile starus. The slave acmy, beginning with al-MaSrasim, he- ceame a central Fretor in the formation of an Islanvie silitary society. Despite the caliph’s various attempts at establish= ing the personal loyalty of the Turks ic was perhaps inevitable thar she Tackish commanders woald come to define their loyalty to the regime in cerms of self- interest, and that the slave army of the ealiphs world intervene direcely an the affairs of che state, just as the Free Khorasinis lad done refore them. The per- sonal ces between che calip)t and his military clientsABBASIDS were lessened hy the general malaise within the rule ing society. ‘The successors of alcMatasinn were nor his equals, hut, beyond that, the empire itself had undergone serious dislocation, Beser by economic difficulcies, al-Mu ayia and his suecessors drained the imperial treasuries, build= ing a second massive administrative center at Sa mmarra, The new capital, which rivaled Baghdsd in size and splendor, was a conceptual monstrosity. Each mmgjor construction scheme hegat its successor and none proved adequate vo the caliph’s needs. The «ity was an economic anachronissn which could nor i profes: signal or otherwise, is bought wish substantial mone ies, the declining stare revenues only forced the army fo intervene stl Farther in affairs normaly fa the civilian administration, As a result, the Turkish generals went so far as 10 exercise veeo power on the suecession and to eliminate caliphs not to their bk- ing, Internal bickering among the military aggra* vated further the aiteady chaotic situation. ‘The caliph still retained she prestige of his office, it was inconceivable ther the universe could exist ‘withour an Abbasid caliph. The miktary would never 0 s0 far as to provoke public sentiment by estab- lishing one of theic own ax Commander of the Paith- ful, even if chey were s0 inclined. The caliph, certo the center of Abbasid rile, was reduced to one cof three elements in the power structure, the others Treing the bureaucracy and the military. The « phate nevertheless cetained a certsin vitality, and when conditiors allowed room for political maneu wer, the Commander of the Faithtul managed to reas- sert his position—for example, the regent albMu- Waffaq and rhe caliphs alt Mu%tadid and al-Muktoft, Bur che process that began with the great civil war was degenerative; the caliphate never fully se coveted, and the mittary dimension in the affairs of government became awesome. In the firse half of the tenth century, the leading inflicary figure assumed che ticle ammfr al-entara” and eventually took on the responsibility for civil aw thority. His name was also mensioned in prblic prayer along with that of the caliph, although the de jure status of the sovereign was never questioned, ‘Concurrent with the decline of caliphal fortunes, the areas actually controlled by the central administra ion shrank co paws of Iraq and Syria. The power veacusim created by the Abbasid rexrenchment served to stimulate militant Alid poetisans, The Abba state was thus buffeted by 3 series of insurrections Which occasionally led to the creation of fdepes- 11 ABBASIDS. slont ministaies, In 945 Baghdad itself was captured by the Buyid prince Ma‘izz.al-Dawla. Although the Buyids were Alids they recognized the Abbasid ca- liph as their sovercign. Nevertheless, temporal rule was effectively taken out of the caliph’s hands An elaborate protocol prorected the caliph's theoretical starus, but in every other respect, che Buyids asserted themselves as masters of tag. The Buyids were vex placed in 1055 by the Seljuks who were Sunnis, bur this had litle hearing on the stacus of the Abbasid caliph, From then until the end of rhe dynasty, the caliph never was able to fully ceestablish the preem- inenee of his office “To the west, Vgypt came under the control of a Faciie dynasty in 969, The militare Alids soon ex> tended their power into Syria and the arabian pen- insula. ‘The emergence of the Fatimids was quite 2 different threat frown char of the Buyid hegemony at Baghdad, and may indeed explain why the uyids, although themselves Alids, never tampered with the caliphs states, For the first rime, an independent dy- nasty bearing legitimate elaims ter rule was ereased, Vhe Fatimids did nor secognize even the titular aue thority of rhe Abbasids. To the conteary, they ac: tively sought to replace them, and to this purpose they organized a powerful and widespread! reyolu- sionary apparatus to subvert the Abbasid state from ‘within, while at the same time the Fatimid armies challenged the Abbasid supporters in che field of combat. ‘After che breakup of the Buyisl empire, she Fax timid euler was briefly recognized in Baghdad, dur che appearance of the Sunni Seljols Tughril Bak re= stored Abbasid sovereignty. This did nor mean, how= fever, a resurgence of caliphil authority. The Selisk leader further institutionalized the civil authority that had accrued to the military leadership by eres ing the offce of sultan, ‘The rise of the military lead: ership co power, a process thar had become irrever- sible in the tenth ceneury, led to a sew saci! and fiscal order, which was quosi-feudal. One cesule of this development was the weakening of the gover ment bureaucracy: a second was the breakdown of agriculture in Iraq and severe fiscal crises. In Baghe dad, these were Irequent outbreaks of civil strife among diverse urban groups. The city itself shrank to shollow shell of is former self. Where onee there ‘were contiguous areas of occupation within che legal bhoundlacies of the eity, there were naw harren Fields separating truncated neighborhoods thar took on the characteristic features of distinct serslements. The tensions felt wichin contemporary societyABBASIDS during the Abbssid decline were the result of Far= reaching changes brought about by social and eco- nomic dislocation. Th such times discontent was ex- pressed in relipiorpolitcal cern, ‘This served the fpurpose of a eligions eserblishment that was 2nx- ous co promote its influence, and was now encour= aged co do so by the mibtary rulers, whose power. although absoluce, ws never coxered with the syii- balie riappings of authority that accrued ta the ca= liph. ‘The support of the religious establishment was politically desirable, For cheir cooperation with the temporal authosities, religions fanetionaries were ise an ever-growing net ns. The caliph, as continned to enjoy the fetion of his de jure swicr ainty, (nleed, when the Great Sultanave: collapsed, the caliph al-Nisir (1180-1225) astempred te, ees tablish the lost authority of the caliphate al par tially suceveded. His success was limited geograpii= cally to Irag, and was only possible because the ajor powers were preoccupied! swith one another. ‘When the Mongols conquered Persia, opening the gates to Trag, the independence of Abbasid authority, such as ic was, was destined te come t an ene, The Mongol conquest of Baghdad brought a dea- rmatie end 10 rhe Abbosid caliphore in its native re- gion, Unlike the past conquerors of the city, the Mongols did net favor the Abbasid calipk by paying lip service ro his authority. The c2liph al-Musta® yim was executed and the house of al-CAbbis at Brigh- dad came to an end. The sultans now appropriated for themselves the titles, anel presogatives that had formerly been reserved for the Abbasid sovercigns. The fiction of Abbasil authority ended, andl sith it the five-hundlre-year-ole dynasey “There was a cesurgence of rump caliphs in Egypt beyinning in #261, hue the Rzyprian Abbasids were no more effective than their more recent Baghdad predecessors. The Fgyptian caliphate continied wntil 1517, hur ehe Abhasids ruled in name only. De Foor control was in the hands of the Maintuk stlans. The caliph was essentially limites! 19 ceremonial dies With the Oxornan conquest of Epypt, the Abbasid caliphate was finally abolished. aIBLIOGRAPITY Horold Bowen, The Life wnd Times of “Al bn “se (928%; Jacob I assner, ‘he Shaping of Abdbase Ku (1980) B, Lewis, “Abbasidhs” in. Encyelenedia of islans, 2nd él Adam Mez, The Renaissance of Istayn (2938); Farovie Onion, he “Alnbasid Galiphave, 132/750=170/786 (1969) M, AL Shabu, he “Abhitaid Revelution (1970) aad I 12. ABBO OF FLEURY {FLORIACENSIS) amie History: & New Interpretation, 2 vols. 1971-1976, Dominique Soudel, Le Visivar “ABbashte de 719 2.946, 2 vols, (1959. 1960}, Julios Wellhausen, he Arh Kredit cand es Pal(19271 acon Lass [See ako Abit Jafar AL-Manyir; Abi Muslims Afidss Unghdad: Fatinids; Hariia AL-Rashil; ALMadulis Mam- luke Sultgas; Muhammad; Mongel Conquest; Ottoman ‘Comquest;Seljuks; Sultanate; Sunnis | ABBESS; ABBOT, See Clergy. ARBO OF FLEURY {FLORIACENSIS) (ex. 945- lon) was born near Orléans. His patents handed hhim over as oblate co the Benedictines in che Abhey of Hleury-sur-Loire (Saint-Benoit-sue-Loire) when Wullad was asbor: rwo relatives of Abbo’s mother were monks and presbyters there, Abbo began his studies in Fleury’s monastic school surrowied by are bovis andl excellent scribes. For advanced stucl ies in theoingy and the sciences he weit io Paris and Rhein. His most distinguished texcher was Gerbert cf Ancillac, who had studied une? Arab schatars in Spain Abbo taught in Fleury both before and after his advanced seudies. Back in Pleucy he also started to iweite, Attributed to him from this time are a Come mentary on the Calculus of Vieturies, a short crear ise on astronomy, and a compacts. Like Gerert, Abo was possibly aware of the existence of Aristo= tle’s Prior ancl Posterior Analytics, and he wrote 9 Syilagismi dialecti, Nor all of Abho’searly work has yet been found, nor has alt that has heen idencifed been published. Some of bis work has becu wrongly incluled in Bede's dubia, These items, however, are iticant for the history of medieval science. After Abhot Neuilfad died, three abbors held alice in rapid succession: Richard (ied 979), Amalbere {died 985), and Oylhold {died 987 oF 988! Abbo was a eandichite when OylbakL was chosen. Following Oplbole’s election, Abbo went co England for wo years, possibly to avoid embarrassment, and cer- tainly beease Fleury had English conterions: Archbishop Oswald of York and Abbot Gerinanus of Ransey hnael been monks at Flenry, and Oswald ine vited Abo to Ramsey. Abbo taught at Ramsey for two years, acting, also 85 consistant foc Oswalk, who was insroducing rac reforms inte English monasteries. WhileABBO OF FLEURY (FLORIACENSIS} Tingland, Abbo was ordained presbyter by Oswald. As ar Fleury, he coucinued! to write, His importane hook a6 this vine was Questions jrammiaticabae. ciealing with maccers of prosody and pron and dedicates to his “dilecrissimis in Christo Angli= setis(eatvibus.” Abbe was much quoted by, wl dear tui, Fnglishmen: co Dunstan, for whom he wrote ica sanct? Kad maeudis ro Oswald to Alfie of Eye mt ahd eo ochers nr 988, Abbo returned to France and was elected abbot of Hloury. He was a seholarly abbot, a cee former, an adviser of kings and popes, and heeame anonist of sorts, defending, the vighes of kings against popes, of bishops agannse kings, of monks against bishops. Me ewice visited Rome for King Robere 11 (995, 997), bringing, eases before popes John XV and Gregory V; he also appeared at synods in Seint-Denis, Saint Basle, and Mensson. In these contexts he prepared his Apolagericus, aeelressed 1@ King Hugh aad King Robew, in eesponse ro Arnulf, bishop of Orlkans, and Is Collectio canomiem. In Rosie, Ahbo assembled an Epitome of Popes’ Lives Down to Gregory i, and ow another occasion made Racerpts from the Fathers, His works also inelude important correspondence andl sume pocins {two i the maimer of Porghyry} Sill preoccupied with reform, Abbe journeyed in 1M to Gascony, to the Abbey of Li Réole, placed under Fleury some years before when diseurhanos had Broken ort between rhe French anc Cagcons “There was trouble on this occasion 100, ar dbo. received a wound fram which he died on 13 August, a6 recorded by Aimain (Aimoinus Menachs), wha accompanied him on this last jouraey. ‘The eiteam- seances of Abbo’s dearh, and the edifying charaeter his life, generated a cule, His feast is celebrated in Henedictine liturgies en 13 August. His Finest ealogy is by Fulhere of Chartres: “Supreme among, sbbors for his love af wisdom and most renowned attkority inal France ia divine and earthly jurisiiction.” BIRLIOGRAPITY Abbo's wosles are in Jacqucs P, Migne, edn Potroloxine susus eonspictus, Series data, 139 (INK), 417-578 fin sormplate). A biography is Aimoinus Menachus, "Vito Abe hnis Floriaci,” in J. Th Mine, 138, 375814, Aisa. sce Honey Braslley, “On she Text of AbbO of Meury’s Quaes- liones Crammaticalan,” im Proceedings of be British Academy, 1 (2921-1923), 126-169; Patrice Cousin Abbow de Piewry-sies-Lorves rae savant, tor pasterc, rat martyr 6 in Br di 3 dete (195%% Anggun Pliche, Lar forme grégorienwe et 18 reconquéte chrécionne (1097— 13 ABBREVIATOR 1123) (8950), Benne Gilson, Lat philosoplbie an moyen Age, 2nd od (1982) 227%; Masimilinms Manivius, Gee whichie der tatenischen Lierstur des Mittelaters, I (1923; repr, 1978), 664-672; Georne Sarton, Indroduction ty the Slistury of Science, 1 0927, 675 André van de Vpver, “Les oeuvres inédites «’Abbon de Pleury," sn Reve bémidietne, 47 (1935), 125-168. Launince K. S008 ABBREVIATOR, an offcial of the papal chaicery who composed she drafts and corrected the fal force of upostolic lerers. Although the formal tithe, abbreviator fitterartan ayostolicarian, may not have come into use until the fonrceenth century, ab- breviaiors were apparently already working directly for the vice-chancellor from the laccer ¢hirreenth cemury. Eastier the abbrevintars were private em= ployees of the papal noraries rather than of the eha= ery itself, and the notaries continued to hire their own sbireviators a3 private assistants even after some of ihe abbreviarars had achieved an indepen dese status in the chancery, There were also abbre= ators connected with orher deparzmenss of che papal curia: rhe darary, for example, had anv abbrex vitor de curid until (908, The roles under which the abbreviatars lived, always subject to at least minor changes, were spelled! out most fully in the contin Divina aeterat issued by Pope Sixtus 1V in 479, “The abbreviacors’ task beyan when the petitions to which the pope or his delegate had decided to reply were distributed among them. They then drafted and signed responses, called minutes, making use of che text of the petition itself as well as chant ery formularies, After the dralt hal been copied! in its final form by a papal scriptor, or serie, it re- ceived a first reading by an abbreviator de: prima visiowe and then x more earelul examination and correction by “sblreviarors assisting the vice-chan= callor in the dispatch of apostolic letters." One o two of these abbroviaroes signed the lerter hefore ie was sealec! hy a bielatur and dispatched, ‘The fees thae the abbeeviaeors received for each of thee tasks wots established in eninute detail by Pope John XX1L in £331. Ifa leezer had fo be recopied because of an abbreviator’s mistake, the recopying was done at his expense ‘A limie of twenty-four abbreviators was set byABBREVIATOR Pope Benedtice XI (1334-1342), hut the mumber kept increasing and reached seventy-two under Sixtus IV, sho, after a previous attempe by Pius Hin 4463 had been undone, organizes the ablbceviators into a col lege with numerous importan* rights and privileges Although all che chancery abbreviators belonged t0 this college, there were three diflerene classes of inembership. OF the seventy-two members: in 1479, the highest class in terms off competence, responsi- bilicies, ancl income consist! of twelve abbreviators called presidents of the greater enclosure ffresi= dentes de parco reaioril; a second class included ewenty-cwo abbreviarors of the laser enclosure (de parco minor), whose daties were sometimes has r0 distinguish (rom those of the thirzy-cight members Of the thitd class called ablreviarors of the first cead- ing {ule prime visione). Accardling to Pope Calixtus Ill in 1458, no one should normally be male nem boer of ehe highest class until he had! served at least thrce years in the third class and five ye fond, Many of the recruits had originally tors, and some continued in both roles. The college of slobreviators gradually love ies functions, and in 1908 ie was definitively suppressed and its remaining duties eransferred to the apostolic peothonataries. BIBLIOGRAPHY Geolircy Barraclough, “Minurexof Papal Letters 1316 1S17\" in Mtscoanes arebivistica Angelo Mereati 982, 109-127. Hlacey Breslin, Heeibucl der Urlaraeiebre fir Deaschlaad und Sabin, 2nd cA, cepe- VAI, 1958), 27A-275, dosed Founsier, Abréviarcnrs 0 abeéviageurs des lecres aposteliqnes.” ii: Dictionnaire de drost canor nique, 1 (19355 Peter Herd, Seitrage suum pipstichen Kanalei wad Unkendenesen i recente Jabrbunder, 2nd ed (1967, Micsel Tangl, od, Die epic Kens Ieiurdneangen vor 1200-1805 11894, kept. 1959). Jaoats JOHN “ABD AL-MALIK, See Marwan, “Abd al-Malik: ibn. ©ABD AL-MUTTALIB, proper name Shayba iba Hashim ibn Abd Manif sbn Qusayy (Wied ca 578}, chief of the Hashim clan of the Meccan trie of Ku faysh and paternal grander of the prophet Mur hhamumad. His fasher Hashim arsanged 1 marty a woman of the al-NajiSeelan of rhe Khazea ribe chur- 4 “ABD AL*MUTTALIB ing.» stopover in Yathrib (Medina) on his way 60 Syria for trade, agreeing that she might bear children ‘only among her own people, When she became prenr nant, she was accordingly retumed wo Yathrib, where Abd al-Mayrali was born and was raised until the aye of seven or eight, Ar this poins he caught the atention of a visiting Meccan, who nated his prowess in archery and his claim to be a son of Hishin, since deceased. Learning this, his tuncle aleMutralildlecieled to raise the boy, espectally as hescemed 16 be a talented youth, and eook Syme Mecea. Traditional aceounts claim ehat she bey ae- ‘quired the name Abel al-Murralib (slave of al-RMut= sald") beeause people in Mecea at frsr chouighe him Fo be his uncle's slave. AleMuttolib served as the boy's guardian and raised him zo maturity. ‘When the uncle died whife racing in the Yemen, Abd al-Murgalib succeeded him as head of the clan of Hashim. He also inheriteet from his ancle the eul- fic offices enstomarily held by the descendants of ahd Mani the sigaya distribution of water to pil= grims co Mecca) and the rifada (istribution of Food). These offices were lucrative, partly because hey involved collection of a tay from the Kuraysh 0 purchase food, When Abraha, the Aksumite con mander who hae seized control of che Yemen, marched north to destroy Meces’s shrine, Abd xi -Murgalib lose some 200 camels toan Abyssinian raid= ing party and had to negotiate with Abraha himself to get chem back. This suggests that he was quite prosper at the cine, In these negotiations “Abd al-Mutsalib is povrrayed as the chief of Kuraysh, the inaster of Mecca's caravans, aud x pacagon of tri- sional virtues Ir is probable, however, char “Abd sl Mugialib’s authority did-nae embrace the whaie of Kuraysh. Some accounts desoribe 4 quarrel beeween him and other branches of Kuraysh over cheir demands for a share in she waters of the copious well af Zanzi, which “Abd akMurralih is said go have discovered. Similarly, he seers to have been in a dispute with his ‘uncle Navwéat ibn ©Abd Manat over some property, and with another elan chief, Hlarb ib Umayya, for reasons thas remain obseuce. It may be that all chest aecounts, #8 well ax others deseribing a dispuce be- tween “Abd aleMutralib and a chiel of the Thaqif tribe over a well of which “Abd alk Muttalib cook possession in the town of AL-T%l, ate echoes of a scruggle for conirol of the cultic office of siqaya among different clans of Koraysh, bur che record ee mains unclear, In any ease, Abd al-Mugralib con- cluded an alliance berween the clan of Mishim and“ABD AL-MUTTALIB the tibe of Khuria, apparently to connterbalance the opposition of his uncles Nawfal and “Abs ‘Shams. In fact, “Abd al-Mugialib seeans vo have led the clan of Hashim quite effectively through a sie ‘when the old clan relationships within the Knraysh, were changing, ax commercial prosperity broughe some clans (Umayya, Maklrzam) greatly increased wwealeh and influence. ‘The prophet Mubammad was bom (0 one of Abd alMustalib's ven sons, Abdullah, about $70, ‘ur €Abstullth died before Muhammad's birth, Cone sequently the boy was essed by his mother, Anving, and ©Abd al-Muftalib, until his mother’s death when Muhammad was abour six, Two years later "Abd! al- Mugialib died, at an advanced! age {some accounts say that he was 120 yeurs old, bequeathing co his son abZubayr the cultic offices he hed held, ‘The or- phaned Mubaminad was cared for thereafter by an= ‘ther of Abd al-Muaralib’s sons, AbU Talib. Other sons of “Abd sl-Murralib, Muhammad's oncles neeably Hanvza, al“ Abbas, and AbD Lehab—played imgortane parts in Mubamimae?s later fe. BIBLIOGRAPHY ba Hishiun, Sfx (Aifiod Guillaume, thas The Life of Mudsarnovad (19559, indexs Yoo So", "Vebagar Iparvi’ anal. $, M, Hay and HK. Ghazanfar (19671972), index; sisVabae, Annales (1879-1991), index; Williaa MI. Watt Madama at Mecea (195), inde. xen M, Denon [See au Alii Valibs Hshim: Kaabu Mecca; Kueaysh.] EABD ALLAH IRN AL-ZUBAYR, (624-692) prominent Islamic aristosest and rival claimant «0 the caliphate daring the reigus of che Umayyad cor liphs Yazid 1, Marwan I, and Abd al-Malik, Born in Medina shortly after the prophet Muhammad's asrival there, he was the sev of al-Zubayr ibn al- Aww an early convert to Islam from she “Abd alUzea clan of Kuraysh, and his wife Asma’, daughter of Aba Bisker, Mulammed’s closest conic dane and eventual successor. He was close 10 his mother’s sister “Aisha, the Prophet's favorite wife, who, being childless, seems to have been especially fond of her nephew and wene by che name “Umm "Abd Allah” (mother of Abd Allah). His gramd= mother was che Prophet's patesnal aunt Safiya, and he was also related vo Mubanmad’s fist wife, Khalifa, His close family cies 20 Mubsenmad and 15 ABD ALLAH IBN AL-ZUBAYR ‘Aba Nake, the political acsivigy and influence of his father anc! his ane ®A?isha, and the great wealth accusmulated hy his fasher and passed on to him, as> sured him a leading position: in che easly Islamic aristoctacy. ‘Asa youth “Abd Allah is said to have participated with his father at the bore of Yarmuk in Syeis fea. 636), in campaigning in Egypr shortly chereafter, and ive launched by the gervernor of EBype, iba Sad ibn Abi Sar, against Byzantine forees in Iiriglyya (Tunisia) in abour 647. Somewhae laser he campaigned in northern Iran with the forces fof Sa°Td ibn al-“Ay, Accaccding «0 traditional ac: comnts “Abd All was ane af several companions charged by the thitd caliph, “Ushman, with copying and collating the vulgare of che Koran form mate= rials available in Medina During the cebellion against SUthmas, ©Abd Alls was among chose who tried ansuccessully to defend the aged caliph. After “Ushman's wurder in 6656, Abd Alla joined the Mecean pmety (whieh in- cluded his faeher, his aunt “Aisha, and ©A2isha’s close kinsman Talha ibn “Ubaydallal) in oppasigion (0 “Alribp Abt T5lib, who had been proclaimed ea- liph in Medina, With she rebellioxs party he werst co Busca, where they had some support. He com manded the foe soldiers ae the Bartle of the Camel (656) against Al's forces, and is saict to have sul fered many wounds, After SAMs victory he, like ‘other members of the Meccan party, withdrew feom active varticipacion in politics for the cinve bsings al= though presene ar he arbitrations intencled €0 settle the dispute beeween “Ali and the Umayyad prev tender, MuSAwiya ibn ABT Snfyan, he played no im- portant role in them. ‘Thereafter he tecoprized Muawiya as caliph and rexusned & Medina, Only at the endl of MuSawiya's reign (661-680) did ©Abd Aitah again eater polities openly, by join- ing several other notables of Medina who cehised ro recognize MuPawiya’s designation of his son Yarid as heirapparent. Upon Yavid's accesivn in 680, Abd Allah Ned to the sanctuary of Mecca to evade arrest by Yazid’s governor in Medina, and from there directed what became a protracted struggle against che Umayyads. Yazid, finding negotiation with SAbé AMS fruitess, direcced his governor to dispatch a teoop to Mecca led by “Abd Ailal’s Drothee ©Arar ibn al-Zabayr, with whom Abd Allah had long, bex on bac céems. When his pla to seive she cebel failed, “Abd Allah captured his brother ancl had him eruelly executed. Therealter both ©Abd Allah and Yaztd bided their sime.