Construction Materials Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers

http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jcoma.16.00046
Recycling of construction wastes for Paper 1600046
Received 27/07/2016 Accepted 16/08/2017
manufacturing sustainable bricks
Keywords: conservation/demolition/environment
Rojas-Valencia and Aquino

ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Recycling of construction wastes for

manufacturing sustainable bricks
María Neftalí Rojas-Valencia PhD Esperanza Aquino MSc
Researcher, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Postgraduate student, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico Instituto
Ingeniería, Mexico City, Mexico (corresponding author: de Ingenieria, Mexico City, Mexico
mrojasv@iingen.unam.mx)

The purpose of this study was to manufacture sustainable bricks, based on three types of wastes generated in the
building industry: wood-cutting residues, wastes from the excavation process and recycled aggregates (RA). Water
was added as the kneading material, and Opuntia ficus-indica extract (mucilage) was supplemented as a natural
additive to improve the workability of the mixtures. The conventional firing process was substituted by drying in a
solar drying chamber. Nine mixtures were prepared using 62% excavation wastes, 5% wood-cutting residues and
33% RA. These mixtures were classified into two groups depending on their granulometries: the first one
denominated cementitious RA only having granulometries from 3/8 inch (0·95 cm) and 1/4 inch (0·63 cm) to fines and
the second group denominated all-in-one RA having granulometries from 1/4 inch to fines. The quality of the
sustainable bricks was evaluated according to compressive strength and water absorption parameters. The results
showed that the ecological bricks manufactured with the mixture of cementing RA only of 3/8 and 1/4 inch to fines
meet the standard requirements, providing compressive strength values of up to 8 MPa; moreover, the use of
O. ficus-indica extract as a natural additive notably improved the workability of the mixture.

1. Introduction
The environmental problem generated by construction wastes
(CWs) mainly derives from their growing volume and their
inappropriate treatment. Moreover, the limited supply of raw
materials reinforces the need to recover and exploit the wastes
generated in the construction industry (Yang et al., 2016).
In the last few years, this situation has led to the enactment of
legislative guidelines that are currently at various stages of
implementation. CW recycling started in Germany at the
beginning of the 1980s. In 2008, the European Parliament
approved a technical report of the waste framework directive,
in which the member states were requested to take the
measures necessary to ensure that before the year 2020, 70%
by weight of CW will be reused, recycled or submitted to
other treatments to replace first-use materials (Barroso, 2013).
Holland, Denmark and Belgium are among the countries with
the highest percentages of CW recycling, mainly due to a shortage
of raw materials and the difficulty of finding final disposal sites.
Moreover, some of the factors that have promoted CW
recycling in countries with a significant percentage of
recycling such as Finland, the UK and Austria, relate to a
policy of waste management that has combined economic
instruments such as taxes, legal instruments such as mandatory
standards and planning and control agreements.
In Mexico, about 33 600 t of CWs are generated daily
(Granell, 2014). In the Mexico City, a daily generation of
3000 t of CWs (Rivera, 2007) was reported for the year 2003,
reaching 5000 t/d in 2008 (Hernández et al., 2008) and accord-
ing to estimates provided by the political delegations of the
Mexico City, the generation of these residues currently reaches
7000 t/d (NADF-007-RNAT-2013, 2013), 1000 t/d of which
are recycled. To make matters worse, there is little confidence
in the products derived from CW. Thus, there exists the need to
analyse them and determine whether they offer the same
quality as products made from recently extracted aggregates.
Because of the poor disposal of these CWs and the environ-
mental problems they cause, it is necessary to look for efficient
solutions for their adequate management in order to reduce
their impact and promote the recycling and reuse of these
materials as competent raw materials that can be re-incorpor-
ated in the productive cycle. The growing interest in sustainable
buildings has led to the promotion of construction processes
that integrate soil. The objective of engineers should therefore
be to develop new ways of integrating residues into new pro-
ducts through the three ‘R’s of the environment: reduce, reuse
and recycle (Muñoz et al., 2014).
The construction industry is currently facing the twin challenges
of a growing interest in the environment and the search for less-
contaminating alternative materials (Sodupe-Ortega et al., 2016).
This study relates to sustainable alternatives for recycling
CWs, focusing on the manufacture of sustainable bricks using
recycled aggregates (RA), excavation wastes, basically soil
(a material that has been tested for thousands of years and

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 Construction Materials
that, combined with additional modern techniques, could offer
interesting ecological solutions), and wood-cutting residues as
raw materials, in order to mitigate the environmental impact
through the reduction of the energy and raw materials required
for making hard-burnt sustainable bricks, and Opuntia ficus-
indica extract as a natural additive for its gum-like character-
istics that enable it to form a viscous dispersion in contact with
water.
The idea behind the manufacture of these sustainable bricks is
to promote raw soil as a building material because it is their
major constituting element. Moreover, it could contribute to
mitigating some environmental problems such as the overexploi-
tation of virgin material quarries, and reduce air pollution
because solar brick drying does not generate emissions, in con-
trast to brick burning in kilns. In Mexico, approximately 17,000
artisanal manufacturers that operate informally generate air pollu-
tion problems and emit greenhouse gases (INECC, 2016).
As opposed to what occurs in developed countries, the back-
ground of building waste reuse and recycling in Mexico is
limited, and to date the present authors have found no reports
on the manufacture of sustainable bricks as described herein.
2. Methodology
The methodology was divided into two main phases. Phase I
focused on the design and construction of a brick-moulding
machine and a solar dryer used for speeding up brick drying.
Phase I also included the definition of the raw materials used,
how they were obtained and transported as well as their corre-
sponding dosages. Then, in phase II, sustainable bricks made
from excavation materials were manufactured and their com-
pressive strength and water absorption were evaluated accord-
ing to Mexican standards.
Sustainable bricks were basically manufactured with the follow-
ing two types of materials.
& Soils containing sand, and small quantities of lime and
clay, similar to the ones used in the manufacture of
handicraft adobe blocks or bricks, were utilised as binders.
Field tests including texture, odour, colour and
granulometry were performed to characterise the soils, the
optimum sand content being 60–70%, with a maximum
clay content of 25–30%, according to manual tests. The use
of organic soils was avoided.
& Filling materials or RA, potentially recyclable CWs, such
as residues derived from hydraulic concrete, mortars and
mixed debris of ceramics, blocks and cobblestones
triturated to granulometries ranging from 1/4 inch
(0·63 cm) to 3/8 inch (0·95 cm), wood-cutting residues,
stabilising materials <0·25 cm.
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Recycling of construction wastes for
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A mixture of water and O. ficus-indica mucilage in a 3:1 ratio
was left to stand for 3 d prior to the manufacture of the
sustainable bricks and then the liquid mixture of mucilage and
water was extracted.
Mucilage consists of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.
Qualitatively, it is a viscous substance extracted from O. ficus-
indica, with union-enhancing properties that favour particle
binding.
The material ratios were based on the percentages used in
handicraft manufacturing according to the Spanish technical
standard NTE 0.80 for adobes. Preliminary designs to deter-
mine the approximate behaviour and integration of the
materials were prepared and the basic dosage was established
(see Table 1).
Simultaneously, the percentage of the water–mucilage fluidising
mixture was determined for each one of nine manufactured
mixtures. Basically, this percentage varied based on the
conditions and characteristics of the mixture at the time of
its manufacture. The dry-weight percentages are detailed in
Table 2.
The test methods were based on the provisions of the Mexican
standards listed in Table 3.
The drying process was performed in a solar drying chamber.
The chamber itself was built with recycled materials such as
wood, acrylic and aluminium (Figure 1).
The bricks remained for 20 d inside the chamber where the
upper temperatures ranged from 75 to 95°C between 12:00 and
15:00 h. This test was performed on day 14 and day 28 of
brick drying. The results show the values obtained on day 28,
which corresponds to the highest water loss.
2.1 Compressive strength tests
This test was performed on sustainable bricks through the
levelling technique. A 0·03 m thick metal plate was placed over
the brick and then the load was progressively applied using a
Table 1. Quantity of materials used in sustainable brick
manufacturing
Materials Quantity: %
Clay 62
RA 33
Wood-cutting residues 5
Mucilage–water 23–26a
a
Percentage by volume, of the total weight of the sample
 Construction Materials Recycling of construction wastes for
manufacturing sustainable bricks
Rojas-Valencia and Aquino

Table 2. Material dosing and percentage of water–mucilage used during manufacturing, per mixture type
Wood-cutting RA 1/4 inch RA 1/4 inch RA 3/8 inch RA 1 inch Water +
Clay: residues: (0·63 cm) (0·63 cm) (0·95 cm): (2·54 cm): O. ficus-indica:
Mixture % kg % kg AO: % kg CMO: % kg % kg % kg % m3

1 62 5 33 — — — 0·0025
2 62 5 — 33 — — 0·0022
3 62 5 — — 33 — 0·0033
4 62 5 — — — 33 0·0020
5 62 5 33 — — — 0·0020
6 62 5 17 — 17 — 0·0020
7 62 5 — 17 17 — 0·0020
8 62 5 11 — 11 11 0·0021
9 62 5 — 11 11 11 0·0021

AO, all in one; CMO, cementitious materials only

Table 3. Test methods based on the Mexican standards

Applicable standard Contents Standard specification

NMX-C-036-ONNCCE-2013 (2013) Determination of the compressive strength Test method

NMX-C-037-ONNCCE-2013 (2013)
NMX-C-038-ONNCCE-2013 (2013)
NMX-C-441-ONNCCE-2013 (2013)
NMX-C-404-ONNCCE-2012 (2012)
Determination of the initial absorption
Determination of brick sizes
Specifications for blocks or bricks for non-structural use
Specifications for blocks or bricks for structural use
Test method
Test method
Minimum compressive strength limit = 4 MPa
Upper initial absorption limit = 7, 5 g/min
Minimum compressive strength limit = 6 MPa
Upper initial absorption limit = 5 g/min

The sizes of the sustainable bricks may vary depending on the needs of the constructor

Plywood lined with aluminium sheet can be seen at the time of failure in Figure 2. The results
0·6
8m offered by the test equipment corresponded to the maximum
Glass cover
load prior to brick failure.
m

Compressive strength was calculated based on the load to

17
1·

failure divided by the cross-section. The result obtained was

divided by the surface on which the load was applied, thereby
obtaining the compressive strength in N/mm2
 
F
1: P¼
A

where P is the compressive strength (MPa); F is the maximum

Wood structure
Figure 1. Solar dryer
hydraulic machine maintaining a 0·15–0·30 MPa/s load during
the second half of the loading phase. The test was considered
completed for each piece when the first fissures appeared, as
load supported by the piece (N); and A is the area on which
the load was applied (mm2).
After obtaining the results as regards strength, the best mixture
was used for manufacturing purposes. Manufacture was per-
formed using the design characteristics that presented the best
results, and from this the dosage, the construction method and
drying time were determined, establishing the optimum con-
ditions and manufacturing characteristics required to obtain a
resistant brick with a uniform texture and a monolithic
structure.

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 Construction Materials Recycling of construction wastes for
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Rojas-Valencia and Aquino

Figure 2. Photograph taken at the time of sample failure Figure 3. Saturated reference sustainable brick

3. Results and discussion

2.2 Water absorption tests
Once the sustainable bricks had been manufactured under the
above-mentioned optimum conditions, they were technically
evaluated through initial maximum water absorption tests
based on Mexican standard NMX-C-037-ONNCCE-2013
(2013). At this stage, an initial maximum water absorption test
described below was performed on sustainable bricks present-
ing greater compressive strength values.
First, the dry weight of each test brick was determined. Then,
two 0·013 m long and 0·006 m high stainless metal bars
were placed at the bottom of a rectangular container as
sample supports. The area of the rectangular container should
not be <0·1936 m2 and its minimum interior depth should
be 0·013 m.
Sustainable prismatic bricks were manufactured with good
results for structural use. Their sizes, based on the provisions
of Mexican standard NMX-C-038-ONNCCE-2013 (2013),
were: thickness (height): 0·05 m, width: 0·12 m and length:
0·26 m, see Figure 5.
The results obtained from the nine tested samples showed that
the amount of water–mucilage varies slightly depending on the
mixtures. According to the authors’ observations, an addition
parameter ranging from 23 to 26% was appropriate for obtain-
ing an optimum mixture.
Based on the above data, the average compressive strength
values per mixture type are summarised in Table 4.

The container was filled with potable water up to a level

ranging between 0·003 and 0·0035 m above the upper level of
the stainless metal supports. The position and water level were
adjusted with a saturated reference brick (Figure 3).

Then, the test brick was placed in contact with the water,
immersing a smooth finish face 0·005 m under water for 600 s,
the initiation of the contact time was taken from the instant
the sample touched the water surface. During the contact
period, care was taken to maintain the water level within the
above established limit.

After the contact period, the test sample was withdrawn,

excess water was removed from the exposed surfaces with a
wet cloth within 10 s and then the sample was reweighed on
the same scale as previously used, with the same precision
Figure 4. Determination of final weight following the
(Figure 4), in order to determine the quantity of water immersion period
absorbed during the test period.

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 Construction Materials Recycling of construction wastes for
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Rojas-Valencia and Aquino

0·12 Brick porosity was influenced by the size of the aggregate

m
used. In mixtures 4, 8 and 9, 1 inch (2·54 cm) aggregates were
used, leading to bricks having a greater quantity of pores,
mainly on the edges and surface, with a corresponding
0·05 m compressive strength reduction.

The porosity and the absorption capacity are directly related

6m
0·2 since in a greater number of pores by volume, there is a greater
absortion capacity.

The sustainable bricks corresponding to mixture number 7,

Figure 5. Perspective view of the sustainable brick manufactured with RA having a granulometry of 1/4 inch
(0·63 cm) CMO, offered the best behaviour as regards strength.
The optimum mixture corresponded to the combination
The compressive strength values obtained in the tests were
formed by 1/4 inch (0·63 cm) and 3/8 inch (0·95 cm) wastes.
compared with the parameters established in NMX-C-441-
This is because the spaces formed between the particles of
ONNCCE-2013 (2013). This comparison, as illustrated in
greater sizes (3/8 inch (0·95 cm)) were adequately filled by the
Figure 6, shows that the nine mixtures complied with the
particles of smaller sizes corresponding to the 1/4 inch
minimum value of 3 MPa assigned by the standard to sustain-
(0·63 cm) cementitious RA only, providing greater strength
able bricks manufactured according to handicraft techniques
and enhanced binding between particles.
and with the minimum value of 4 MPa corresponding to
extruded sustainable bricks.
This derives from the observation that a considerable variation
was found as regards the strength presented by mixture 8 in
As regards international standard ASTM C 62 (ASTM, 2013),
which the same granulometries were used, the only difference
the grades classify bricks according to their resistance to
being the use of 1/4 inch (0·63 cm) mixed (AO) wastes instead
damage caused by freezing in wet conditions. ‘Grade NW
of 1/4 inch (0·63 cm) cementitious RA only.
(Negligible Weathering) – brick with little resistance to cyclic
freezing damage but which are acceptable for applications pro-
In particular, mixture 7 showed uniformity and was easily
tected from water absorption and freezing’ (ASTM, 2013)
mouldable during manufacturing, with efficient handling
establishes an individual compressive strength of 8·6 MPa.
characteristics compared with the eight remaining mixtures.
These values are higher than the ones established in Mexican
Moreover, at the end of the drying time, the pieces presented
standards NMX ONNCCE, and thus further studies must be
good consistency, without major fissures, and had a monolithic
performed to comply with the international standard.
appearance.
Based on these results, it can be observed that the manufac-
tured pieces showing a better behaviour as regards strength
3.1 Determination of optimal manufacturing
were the sustainable bricks corresponding to the mixtures 1, 2,
conditions
5 and 7, in which the presence of RA of 1/4 inch (0·63 cm) all
Based on the results and the analysis described above, mix-
in one (AO), 1/4 inch (0·63 cm) cementitious materials only
ture number 7 with compressive strength values ranging from
(CMO) and 3/8 inch (0·95 cm) predominated.
8 to 8·5 MPa, efficient workability during manufacturing
and a solid monolithic texture after drying appeared to be
Table 4. Average compressive strength corresponding to each the best product. The formulation of this mixture was
mixture 62% clays, 5% wood-cutting residues, 17% CW, 1/4 inch
Mixture Compressive strength: MPa (0·63 cm) CMO, 3/8 inch (0·95 cm) CW and 0·0023% water–
mucilage.
1 6·8
2 6·9
3 5·1 Daily weight and size changes were evaluated to determine the
4 6·2 maximum drying time under critical ambient temperature con-
5 7·2 ditions ranging from 15 to 20°C, with little sunshine during
6 5·9 the most efficient hours of the day (from 11:00 to 15:00 h),
7 8·1
it was observed that both the temperature and the sun’s rays
8 6·9
9 6·1 directly influenced the optimal drying time of the bricks which
was 20 d.

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 Construction Materials Recycling of construction wastes for
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Rojas-Valencia and Aquino

90
80
Compressive strength: kg/cm2

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Mixture 1 Mixture 2 Mixture 3 Mixture 4 Mixture 5 Mixture 6 Mixture 7 Mixture 8 Mixture 9

Compressive strength of sustainable bricks

Compressive strength of handicraft brick (NMX-C-441-ONNCCE-2013)
Compressive strength of extruded brick (NMX-C-441-ONNCCE-2013)

Figure 6. Compressive strength evaluation

3.2 Water absorption tests
In Table 5, the results obtained from evaluation of the sustainable
bricks manufactured according to the above-described optimum
formulation are shown, as well as the comparison of these results
with the water absorption values obtained when performing the
same test on commercial bricks, known as red bricks.
activities such as sifting the excavation material and leaving
the O. ficus-indica to stand in order to extract the necessary
mucilage. However, this production time may be improved
based on experience and mass production, equalling the level
of handicraft manufacturers who report the production of
200–500 units per worker per day.

Table 6 summarises the test methods used, the limits indicated
in the standards and the results.
3.3 Feasibility
The results showed that the sustainable bricks comply
with the provisions of Mexican standards: NMX-C-038-
ONNCCE-2013 (2013) as regards brick sizes, NMX-036-
ONNCCE-2013 (2013) as regards compressive strength,
NMX-037-ONNCCE-2013 (2013) as regards initial water
absorption, NMX-C-441-ONNCCE-2013 (2013) as regards
non-structural use and NMX-C-404-ONNCCE-2012 (2012) as
regards the structural use of sustainable bricks.
On average, two persons can manufacture ten sustainable
bricks per hour, after having performed the required prior
Table 5. Initial maximum absorption values
Maximum
limit for
Red
Brick Sustainable brick:
number brick: g/min g/min
The potential of the unexploited raw materials generated in
the Mexican Republic is high (33 600 t/d), as well as the
need for recycling. The demand for bricks in Mexico, which
amounts to about 279·6 million bricks per year (Ortiz,
2012), leads to serious environmental problems, such as
the immoderate exploitation and consumption of virgin
materials. The Red de Ladrilleras (2013) (Brickmakers
Network) estimates that, nationally, there are 16 953 handi-
craft manufacturers that use, in the firing process, different
types of fuels including logs, tyres, dry O. ficus-indica, cloth
and oil derivatives, and are thus classified as sources of
greenhouse gases. In the case of the present study, sustain-
able bricks are dried in a solar dryer that is also built from
CWs with the resulting removal of greenhouse gas emission
from the process.
According to the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía
(INEGI, 2010) 10 251 economic units manufacture non-refrac-
Maximum tory bricks, nationally. The same census indicates that the
limit for block market represents 57·7% of the global quantity, while
exterior interior or
the brick market represents 42·3%, and thus there is a huge
walls: coated
g/min walls: g/min potential for sustainable bricks.

1 1·08 4·52 5 7·5

Organisations and institutions in France, Germany and
2 0·64 3·82 5 7·5
3 1·14 2·87 5 7·5 Italy, among other European countries, as well as Canada, the
USA and Latin America are currently considering that

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Table 6. Summary of the test results, based on the standards

Applicable standard Contents Standard specification Results

NMX-C-036-ONNCCE-2013 Determination of the compressive Test method Satisfactory

(2013) strength
NMX-C-037-ONNCCE-2013 Determination of the initial Test method Satisfactory
(2013) absorption
NMX-C-038-ONNCCE-2013 Determination of brick sizes Test method Satisfactory
(2013)
NMX-C-441-ONNCCE-2013 Specifications for blocks or bricks Lower compressive strength limit = 4 MPa Compressive strength = 8 MPa
(2013) for non-structural use Upper initial absorption limit = 7·5 g/min Initial absorption = 1·5 g/min
NMX-C-404-ONNCCE-2012 Specifications for blocks or bricks Lower compressive strength limit = 6 MPa Compressive strength = 8 MPa
(2012) for structural use Upper initial absorption limit = 5 g/min Initial absorption = 1·5 g/min

a
The sizes of the sustainable bricks may vary depending on the needs of the builder

the study and improvement of the building characteristics 4. Conclusions

of raw earth (excavation residues) is an innovation that pro-
motes the development of a bioclimatic architecture that
should never have been abandoned in the first place. This
approach also encourages the conservation of traditional
building practices and local characteristics, and offers solutions
to the social housing problem, integrating the user in environ-
mentally friendly solutions, through the use of low-impact
materials elaborated with reduced energy demand, curtailed
material transportation and minor emissions of greenhouse
gases.
Table 7 shows the advantages of the sustainable brick manu-
factured according to this study compared with the convention-
al red brick available on the market.
The better manufacturing conditions correspond to the
adequate dosage of the materials in order to obtain the appro-
priate mixture for the brick manufacturing. In this case, the
quality of the soil used (60–75% sand content and 25% clay
content) is a key element. The percentage of RA was deter-
mined based on the granulometric characteristics of the soil.
Moreover, the relationship between temperature and drying
period is an essential aspect, the average drying period
being 28 d.
Bricks manufactured with excavation residues, wood cuttings,
triturated CWs and water–mucilage from O. ficus-indica
comply with the quality guidelines established in the Mexican
standards.
The formulations proposed in this research show that the nine
mixtures offer a technically viable alternative for obtaining sus-
tainable bricks. The integration of RA having a granulometry
of 3/8 (0·95 cm) and 1/4 inch (0·63 cm) to cementitious fines
only leads to a greater mechanical efficiency with compressive
strength values of around 8 MPa.
The use of O. ficus-indica extract (mucilage) as a natural
additive had a favourable impact because it increased
the workability of the mixtures and influenced the inte-
gration of the materials, which led to enhanced physical
characteristics.
The water–mucilage from O. ficus-indica quantity was deter-
mined by the qualitative characteristics of the mixture,
an appropriate range being 23–26% of the total mixture.
Under the above-mentioned experimental conditions, the
drying time was 20 d.

It is also important to highlight the ratio between the dry The moulding process and the arrangement and compaction
mixture and the liquid material used, since it determines of the pieces determine the water absorption capacity of each
material integration, 23–26% being appropriate. brick during manufacturing.

Table 7. Advantages of sustainable brick

Sustainable brick Conventional brick

Elimination of emissions because these bricks do not require firing
Because they are manufactured with recycled materials, there is a
reduction in the exploitation of virgin material pits
Reduction in the cost of acquisition and transportation of materials
Size and shape may be adapted to specific needs
Excellent thermal insulator and thus energy demands are reduced
Emission of greenhouse gases because the bricks are fired in ovens
through the burning of fuel
Exploitation of virgin material pits to extract the materials used in
their manufacturing
High cost due to the purchase and transportation of materials
Standardised sizes
The buildings require the use of energy to regulate their environment

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 Construction Materials
5. Recommendations
Although many buildings are being constructed with non-fired
bricks manufactured from soil residues, no standards regulat-
ing the structural use of these materials are currently available
in Mexico and it is thus necessary to generate them.
Given the results yielded by the sustainable bricks as regards
their compliance with technical standards as non-structural
building material, it is necessary to evaluate these bricks as
construction elements in walls to ensure their appropriate per-
formance as non-structural materials.
Finally, the following aspects have to be taken into account in
further research on this matter.
& Control samples must be taken to compare results.
& RA must be characterised.
& The influence of mucilage on the mixtures must be
further studied.
& The manufacturing method must be standardised.
& Flexion tests must be performed.
& ASTM standards must be incorporated.
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Recycling of construction wastes for
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