Design is a Verb; Design is a Noun

Author(s): Carl Steinitz

Source: Landscape Journal , Fall 1995, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Fall 1995), pp. 188-200
Published by: University of Wisconsin Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43324194

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 Design is a Verb; Design is a Noun
Carl Steinitz

Carl Steinitz is the Alexander and Abstract: The word "designais both a verb and a noun . This paper presents a framework for
Victoria Wiley Professor of Land- thinking about design as a noun and relates it to a previously published paper (Steinitz 1990
scape Architecture and Planning at which presented a framework for design as a verb . If useful, these frameworks might enable
the Harvard Graduate School of landscape design (defined broadly) to engage more clearly the social constructs within which it
Design. He has devoted much of his takes place.
academic and professional career to
improving methods by which design-
ers analyze information about large
land areas and make decisions about
conservation and development. His
teaching and research encompasses
such areas as Theories anļd Methods
of Landscape Planning arid the Visual
Landscape. As a teacher and consul-
tant, he has been involved in many
studies of highly valued landscapes
that are under substantial pressures
for change.

fessional activity, as they are in the I propose a dual framework for

This and paper
and thetheteaching
teaching is about of design design.
of design. words of Herbert Simon: thinking about strategies of "design"
It is both abstract and concrete; it is and for organizing and eventually
Everyone designs who devises
personal, based on my 30 years of courses of action aimed at changing integrating its two meanings:
teaching experience; and it is didac- existing situations into preferred
tic-intended to teach-and polemic- ones. Design as a verb; Design as a noun.
not without controversy.
The word "design" is both a Design education, which encom- In offering this dual-framework,
verb and a noun ( Webster's 1973). passes both the verb and noun I takedefini-
a pedagogic position: we should
tions of "design," has a special first actprob-
communally - profession-
Design as a verb : to mark; to con- lem: it presents a "mixed ally message."
ceive and plan out; to have a pur- - at the strategic level and only
On one side are the needs for com-
pose; to devise for a function then act individually at the tactical
mon language, conventions, and level in any particular project. First,
- it looks to the future. methods - the professionalism derived we must understand our world (as
from past experience, from history, best we can), and on that basis, our
Design as a noun : a deliberate,
purposeful plan; the arrangements science, case studies and readings, all work can be individualized. This is
of elements that go into human of which continue the knowledge of not the position of an "artist" - one
production (in our case, landscape the past and which require under- who understands the world through
architecture); the underlying standing, adaptive application, and the lens of personal expression; the
scheme; (and, for those who think (eventual) mastery. On the other side artist's perspective can only be expe-
of landscape architects as "exterior are individual experience, self-aware- rienced, not taught or even necessar-
decorators," a decorative pattern) ness, interpretation and expression - ily communicated. Rather, mine is the
- it also looks to the future. the stuff of artistic creativity. All of perspective of a teacher, who believes
us, as teachers, students, and profes- that there are "ways and means" and
I like to think of design as a verb sionals in design, have to live with that they should be taught.
as the asking of questions and design this communal-professional versus My perspective also differs from
as a noun as the character of the individual-creative tension. This ten-
that of some great teachers. In the
answers. Both meanings must be sion makes design and design educa- words of Samuel Newson, who learned
integrated in our academic and pro- tion especially challenging and cre- the art of garden design in Japan in
ates the need for ways of organizing the 1920s:
our thoughts and actions in a manner
that is both strategic and adaptable.

188 Landscape fournal

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 There are not many ways, there is
only one, and it is learned - with a
master - by watching, and eventu-
Recognize Perform
ally doing.

n_
But landscape architecture today
can't have a singular way, as long as it
accepts a mandate which ranges I How should the landscape I REPRESENTATION *"■ ļ
across scale, type, culture, and time. y'' be described? MODELS j
What do the design of a private gar- I f J !
den in Tokyo, a street in Berlin, a ' 1 -
/ II How does the landscape II PROCESS * " .
park in Brisbane, and a forest pre- j '' operate? MODELS ,
serve in Kenya have in common? It is i

t
/

' I
evident that there can be no such ' ' - ^

thing as THE Design Process. Thus, J ill Is the landscape working well? Ill EVALUATION *
' MODELS «
we need a framework for design as a
verb - for the asking of questions, and /'
^n ,
/' i
V IV How might the landscape be IV CHANGE 5
' / n ,

for design as a noun - for choosing

A altered? MODELS '
among answers.1
In a previous paper in Landscape i MODELS
1 ' - *
Journal , I presented a framework for I SAV What differences might the V IMPACT ~~ļ ®
thinking about design as a verb and for ' changes cause? MODELS j ®
asking the questions that are neces- ' j r J ' ^
sarily part of the processes of de-
Nv>VI Should th
sign - of proposing intentional change changed? How is the decision MODELS ¿
(Steinitz 1990). Three cases were pre- to be made?

sented: the redesign of the Loop

Road in Acadia National Park, the
History of Central Park, and the de-
sign of the garden for the Spanish
Chess Champion (an invention). This
framework has subsequently been ap-
plied to landscape plans for the Sny-
derville Basin, (Steinitz et al., 1993)
and Monroe County, (Steinitz et al.,
1994) and in many unpublished pro-
ject-scale case studies. The framework
for design as a verb - the questions -
seems both robust and useful (Figure 1).
My framework herein for design
as a noun offers a guide to the answers ,
and it is illustrated with landscape
examples across scale, culture, time,
and type. The reader will see that
within this strategic framework,
there is great scope for individuality.
As designers, we all will need to syn-
thesize questions and answers for
ourselves.
In the verb framework, each of
the six repeated questions has answers
that can be characterized as nouns.
This does not imply a singular or static as a verb - how it came into being).
character; the most subtle, complex
and dynamic relationships are still
nouns. These answers integrate (via
the verb framework) into what is
hoped for, a "yes" answer to the deci-
sion model. Only then can the design Student: "/created this . . . (Isn't it
uniquely terrific?)"
(as a noun) be considered "final."
Once again, this is not necessarily a
singular or static product; a land-
Figure 1. A Framework for Design as a Verb (based on Steinitz 1990a).
scape management strategy or an
adventure playground can be the sub-
ject of design. Thus, when thinking
about design as a noun s we are thinkingthe student.
principally about the design itself -
the final product of the verb frame-
work - and the model for intentional
change.
In my role as a teacher, I have
frequently observed the dilemma of
choosing a design strategy. From the
students' perspective, it must be very
confusing (Figure 2).
From a teacher's perspective,
there is a parallel dilemma. So much
of teaching involves studio and jury
criticism of "the product." The evi-
dence is the design as a noun (not design
None of the all-too-common critical
dialogues is especially satisfying:
The test of newness:
U/ 1 k
Specify v Change I
Method
Critic: The critic has to decide
whether to stroke personal growth or
to cite precedent, even if unknown to
The test of personal involvement:
Student: "I felt that . . . (Don't you feel it
too?)"
Critic: The critic understands neither
the feeling nor its representation in
design, but focuses on the expression
of (any) feeling.
The test of consistency:
Student: "My intent was . . . (Isn't it won-
derful?)"
Critic: The critic focuses on the rela-
tionship between stated intent and
the design, rarely questioning the
appropriateness of the intent.
The test of perfect fit:
Student: "It perfectly fits the problem state-
ment . . . (Didn't I succeed?)"
Critic: The critic frequently (cyni-
cally) finds more to seek or chal-
lenges the acceptance of the brief.

Steinitz 189

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 The test of concept clarity: soil in history, tradition or human
Student: "My concept is (e.g.) hierarchy . . . institutions, else its random growths
(Isn't it clear, and therefore good?)" are not significant enough and, like
Critic: The critic is torn between the trivial melodies, go immediately
out of fashion.
pleasure of seeing any concept and
exclaiming "beginner's luck!" (and Some might argue that the pri-
why is concept always singular?) mary concepts in landscape architec-
ture are aesthetic, others that they
The test of precedent sim- are ecological, and others that they
ilarity: are the relationships between ecology
Student: "My design is inspired by (e.g.) and perception. My view is that
Villa Lante . . . (It's good, and therefore because landscape architecture is the
isn't my design good?)." result of design as a verb - of an anthro-
Critic: The critic wonders, "How does pocentric process of intentional
it resemble Villa Lante?" rather than change - that its primary concepts
asking, "Why should it resemble Villa are social relationships, and that in
Lante?" landscape architecture, the primary
means - the materiality and the orga-
The test of authority: nization of experience - are ecologi-
Student: "My design is based on cal and perceptual.
But what about
theory (I assume it's true, therefore, isn'tart? What about
my design good?)." personal expression? In China and
Japan
Critic: The critic may or may morenot
so than
bein Europe and
aware of the theory andAmerica,
may art orismay
considered as a collab-
oration withand
not understand its relevance the observer.
mayThe de-
or may not have anything
signerto say.
manipulates not only things
but also the interaction of the user-
The test of representation: viewer. Only when that interaction is
Student: "And this is my drawing fulfilled, canof something
. . . be considered
(Isn't it fine?)." as a work of art. A related point is
Critic: The critic comments on the made in a commentary on Exodus ,
quality of the graphics, rather than chapter XXV:
on qualities being represented. (A The true artist possesses the power
good design representation is not the to inspire others. A light that can-
same thing as a good design deci- not kindle other lights is but a fee-
sion.) ble flame. The core of art is its
teaching and ennobling influence
None of these caricatured dia- not only on other artists, but on
logues is satisfying, in large part humanity.
because they all avoid the heart of Because I believe that a design
the matter, the nature of the design
is, above all else, a social act expressed
itself. This situation is largely due to
functionally and artistically, I believe
the absence of a framework for think-
that one needs an organizational
ing about design as a noun . Such a framework for design as a noun that is
framework must include design in- based on a social model. My frame-
tent and meaning, organization, and work for design as a noun is inspired by
materiality (all nouns). The frame- a social formulation of Martin Buber
work should guide one towards a (Buber 1970). The framework recog-
strategic concept for design expres- nizes four basic social concepts and
sion (also a noun), but it should leave links each with a design strategy. I
considerable scope for the adaptive call them:
tactics in any particular case. Thus, a
•"ONE-ness"
design as a noun should be an idea made
tangible, but also more than that; it
•"TWO-ness"
should be a social communication
that is experienced and understood. •"MANY-ness"
As George Santayana reminds us:
When creative genius neglects to • "INFINITE-ness."
ally itself to some public interest, it
Figure 2. The Concept ... a parable for hardly gives birth to wide or peren-
our time (Carl Steinitz 1990b). nial influence. Imagination needs a

190 Landscape Journal

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I propose that these four are the stra-
tegic concepts for design as a noun , and
that all else is tactics - adaptive in-
terpretation in a specific design con-
text (Figure 3).
The framework for design as a
noun can be "read" from the left
and/or the right, reflecting the idea
that experience and understanding
are constantly and cyclically interac-
tive: one sees materiality, experiences
it in time and space and function,
derives meaning and thus reinforces,
adds to, or changes a world-view,
which, in turn, informs the search for
meaning, via experience, of the mate-
riality of the landscape.
The central and socially defined
strategic concept is deliberately
placed in the central position. It is
the mediating idea between what is
more the domain of the designer (the
materiality and experience that is
"designed") and the domain of the
user (the world view and meaning
which is derived). The sharing of the
central concept between user and
designer is a precondition to one's
understanding of a design as an idea
made tangible.
Like any framework, my frame-
work for design as a noun is not
deterministic. There are famous
examples of designs that have multi-
ple, simultaneous "readings." There
are landscapes that have changed
meanings over time, and there are
many which simply do not fit easily
into this framework. Nonetheless, I
propose the framework for design as
a noun, and, like any framework, it is
subject only to the test of usefulness:
whether it helps the reader to classify
and interrelate world view, meaning,
concept, experience, and materiality;
and whether this, in turn, leads to a
clearer "critical" understanding of
design (as a noun). To illustrate the
framework, I have deliberately cho-
sen landscape examples across scale,
time, type, and culture. The selection
is personal; it makes no claim to com-
pleteness.
"ONE-ness"
A design which has an overarch-
ing strategic concept of "ONE-ness"
implies that the central world view
focuses on "me." Frequently, the
source of this world-view is an individ-
ual or institutional client, but there
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STRATEGIC
WORLD-VIEW MEANING CONCEPT EXPERIENCE MATERIALITY
ME SINGULARITY ONE-NESS (»DERING UNIFYING
US/THEM DIALECTIC TWO-NESS JUXTAPOSITION CONTRASTING
WE PLURALISM MANY-NESS ADAPTATION DIVERSE
TRANSCENDENT SPIRITUAL INFINITE-NESS REVELATION SYMBOLIC
Figure 3. A Framework for Design as a Noun .
are also examples where the "me" is requires diversity, and the expe-
ality
a dominant group or even a domi-rience of the user-viewer frequently
neering designer. The meaning toinvolves
be direct participation in the
adaptation of the landscape.
expressed is the singular identifica-
tion of the design with the "me." The
design emphasizes the ordering •of INFINITE-ness *
the user's experience (via any of a set The fourth overarching concept,
"INFINITE-ness," requires a shared
of design principles), and it typically
sense of the transcendent. Clearly,
uses materials in a unifying manner.
different religions and belief systems
"TWO-ness" have different concepts of the deity
A design with "TWO-ness" has and the relation between person and
as its central concept the need to cre- deity. The meaning of the design is
ate or reinforce a dialectic relation- spiritual, a feeling of being in the
ship. Again, this world-view can be presence of, or in a relationship with,
held by an individual or group, but a deity. It is frequently achieved
one which needs a distinction be- through symbolic forms and materi-
tween "us" and "them" for differenti- als and a landscape experience that
ation. The design strategy focuses offers the possibility of revelation.
upon causing the user to experience
the juxtaposition which implies this As I have tried to show, each of
social relationship via the use of con- the four strategic concepts of the
trasting spatial organization and framework for design as a noun is
materiality. social.2 It has a world view, a primary
meaning (fully recognizing that there
"MANY-ness" are many ways of understanding land-
"MANY-ness," a more all- scapes e.g. Corner (1990), Meinig
encompassing world-view, seeks, via a (1976)), an organizing principle for
pluralistic reading, the sense that experiencing the landscape, and a
many people with diverse intentions dominant theme of materiality. Dif-
have shaped the design, perhaps over ferent parts of a design-teaching
a long time span. The design materi- strategy might focus on design from
one side or the other - from material-
ity or world-view. We can most easily
"read" a design from the side of mate-
riality and experience. But I prefer
Steinitz 191
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 "ONE-ness"

4. 1 Forbidden City, Beijing, China. The entire complex supports a4.3 Running Fence, USA, Christo. The experience of any part of
hierarchy focusing toward the Emperor and is reflected in move- this singular artistic gesture, in the knowledge of the whole, gives
ment and scale changes toward the inside, as well as in images of unity to diverse landscapes.
power over nature.

4.2 Royal Road, Hanover, Germany. The movement is an overt 4.4 Place des Vosges, Paris, France. A hierarchy of space, form,
axial experience focusing on a royal presence. materials, and scale reinforces a social hierarchy.

192 Landscape Journal

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 "ONE-ness"

4.8 Kokadera (Moss Garden) Kyoto,Japan. A dominant material

4.5 Oxford Courtyard, England. Recognizable as a type and used used to create great visual diversity gives the viewer a sense of con-
with variation in different colleges, this singular space gives unity trol over nature.
and identification to the intellectual and institutional diversity of a
great university.

4.6 Yosemite Valley, USA. One great (and irregular) named space
unifies several world-class natural landmarks and identifies them
with one singular tourism experience

4.7 Left: Terraces, Phillipines. The dominant (and singular) needs

of production frequently result in a unified landscape. (Photo by
Charles W. Harris.) 4.9 Above: "New England," USA. (Charles
Wysocki). The concepts of genius loci and sense of place ascribe
unity to what was not necessarily made with that intent, but which
may now have it.
Steinitz 193

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 "TWO-ness"

5.3 Paley Park, New York City, USA. By emphasizing "natural"

5.1 Ya Yuan, Shanghai, China. The relationship between "man"
materials, quiet, and individual choice, the design of this public
and "nature" is a universal dialectic, expressed in many designs space establishes a private experience that is sharply juxtaposed
and in many cultures.
against its urban context. (Photo by Kenneth Helphand.)

5.2 Fallingwater, USA. ". . . and the natural thing seemed to be to 5.4 Ryoan-ji, Kyoto, Japan. The dialectic between reality and
cantilever the house from that rock bank over the falling water. . . memory
. can be expressed in many ways. In this example, it is
Then came (of course) Mr. Kaufman's love for the beautiful site. experienced via "entering" the landscape without entering it.
He loved the site where the house was built and liked to listen to (Photo by Kenneth Helphand.)
the waterfall. So that was a prime motive in the design." - Frank
Lloyd Wright (Photo by Kenneth Helphand.)

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 "TWO-ness"

5.5 Timber Mill, Ashton, Idaho, USA. The relationship between 5.7 Nanzen-ji, Kyoto. This view symbolizes the dialectic between man
and nature, "inside" and "outside." (Photo by Kenneth Helphand.)
reality and memory can also be expressed visually and experienced
with a sense of irony or even cynicism.

5.8 Villa Lante, "The Flood," Italy (Photo by Gary Hilderbrand).

5.9 Villa Lante, "Civilization," Italy, Vignola. The dialectic

between beginning and end, between "the flood" and "civilization,"
5.6 Daisen-In, Kyoto, Japan. The sense of an immense landscapeisinexperienced in the movement from top to bottom in this famous
a tiny garden illustrates the dialectics of size and scale. landscape.

Steinitz 195

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 "MANY-ness"

6. 1 "Junkyard playground," Sdeh Elijahu, Israel (Photo by M. Haas).6.4 Rain forest, Venezuela. The need to conserve is based on the
rareness implied by diversity. (Photo by Richard T. T. Forman.)

6.2 "Junkyard playground," Sdeh Elijahu, Israel. In this religious

kibbutz, young children use the real materials of the place to cre-
ate environments for play and fantasy (as well as for a socializing
education). For the past 50 years, the landscape has been taken
apart every Friday afternoon and remade (differently) beginning
on Sunday morning. (Photo by M. Haas.)

6.3 Left: Las Vegas, USA. Entertainment - short-term pleasure -

and the commercial competition for the customer's participation
produce a highly diverse urban landscape, especially at night.
6.5 Above: Agriculture, Italy. Many annual cycles of mixed agricul-
ture create a highly diverse landscape.

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 "MANY-ness"

6.6 Botanic garden, Kew, England. A type and a design intended 6.8 Yi Yuan, Shanghai, China. In this garden, one has the simulta-
to accommodate and display the diversity of plants. neous experience of past, present, and future.

6.9 Wang-Shi Yuan (Garden of the Master of the Fishing Nets)

Souzhou, China. This tiny space, about 20 meters square, offers
diverse experiences in which no two steps or views are alike. It is
said that the primary user could not leave the house of this garden
for 10 years. (Perhaps the diverse experiences are in the mind,
enabling sanity to be preserved.)

6.7 Rue Aubry le Roucher between Place George Pompidou and

Place E. Michelet, Paris. A simple physical form, but one which
accommodates diverse and ever-changing activity. The activity
creates the perceived space and its own focal-but-temporary expe-
rience. (Photo by Kenneth Helphand.)

Steinitz 197

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 "INFINITE-ness"

These are especially difficult to explain in words ; one either achieves understanding or not, frequently because of preparation and expectation. Whi
ples are landscapes , they are not all "designed." Yet they all enable a sense of infinite-ness if one is open to the idea.

7.1 Holy Tree, Israel. An otherwise ordinary tree is a locus for peti-
tion and prayer. (Photo by Nurit Lissovsky.)

7.4 Babur supervising the building of the Bagh-i Wafá.

7.2 Ninna-ji, Kyoto, Japan. The ritual act of remaking the pattern
is timeless.

7.3 Left: Kokanee Salmon in the Metolius River, Oregon, USA.

This is another timeless cycle, and one which is at risk of being
halted in our lifetimes. (Photo by Kenneth Helphand.)
7.5 Above: Graves and house with good Feng-Shui, China. In this
ancient tradition, one first sites the graves of the ancestors, then
sites one's own house.

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 "INFINITE-ness"

7.6 Fenway Park, Boston, USA. "The path to comprehending

Calvinism in modern America begins at Fenway Park." - "Bart"
Giamatti.

7.9 "Dream time." This image of the Stanley Mountains near Alice
Springs, Australia, is the reality which links the "artist" to the
landscape.
7.7 Tofuko-ji, Kyoto, Japan, Shigemori, 1938. In this modern garden
the eight shapes of stone arrangement reflect "Hasotei," the eight
teachings of Buddha.

7.8 Vietnam Memorial, Washington DC, USA, Lin. A public memo-

rial landscape can inspire profound private feelings.

Steinitz 199

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Design as a Verb Design as a Noun Notes

1. Amos Rapoport elegantly distinguishes theo-

I Which "landscape" is it? Representation ries, models, and frameworks:
II How do people understand the landscape? Process Put in simplest terms, a theory explains, a
model predicts and a framework organizes. A
III What is the problem? Evaluation framework can be judged on its reasonable-
IV Which design strategy should be pursued? Change ness and its utility, but claims no exclusivity
vis-à-vis other frameworks.
V Is the proposed change an improvement? Impact
A theory looks at the past and possibly
VI Is it a good design? Decision
the present; a model attempts to look to the
future, based on the past; and a framework is
Figure 4. Design as a verb: Design as a noun. time-neutral; it can help you look backward or
forward. As an aside, and it may seem hereti-
cal, but I think theory is overused as a teaching
mode, while models and frameworks are under-
used. This is especially so if, as designers, we
to teach from the world-view, allow-
standing of world-view and intended look to the future, not with the purpose of
meaning
ing considerable scope for as made
the tangible in the po-
adapta- emulating the past, but to improve upon it. I
tential experience and
tion of landscape experience of the materiality agree with the words of the sage and poet Abby
Hoffman, "ISM's are WASM's."
materiality. of the design (on the one hand), and
2. Since a social model is a product of a culture
the user's experience of the material- and a time, there is a question as to whether
ity of prior
In this paper and the the landscape,
one with its capacity my lens is an appropriate one for others. As has
(Steinitz 1990, 1993), forIbeing
have"read" for meaning and
proposed been pointed out to me by Ping Xu: in China,
a dual framework forworld-view thinking (on the other
about hand). This TWO-ness is ONE-ness, in a democracy
MANY-ness can be ONE-ness and in a theoc-
design: is analogous to the view that commu-
racy, INFINITE-ness is ONE-ness.
nication requires a sender with a 3. It may be stretching the hypothesis of the
for design as a verb - its questions and,
message, a medium of expression, frameworks (but that is one of the purposes of

for design as a noun - its answers.

and a comprehending recipient. The
design itself (as a noun) is the
The noun framework can be a
basis for the answers to the questions
of the verb framework (Figure 4.):
However, the critical relation-
ship is that between question VI in
the verb framework and its socially-
driven decision model and the "final"
design, a proposed change which has
been evaluated as an improvement.
The potential utility of my framework
for design as a noun is that it also is
socially driven.
The noun framework appears at
least two times in the verb frame-
work's decision model: the first ap-
pearance is in the initial recognition
of the context of the design, when the
decision model shapes the selection of
the central design strategy and the
methods by which the design study
will be accomplished (this is analo-
gous to the situation caricatured in
Figure 2). The second role for the
noun framework is at the point of
decision, when it can be used to as-
sess whether the design fulfills its
conceptual objective. (This is analo-
gous to the caricatured jury discus-
sions between student and critic.) In
this circumstance, one aspect of de-
ciding that the landscape should be
changed (verb, VI) is the determina-
tion that the design (noun) provides a
match between the designer's under-
medium of social communication.
The dual framework for design as
a verb and design as a noun attempts to
organize the ideas that are at the
core of design education. I hope that
they can be a useful means of fulfill-
ing the succinct definition of educa-
tion propounded by the theorist
Kirsten Hammond: "Learning is the
organization of experience." As seen
in the many examples, there is wide
latitude for individuality, for creative
adaptation to context, constraints
and opportunities, problem-types,
and even to personalities.3 In this
sense, I believe that it is useful for us,
as designers, to distinguish the ques-
tions we ask in designing, and that it
is useful to us to consider whether
our answers are truly directed to the
shaping of our social environments.
Acknowledgments
I thank Irene Fairley and TenBroeck Patterson
for helping me to make articles out of polemics,
while still enabling my ideas and my voice to be
retained, and I thank the two (anonymous) re-
viewers for their important critical comments. I
also thank my colleagues and former students
who contributed to the projects cited in the two
"framework papers," and Gary Hilderbrand,
Nurit Lissovsky, and the many other persons
who generously gave me slides and other illustra-
tions for my (growing) collection of examples.
a paper like this) to consider the possible rela-
tionship between the psychology of the
designer and the product - design as a noun.
Again, this is based on my reflection upon lis-
tening to many student and professional pre-
sentations. Can it be that designers who are
involved in "ONE-ness" projects exhibit indif-
ference to any but their own and/or the client's
views; that "TWO-ness" implies an attitude of
superiority on behalf of "us"; that "MANY-
ness" reflects respect or differences; and that
"INFINITE-ness" requires humility? The
recognition of "MANY-ness" raises crucial ethi-
cal questions toward "ONE-ness": Who is
'ordering' what for whom, and why?
References
Buber, Martin. 1970. land Thou. New York:
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Corner, J. 1990. "A Discourse on Theory . . ."
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Meinig, D. W. 1976. "The Beholding Eye, Ten
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Steinitz, Carl. 1990a. "A Framework for Theory
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Steinitz, Carl, et al., eds. 1993.
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