Department of Petroleum

Engineering
Dr. MAQSOOD AHMAD
Senior Lecturer
Block L -1 Room No. 39
Phone: 05-368 7134
Email: maqsood.ahmad@utp.edu.my
 Objectives of Lectures-Wee 3

Learning
Borehole Size Estimation & Lithology Logs

1. What is Caliper Log?

2. What is Gamma Ray & Spectral Gamma Ray
3. What is Spontaneous Potential Log

2
 Objectives of Lecture-3
Caliper Logging Tool:
1. Mechanical Arms Measures Borehole Diameter and Shape

2. Measures Direction and Borehole Dip

3. Information about Lithology

4. Indication of Permeability and Porosity

5. Existence of Mud Cake, Caving , Sloughing, Spalling & Calculation Mudcake

thickness

6. Measurement of Borehole Volume

7. Measurement of required cement volume

8. Good and bad borehole conditions can help improving other logs readings

9. Help Wireline pressure test, Fluid Recovery, Packer setting, Casing Setting Depths

3
 What is –Well Log?

Definition:
A continuous record of a physical property of a rock in borehole
versus depth Displayed on Gridded Paper & Now as films, images and
in digital format
What is –Petrophysical Well Log?
 What is –Well Log?

1. Tracks
2. Scales
3. Cycles
4. Units
5. Vertical scales
 Log Data Acquiring Methods

•Mud Logging
•Wireline Logging
•Measurement While Drilling (MWD, LWD, FEWD (Formation Evaluation While Drilling))

1. Mud Logging requires a surface acquisition system and is manned by a team of 2 to 4

persons.
2. During drilling operations, sensors are placed to record various drilling data -
samples of cuttings are caught and analyzed.

Information Recorded:

1. Mechanical, hydraulic, and engineering parameters (Depth, ROP, RPM, WOB, Torque,
Drilling Mud parameters etc.)
2. Drilled cuttings are analyzed to provide geologic data (lithology, fluorescents
3. Gas analysis measured from the mud returns
 Logging While Drilling
1. Tools measure reservoir pressure, gamma ray, resistivity, sonic, porosity & density
2. Porosity & density tools induce radiation into the formation to measure properties.
3. More specialized services replicating those provided by wireline logging in LWD
(magnetic resonance imaging and formation testing tools which are deployed in a
combo string).
4. Recent developments - advanced petrophysical and geosteering capabilities with
higher resolution imaging & forward looking sensors
5. Tools are programmable as stand alone sensors or slaved to a primary control module
6. Operate on lithium batteries or run off an integrated turbine power source
7. Logging while drilling attempt to make same or similar measurements as a wireline
logging
8. LWD is accomplished by integrating measurement tools into drilling assembly near bit
 Measuremernt While Drilling
1. MWD is much the same except for the measurements made
2. This measures the deviation of well bore and the direction the bit is
traveling
3. This application is essential to the horizontal drilling now necessary
for gas and oil from shale
4. There are wireline tools which also track hole position but, of no
help during drilling operation & procedure

1. Mudlogging is an analysis of the drilling mud on the oil rig.

2. Includes measurements of viscosity and cuttings and is the job of
the mud logger
3. It can be automated such as with the coriolis flow meter which
measures mud density continuously.
Measuerement & Logging While Drilling
1. LWD data are recorded in memory and downloaded when the tools
reach the surface.
2. Deep Resistivity tools, Focused Resistivity tools , Extremely
Temperature Tools
3. Indirect measurement of geologic parameters gamma ray, resistivity,
density, sonic travel time - type of formation & how saturated with
hydrocarbons

4. Data is sent in realtime via a transmission system - Electro-magnetic,

hardwire, positive or negative pulse telemetry

5. MWD data are transmitted up the pipe by means of a pressure wave

(mud pulsing) at 3 bits/s and monitored in real time.
6. MWD is essentially the azimuth and inclination data points only
7. This data when combined with Measured depth of wellbore allow to
plot 3D location of wellbore.
 Measurement While Drilling –Summary
1. MWD is basically a combo containing a survey tool that measures
wellbore trajectory, provides magnetic or gravity tool faces for directional
control & a telemetry system that pulses data up through drill pipe as
pressure waves
2. Surface acquisition systems decode signals using a various standard or
patented detection algorithms
3. Decoded information is then plotted on a log or displayed on screen
4. Both systems share this mode of communication to surface & are
combined as one string in a drilling assembly
5. Measurement while drilling refers to all measurement acquired down hole
while drilling especially inclination, azimuth & toolface.
6. Logging while drilling refers to petrophysical measurements, similar to
open hole logs, acquired while drilling
 Measurement While Drilling –Summary

Measurement While Drilling Data:

1. Inclination, azimuth
2. Rotational speed of drill string
3. Type and severity of vibration downhole
4. Downhole temperature
5. Torque & weight on bit

Logging While Drilling Data:

1. Density
2. Porosity
3. Resistivity
4. Acoustic caliper
5. Gamma ray etc.
Log Data Acquiring Methods
Types & Principal Uses of Wireline logging
(With Modification from Rider 1996)

14
Resolution & Depth of Investigation(DOI)
of Logging Tools

15
Caliper Tool and Borehole Environment

16
Caliper Tool and Borehole Environment

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From Petrophysics MSc Notes, Dr. Paul Glover
 Caliper Tool- Fracture Identification

(A) As caliper tool crosses a fracture , arms open slightly, creating inflection on caliper log (B).
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 Working of Caliper Tool
Mechanical calipers:
1. Variation in diameter with depth

2. Arms linked to cursor of a variable resistance

3. Lateral movement of arms is translated into movements of cursor along

resistance

4. Hence detect variations in electrical output

5. Electrical output recorded on log paper to show borehole condition

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Caliper Tool-Variable Resistance

20
 Caliper Tool-Variable Resistance

Wellbore Wall
Variable Resistance
Formation

Moving Caliper Arm

21
 Caliper Logging Tool Types

One Arm caliper – Most Common

1. Uses mandrel of logging device as one side and an arm extends from sonde body as other arm
2. Commonly used in Density measurement and measures long axis of an elliptical borehole
3. Doubts about the borehole size changes > less than tool length on the tool side of the
measurement

Two Arms Caliper

1. Two caliper arms extending in opposite directions from the tool mandrel
2. Typically measures long axis of an elliptical borehole
3. Able to characterize small changes in hole size on both sides of borehole
4. In deviated boreholes, arm on low side of borehole will often collapse under weight of
logging tool

From Petrophysics MSc Notes, Dr. Paul Glover 22

 Caliper Logging Tool Types

Three Arms Caliper

1. A spring-loaded caliper with all three arms ganged to operate in unison
2. Causes mandrel of logging device to center in borehole
3. Typically used with sonic tools for centralization
4. Reports shortest of three measurements and frequently collapses under tool weight in
deviated boreholes

Four Arms Caliper

1. Typically used on a Dipmeter
2. Most common configuration has opposite arms gauged to work together
3. Tool mandrel is centralized in the borehole
4. One set of arms typically reports long axis of an elliptical borehole, while other set
reports short axis.

23
Caliper Logging Tool Types
Bad Hole Example

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Caliper Logging Tool Types

25
Caliper Logging Tool Types

26
Caliper Logging Tool Types

27
Caliper Logging Tool Types
One Arm Caliper

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 Factors Influencing Caliper Log Readings
1. Massive Sandstones
1. Well Consolidated 2. Calcareous Shale
On Gauge Formations
2. Non-Permeable Formations 3. Igneous Rocks
4. Metamorphic Rocks

1. Formation Soluble in Drilling 1. Salt Formation Drilled with Fresh

Mud
Larger than 2. Formation Week and cave in Water
Bit Size 2. Unconsolidated sands, Gravels and
Brittle Shales

1. Formation Swell and Flow 1. Swelling Shales

2. Porous Permeable Sandstones
into Borehole
Smaller
Than Bit 2. Development of mudcake for
Size
porous and Permeable
Formation
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Exercise ---- Caliper Log

30
 Thank You
Questions & Answers
Gamma Ray and Spectral
Gamma Ray Log
 Gamma Ray and Spectral Gamma Ray Log

Objectives/Outcomes:
1. Familiarity with concept of gamma ray log
2. Difference between Gamma ray log & Spectral Gamma ray log
3. Predicting amount of each radioactive element in the formation
4. Evaluating radioactivity of formations
5. Determining volume of shale from Gamma ray log
 Gamma Ray and Spectral Gamma Ray Log

Introduction
1. Shale is usually more radioactive than sand or carbonate
2. Gamma ray log can be used to calculate volume of shale in porous
reservoirs
3. Volume of shale -Decimal fraction or Percentage is called V shale
4. Gamma ray index calculation - is first step to determine shale volume
from gamma ray log
 Principal Uses of Spectral Gamma Ray
Logs
Discipline Used For Knowing

Thorium (Max), TH(Min) for pure

Shale volume Vsh
shale
Quantitative Petrophysics
Radioactive mineral Vvs (Th), K(Max) K (Min) for
volume shale
Dominant Clay Th, K, U content of individual
Mineral clay Minerals
Geology
Detrital Clay mineral Radioactive content of
suits individual clay minerals
Sedimentology Condensed section
Normal U & Th content or Th/U
Semi- & Sequence recognition from
ratio of shales
Quantitative Stratigraphy excess Uranium
& Climatic
Th/K ratio changes in Shale
Qualitative Changes?
Reservoir Uranium contribution to
Fracture detection
Geology radioactivity

Marine source rock Uranium content of organic

Geochemistry
identification matter
 Principal Uses of Gamma Ray Logs

Discipline Used For Knowing

Shale volume Vsh Gamma Ray (Max)

Quantitative Petrophysics
Gamma Ray (Min)
Gamma Ray (Max)
Shale (shaliness)
Gamma Ray (Min)
Geology Lithology Typical Radioactivity Values

Mineral Identification Mineral Radioactivity

Sedimentology Facies Clay/Grain size relationship

Qualitative Sequence Para sequence & Clay/Grain size & Organic
Stratigraphy Condensed Sequence matter/radioactivity relationships
Identification

Correlation __
Stratigraphy
Uniformity Identification
 Distribution of Relative Radioactivity
in Various Rocks

(from Bigelow after Russell)

 Typical Gamma Ray Tools

Name Symbol Company

Gamma Ray Log GR All

Spectralog SL Western Atlas

Natural Gamma Ray

NGS Schlumberger
Spectrometry

Spectral Gamma Ray SGR, CSNG Haliburton

Specrtral Gamma
SGS B.P.B
Sonde
 Working of Gamma Ray (GR & SGR)
1. Solid-state scintillator crystal (sodium iodide, NaI) is used to detect gamma rays
2. When a gamma ray strikes Crystal, there is some probability that it will be captured.
3. Probability is mostly proportional to size and density of crystal
4. If captured, it gives off a flash of light
5. A photomultiplier mounted on one end of crystal converts that light to an electrical pulse,
which is then fed to an electronic pulse counter
6. To measure a count rate with a given precision in the laboratory, one counts until enough
counts are registered to give the desired level of precision
7. Then, one divides that number of counts by the time it took to get that many to obtain a
count rate
8. GR logging tool measurements are depth-based
9. To measure a count rate, tool counts length of time tool takes to move 1/2 ft (or whatever
depth increment is)
10. Then divides by length of time it took the tool to move that distance
11. This means that the precision of a nuclear-logging measurement in a given lithology is
proportional to one over square root of logging speed
12. Remember - Number of counts received crossing a clean formation 1/2 ft will be much
less than number when crossing a shaly and dirty sand or pure shale 1/2 ft
 Working of Gamma Ray Tool
(GR & SGR)

Gamma Ray Reservoir Rock

Detectors

Photons

Dual Detectors
Working of Gamma Ray (GR & SGR)
 Working of Gamma Ray (GR & SGR)

1. Tool completely passive & emits no radiation

2. simply detects incoming gamma rays from Formation and borehole (Unfortunately)
3. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation
4. Energy range 0.1 to 100 MeV and corresponding to very short wavelengths
5. Gamma rays and X-rays is largely semantic and overlap in energy.
6. Geiger-Müeller tube has bee replace by Geiger counter.
7. Detectors have been switched to solid-state scintillation crystals such as NaI
8. When a gamma ray strikes such a crystal, absorbed and crystal produces flash light .
9. This light is "seen" by a photomultiplier staring into the end of the crystal.
10. The photomultiplier shapes the light into an electrical pulse that is counted by the tool.
11. Hence, like all nuclear tools, raw measured quantity in a gamma ray log is counts.
12. Means the precision of gamma ray log measurements is determined by Poisson statistics.
13. Precision is square root of total number of counts recorded at a given depth.
14. Counts recorded are basically proportional to volume of detector crystal times its density (which
determine the probability that a gamma ray will be captured within the crystal) times the length of
time counted.
15. As with all nuclear-logging measurements, the only part of this that the logger controls is the
counting time.
 Difference
Gamma Ray & Spectral Gamma Ray

1. Most rocks are radioactive to some degree, igneous, metamorphic and

sedimentary rocks
2. shales are more radioactive than other rocks
3. Simple gamma ray log is called “shale log” which is not always true

Gamma Ray records Formations Total Radioactivity due to:

1. Thorium
2. Uranium
3. Potassium

Spectral Gamma Ray records amount of each radioactive

element Thorium, Uranium and Potassium present in
Formation, individually.
Gamma Ray (GR Log ) & Total Radioactivity
GR-Log & Natural Radioactivity
Scale API Units
Spectral Gamma Ray (SGR-Log)
Natural Radioactivity & Scale PPM Units
Spectral Gamma Ray (SGR-Log)
Natural Radioactivity & Energy Level
Gamma Ray Energy
 Gamma Ray –API
American Petroleum Institute Units
Gamma Ray (GR) & Shale Volume Evaluation
Gamma Ray (GR) & Formations Total Radioactivity
Gamma Ray (GR) & Formations Total Radioactivity
Gamma Ray (GR) & Formations Total Radioactivity
Gamma Ray (GR) & Grain Size Distribution
 Thank You
Questions & Answers
SP-Logging Tool
 Spontaneous Potential (SP) Logging Tool

Objectives/Outcomes:

1. Differentiating Shale Formation and Sand Formation

2. Locate boundaries of permeable and non-permeable
beds
3. Determining volume of shale (Vsh)
4. Give qualitative indication of bed shaliness
 Working - SP-Logging Tool
Measures natural potential between:
a) A moveable electrode in Borehole
b) A reference electrode at Surface
1. No artificial currents sent
2. Calculates formation resistivity
3. Indicate permeability
4. Used for facies correlation

Necessary Factors:
A. Conductive Fluid in Borehole
B. Porous and Permeable bed surrounded by an impermeable Formation
C. Salinity difference between formation fluid and Drilling Fluid
 SP-Logging Tool
1. SP curve cannot be recorded in boreholes filled with nonconductive muds
2. These muds do not provide electrical continuity between the SP electrode & formation.
3. Mud filtrate and formation water resistivity equal, deflection small & curve featureless & useless
4. Deflections on SP curve result from electric currents flowing in borehole mud
5. Currents are caused by electromotive forces in formation, & are electrochemical and electro kinetic
origins
6. SP currents are created, when two solutions of different salinity concentrations are in contact, by
two principal electrochemical effects.
7. NaCl is the most common cause of oil field salinity, so that is effectively two solutions of NaCl of
different concentration

The shape of the SP curve is influenced by:

1. Bed Thickness (h)
2. Permeable Bed Resistivity (Rt)
3. Invaded Zone Resistivity (Ri) and diameter (di)
4. Surrounding Formation Resistivity (Rs)
5. Borehole Diameter (d) and Mud Resistivity
SP-Logging Tool-Electrodes

Shale

Sand
SP-Logging Tool
SP-Logging Tool Response
 SP Tool Arrangement

Potentiometer
Electrochemical & Electrokinetic Potentials
Concepts
Electrochemical & Electrokinetic Potentials
Concepts
Static SP Diagram & SP Log Concepts
 Shale and Clean sand beds &
Response of SP Logging
Shale
Baseline
Shale

Deflections to the left correspond to increasingly negative values

RMF ≈ RW Deflection to the right correspond to increasingly positive values

In the first sand zone there is no SP deflection since this case

represents equal salinity in the formation water and in the mud
RMF > RW filtrate

The next two zones show development of the SP which is largest

for the largest contrast in mud filtrate and formation water
resistivity
RMF >> RW
In the last zone , the deflection is seen to be to the right of the
shale baseline and corresponds to the case of a mud filtrate
which is saltier than the original formation fluid.
Sand
RMF ˂ RW
 Shale and Clean sand beds &
Response of SP Logging
1. Deflections to the left correspond to increasingly negative
values
2. In the first sand zone there is no SP deflection since this case

RMF ≈ RW represents equal salinity in the formation water and in the

mud filtrate
3. The next two zones show development of the SP which is
largest for the largest contrast in mud filtrate and formation
RMF > RW water resistivity
4. In the last zone , the deflection is seen to be to the right of the
shale baseline and corresponds to the case of a mud filtrate
which is saltier than the original formation fluid.
RMF >> RW

RMF ˂ RW
 Shale and Clean sand beds &
Response of SP Logging

Presentation of SP curve
in sand-shale sequence
Shale and Clean sand beds &
Response of SP Logging
 SP Logging Tool & Quantitative and
Qualitative Aanlysis

Discipline Used For Knowing

Formation water Mud filtrate resistivity &

Petrophysics Resistivity Formation Temperature
Quantitative
Shale volume SSP & Shale Line

Petrophysics To indicate Permeability Shale Line

Clay/Grain size
Qualitative Correlation Facies (Shaliness)
relationships

Correlation
Depositional Environment-Fluvial, Deltaic /Strand
plain Transgressive Shoreline Deposit
Electrofacies Classification
Resistivity/Electrical Logs-Examples

Water Bearing
Bed

Oil Bearing
Bed

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 Thank You
Questions & Answers