Teaching aid is an objective (such as a book, picture, or map) or device (such as a dvd or computer) used

by a teacher to enhance or enliven classroom instruction. Material used by a teacher to supplement

classroom instruction or to stimulate the interest of student.

Auditory Learners

Around 30 percent of the population is made up of auditory learners, who learn best through hearing.
While many of their classmates and coworkers struggle to get through a lengthy lecture, an auditory
learner will soak up the information they hear and remember up to 75 percent of it. Be careful if you
find yourself in a relationship with a person who learns through hearing, as they'll remember every last
detail of your conversation in an argument!

The best way to stimulate learning and communication in an auditory learner is through discussion,
group chat and in the lecture hall. Oral presentations and exams help this style of learner, or dication
and reciting aloud what they have read or herd. Seeing as auditory learners won't be able to learn
through visual means, they must repeat what they see. Remember that table from Ikea? You'd better
give it to them with a full set of instructions, or better yet; read them aloud, as presenting them with a
diagram won't work as well.

How do you communicate to an auditory learner? Well, simply, by speaking to them. But, if you're in a
meeting or conference-type situation, try to vary your tone and pitch to keep your speech fluid and
interesting. Also, you may want to emphasize key phrases and write them down if the pronunciation
isn't obvious, to ensure they get the right takeaway.

You can spot an auditory learner easily. They'll be the one in your meeting asking a lot of questions!
Auditory learners tend to like to discuss what they hear right away. Songs and audio recordings are a
great way for them to learn, as is keeping presentations fairly short, since they can be easily distracted
by outside noise. Auditory learners will likely be the ones giving you the most encouragement, often
verbally expressing their interest and enthusiasm, and surprising you by following out directives without
being reminded.

Auditory learning is a learning style in which a person learns through listening. An auditory learner
depends on listening and speaking as a main way of learning. [1] Auditory learners must be able to hear
what is being said in order to understand and may have difficulty with instructions that are drawn but if
the writing is in a logical order it can be easier to understand. They also use their listening and repeating
skills to sort through the information that is sent to them. They are good listeners when people speak.
[2]

The Fleming VAK/VARK model , one of the most common and widely used categorizations of the various
types of learning styles, [3] categorized the various types of learning styles as follows: visual learners ,
auditory learners, reading/writing-preference learners, and

kinesthetic learners (also known as "tactile learners"). [4]

Characteristics
Auditory learners may have a knack for ascertaining the true meaning of someone's words by listening
to audible signals like changes in tone . When memorizing a phone number, an auditory learner will say
it out loud and then remember how it sounded to recall it.

Auditory learners are good at writing responses to lectures they’ve heard. They’re also good at oral
exams, effectively by listening to information delivered orally, in lectures, speeches, and oral sessions.

Proponents claim that when an auditory/verbal learner reads, it is almost impossible for the learner to
comprehend anything without sound in the background. In these situations, listening to music or having
different sounds in the background ( TV , people talking, music , etc.) will help learners work better.

Auditory learners are good at storytelling. They solve problems by talking them through. Speech
patterns include phrases “I hear you; That clicks; It's ringing a bell”, and other sound or voice-oriented
information. These learners will move their lips or talk to themselves to help accomplish tasks. [1]

Recommended techniques

Proponents say that teachers should use these techniques to instruct auditory learners: verbal direction,
group discussions, verbal reinforcement, group activities, reading aloud, and putting information into a
rhythmic pattern such as a rap, poem, or song. [1]

Kinesthetic Learners

Kinesthetic learners are a complex bunch and make up just 5 percent of the population. They'll be the
ones shuffling and fidgeting during your presentation, or antsy in lengthy meeting. People who have a
kinesthetic learning style often struggle learning through traditional means and sedentary activities, like
lectures and conferences. Their minds simply can't make the connection that they're doing something
when listening or observing. They need to get up and get involved in the action for it to sink into their
memory.

Beyond the fact that they find it hard to sit still, kinesthetic learners are often high energy folks who are
engaged in sports, or those chirpy people around the watercooler in the morning. They're quick to react,
so if you get into an emergency, it's good to have a kinesthetic learner around, with sharp reflexes and a
penchant for getting involved. Kinesthetic learners love to experiment, so give them hands-on tasks and
stimulate their learning that way.

What's the worst way to communicate with a kinesthetic learner? Make them sit through a lengthy
presentation. Even if you use visual aids, they'll find it hard to stay engaged. If you want to work well
with with the kinesthetic learners in your company, give them a challenge where they can get their
hands dirty. If you know you've got a kinesthetic learner who needs to sit through a conference, try to
allow for regular intervals. Give them tasks to carry out with teammates, like role playing and group
work.
Kinesthetic learning (American English),

kinaesthetic learning (British English), or tactile learning is a learning style in which learning takes place
by the students carrying out physical activities, rather than listening to a lecture or watching
demonstrations. As cited by Favre (2009), Dunn and Dunn define kinesthetic learners as students who
require whole-body movement to process new and difficult information. [1]

History

Kinesthetic intelligence, which was originally coupled with tactile abilities, was defined and discussed in
Howard Gardner's Frames Of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences in 1983. In this book, Gardner
describes activities such as dancing and performing surgeries as requiring great kinesthetic intelligence:
using the body to create (or do) something.

Margaret H'Doubler wrote and spoke about kinesthetic learning during the 1940s, defining kinesthetic
learning as the human body's ability to express itself through movement and dance.

According to neil Fleming’s model, kinesthetic learners are similar to tactile learners in that they like
hands-on experiential learning. They excel in concrete learning such as on-the-job training, work
experience, internships, simulations and so forth (Kte’pi, 2016). Classification

Rita Dunn contends that kinesthetic and tactile learning are the same style. [5] Galeet BenZion asserts
that kinesthetic and tactile learning are separate learning styles, with different characteristics. She
defined kinesthetic learning as the process that results in new knowledge (or understanding) with the
involvement of the learner's body movement. This movement is performed to establish new knowledge
or extend existing knowledge. Kinesthetic learning is at its best, BenZion found, when the learner uses
language (their own words) in order to define, explain, resolve and sort out how their body's movement
reflects the concept explored. One example is a student using movement to work out the sum of 1/2
plus 3/4 via movement, then explaining how their motions in space reflect the mathematical process
leading to the correct answer. Kinesthetic memory

Depending upon memory systems the kinesthetic learners respond differently. The different kinds of
learners mainly include whole body learners, hands-on learners, doodlers, students learning through
emotional experiences. The learning and the memory is generally short term. To achieve a long term
memory different techniques can be used depending on the learning style. Mind mapping, story
mapping, webbing, drawing can be used to enhance the learning of a doodler. For the hands-on learner,
role play, clay, building and math manipulative can be used. The whole book body learner can learn
better through role-playing, body mapping, puzzles and use of computer technology which allows for
certain movement while learning. Students can be engaged in group activities and activities which
involve bodily movement such as dance, drama, sports can be used to nurture their learning. The
following strategies can be used to facilitate kinesthetic memory through procedural motor pathway
such as:

Dance: ideas, concepts and processes can be expressed through creative movements
Laboratory demonstrations

Sports

Gymnastics

Charades

The kinesthetic learners who have memories associated with emotions learning can be facilitated
through dance, debate, drama, role-play , and charades. This kind of learning leads to a long-term
memory since it is associated with emotions such as excitement , curiosity ,

anger , disappointment and success. [8]

Kinds of skill memory

Perceptual-motor skills are skills learned by movement patterns guided by sensory inputs. [4] There are
closed skills and open skills. Closed skills are skills learned such as dance. A ballerina learns a specific set
of moves and doesn’t stray from the exact routine, which is why it is called a closed skill; there is one
option. Open skills are skills that require more flexibility in learning such as team sports. A person
learning how to play football learns multiple drills, strategies, and practices scrimmages in order to learn
how to work in multiple types of environments. Because no football game is the same, and a person
can't know going into a game the exact steps the other team is going to take, open skills are required to
become successful. Cognitive skills also are a part of kinesthetic learning, perceptual learning, and skill
memories. Some people learn better in an environment that is more hands-on, and this builds their
cognitive skills as well. Cognitive skills are skills which require individuals to solve problems or apply
strategies rather than to move their bodies based on what they perceive. [4] Solving a puzzle would be
an example of a cognitive skill. Management strategies

Learners with kinesthetic preferences learn through active movements and experiences. Activities such
as playing , puppetry , drama ,

acting and designing ensures involvement of the learners. Thus, it is also important to manage the
students during such activities. [9]

Some effective strategies used to involve unmotivated students during activities are:

Motivate the students by giving attention and reward, avoid punishment .

Students should be provided with option to choose activities for learning a particular concept

Grades can be allotted depending on the participation by using score rubrics

Activities chosen should encourage all the students to succeed and feel that have accomplished learning
through an activity

Every student has to be given equal opportunity to participate

Cooperative activities can be organized and positive feedback can be given to encourage teamwork in a
class

Some effective strategies used to manage hyper motivated students are:

Encourage the students to organize body movement during activities

Regular monitoring of the students

Appropriate and accurate directions have to be given for any activity

Before involving the students in the activity, the consequences of the task going out of control has to be
clearly explained. [10]

Favre (2009) stated that instructional strategies should include movement in a game-like format. Favre
suggested designing kinesthetic games. For example, “game boards such as Tic-Tac-Toe affixed to the
classroom floor and hopscotch template painted on the playground tarmac or sidewalks around the
school” (p. 32). Favre also suggested that instructors can use “commercial games such as Twister,
Jeopardy and Nerf basketball and create game cards that align with their lesson objectives” (pp.32-33)
[1] .

Reese & Dunn (2007) in their research of college freshmen learning styles provided recommended that
"to ensure success for kinesthetic learners, classes should provide active experiences for planning or
carrying out objectives, such as visits, project, role playing, simulations and floor or wall games"(p. 108).
[1]

Signs of a kinesthetic learner

Skylar Anderson points out signs that may lead one to believing they are a kinesthetic learner. For
example in his work he states the following signs, your knee is bouncing constantly. You regularly kick a
soccer ball, or toss a baseball, or spin a basketball on your finger while having a conversation. You crack
your fingers while preparing for, or doing, an activity. You talk using your hands as a compliment to your
speech. You pace when you really need to cram information for a test. You mime things to boost your
memory. You have gotten in trouble more than twice for tapping your pencil on your desk or clicking
your pen in the same class period. You think best when you’re exercising. You remember your notes
best when you’ve written them down with your hand rather than typing them out. You touch everything
you pass in a store without thinking about it. [13]

Visual Learners

Approximately 65 percent of the population are visual learners, so it's likely you'll have several in your
group. Visual learners are often called spatial learners and, unsurprisingly, learn and remember best
through visual communication. This means that using a whiteboard, projecting maps and images, or
showing photos of your ideas work best.
Visual learners have a great spacial sense, which makes them good with map reading and blessed with a
strong sense of direction. They can easily visualize objects, so putting together a living room table from
Ikea is simple for them when presented with a diagram of how the parts fit.

You can spot a visual learner easily as the one who thrives off of meeting room learning with a
whiteboard. They may also be doodling on paper or scribbling notes. Visual learners tend to have

good dress sense as well, and sometimes just looking at a color-coordinated colleague can give you a
few clues into their learning style. Visual learners are often especially creative and get involved in
design, photography, architecture, or professions that demand a good sense of orientation and
planning.

How do you communicate best with a visual learner? By using visual aids. Don't hand them a 10,000-
word whitepaper or lengthy instruction manual. Don't speak at the speed of light and expect them to
follow your idea. Instead, use maps, images, pictures, diagrams and mind maps using colors and pictures
in place of text, where possible. And remember, a visual learner isn't trying to disobey your orders or
blow off your ideas. They may just be having a hard time getting the message to sink in if they fail to
respond to words alone

Visual learning is a style in which a learner utilizes graphs, charts, maps and diagrams. It is one of the
three basic types of learning styles in the Fleming VAK/VARK model that also includes kinesthetic
learning and auditory learning . [1]

Techniques

A review study concluded that using graphic organizers improves student performance in the following
areas: [2]

Retention

Students remember information better and can better recall it when it is represented and learned both
visually and verbally. [2]

Reading comprehension

The use of graphic organizers helps improve the reading comprehension of students. [2]

Student achievement

Students with and without learning disabilities improve achievement across content areas and grade
levels. [2]

A study by Haith, Hazan, & Goodman in 1988 showed that babies, as young as 3.5 months, are able to
create short-term expectations of situations they confront.

Understanding the different types of learners and making concessions for their learning styles will
improve your communication and help prevent frustration or misunderstanding. You may think that a
visual learner isn't interested in what you're saying, or that a kinesthetic learner is being rude or
disruptive, by not being able to focus. Adjust the way you deliver your speech, structure your
employees' workloads differently, or bond in an active group exercise and you'll soon see improved
results.

Q2. The keystone effect is the apparent distortion of an image caused by projecting it onto an angled
surface. It is the distortion of the image dimensions, such as making a square look like a trapezoid , the
shape of an architectural

keystone , hence the name of the feature. In the typical case of a projector sitting on a table, and looking
upwards to the screen, the image is larger at the top than on the bottom. Some areas of the screen may
not be focused correctly as the projector lens is focused at the average distance only.

In photography, the term is used to describe the apparent leaning of buildings towards the vertical
centerline of the photo when shooting upwards, a common effect in Architectural photography .
Likewise, when taking photos looking down, e.g., from a skyscraper, buildings appear to get broader
towards the top. The effect is usually corrected for by either using special lenses in Tilt–shift
photography or in post-processing using modern image editing software.

Keystone effect in stereo imaging

In stereo imaging , two lenses are used to view the same subject image, each from a slightly different
perspective, allowing a three-dimensional view of the subject. If the two images are not exactly parallel,
this causes a keystone effect. This is particularly noticeable when the lenses are close to the subject, as
with a stereo microscope, [2] but is also a common problem with many 3d stereo camera lenses.

Solving the problem

The problem arises for screen projectors that don't have the depth of focus necessary to keep all lines
(from top to bottom) focused at the same time. Common solutions to this problem are:

moving the projector more to the center of the screen,

tilting the screen in a small angle,

the use of special software on the projector

and computer controlling the projector.

Correction

Keystone correction , colloquially also called

keystoning , is a function that allows

multimedia projectors that are not placed perpendicular to the horizontal centerline of the screen (too
high or too low) to skew the output image, thereby making it rectangular.
It is often necessary for a projector to be placed in a position outside the line perpendicular to the
screen and going through the screen's center, for example, when the projector is mounted to a ceiling or
placed on a table top that is lower or higher than the projection screen. Most ceiling-mounted
projectors have to be mounted upside down to accommodate for the throw of the image from the lens,
with the image rotated right-side-up with software. Keystone correction is a feature included with many
projectors that provides the ability to intentionally "distort" the output image to recreate the original
rectangular image provided by the video or computer source, thus eliminating the skewed output that
would otherwise result due to angled projection.

The ability to correct horizontal keystone distortion is generally only available on larger or professional
level projectors. In most consumer units, this is easily corrected by moving the projector left or right as
necessary, or less often by lens shifting, with similar principles as Tilt–shift photography .

Functionality

In modern projectors keystone correction technology is performed digitally (rather than optically) via
the internal ( LCD ) panels or ( DLP) mirrors of the projector, depending on the technology used. Thus,
when applying keystone correction to an image, the number of individual pixels used is reduced,
lowering the resolution and thus degrading the quality of the image projected.

References

1. ^ Yadav, Devvrat; Agrawal, Shashikant (Feb 2013). "Keystone Error Correction Method in Camera-
Projector System to Correct the Projected Image on planar surface and tilted projector" .

International Journal of Computer Science & Engineering Technology . 4 (2): 143. Retrieved 1 December
2015.

References

1. ^ Leite, Walter L.; Svinicki, Marilla; and Shi, Yuying: Attempted Validation of the Scores of the VARK:
Learning Styles Inventory With Multitrait–Multimethod Confirmatory Factor Analysis Models, pg. 2.
SAGE Publications, 2009.

2. ^ a b c d e "Graphic Organizers: A Review of Scientifically Based Research, The Institute for the
Advancement of Research in Education at AEL" (PDF).

3. ^ Poldrack, R., Desmond, J., Glover, G., & Gabrieli, J. The Neural Basis of Visual Skill Learning: An fMRI
Study of Mirror Reading. Cerebral Cortex. Jan/Feb 1998.

4. ^ Vogel, R., Sary, G., Dupont, P., Orban, G. Human Brain Regions Involved in Visual Categorization.
Elsevier Science (USA) 2002.

5. ^ Squire, L. Declarative and Nondeclarative Memory: Multiple Brain Systems Supporting Learning and
Memory". 1992 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 4.3.
6. ^ Lord, C. "Schemas and Images as Memory Aids: Two Modes of Processing Social Information".
Stanford University. 1980. American Psychological Association.

7. ^ Google definition. (2013, November 12). Retrieved from Google.

8. ^ Haith, M. M., Hazan, C., & Goodman, G. S. (1988). Expectation and Anticipation of Dynamic Visual
Events by 3.5 Month Old Babies. Child Development, 59, 467-479.

9. ^ Johnson, M. H., Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (1991). Components of Visual Orienting in Early
Infancy: Contingency Learning, Anticipatory Looking, and Disengaing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,
335-344

10. ^ "David Roberts Academic Consulting" .

vl.catalystitsolutions.co.uk . Retrieved

2017-01-04.

11. ^ Smith, L.B., Yu, C., & Pereira, A. F. (2011). Not your mother's view: The dynamics of toddler visual
experience. Developmental science, 14(1), 9-17.

12. ^ Bertenthal, B. I., Campos, J. J., & Kermoian, R. (1994). An epigenetic perspective on the
development of self-produced locomotion and its consequences. Current Directions in Psychological
Science, 3(5), 140-145.

13. ^ Birch, H. G., & Belmont, L. (1965). Auditory-visual integration, intelligence and reading ability in
school children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 20(1), 295-305.

14. ^ Beeland, W. "Student Engagement, Visual Learning, and Technology: Can Interactive Whiteboards
Help?" (2001). Theses and Dissertations from Valdosta State University Graduate School.

15. ^ a b Farkas, R. "Effects of Traditional Versus Learning-Styles Instructional Methods on Middle School
Students" The Journal of Educational Research. Vol. 97, No. 1 (Sep. - Oct., 2003), pp. 42-51.

16. ^ Wolfe, Pat. (2001). Brain Matters: Translating the Research to Classroom Practice. ASCD: 1-207

17. ^ Mayer, R. E., & Massa, L. J. (2003). Three Facets of Visual and Verbal Learners: Cognitive Ability,
Cognitive Style, and Learning Preference. Journal of educational psychology, 95(4), 833.

18. ^ Eiszler, C. F. (1982). Perceptual Preferences as an Aspect of Adolescent Learning Styles.

19. ^ a b Harold Pashler, Mark McDaniel, Doug Rohrer and Robert Bjork (2009).

"Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence" . Psychological Science in the Public Interest . 9 (3): 105–119.

doi : 10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x .

ISSN 1539-6053 . PMID 26162104 .

20. ^ Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., Ecclestone, K. (2004). Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16
learning. A systematic and critical review

Archived 2008-12-05 at the Wayback Machine. London: Learning and Skills Research Centre.