FLOW BOILING HEAT TRANSFER IN NARROW CHANNELS

Rainer Mertz and Manfred Groll

Institute for Nuclear Technology and Energy Systems (IKE), University of Stuttgart,
Pfaffenwaldring 31, 70550 Stuttgart, Germany

ABSTRACT
In the frame of a JOULE project of the EU, planar heat exchanger surfaces with narrow channels were investigated
with the aim to obtain a better understanding of the thermofluiddynamic phenomena of these heat exchanger surfaces.
Flow boiling experiments were carried out with vertical copper plates into which narrow channels had been machined.
The channels are1 mm, 2 mm and 3 mm wide with aspect ratios of up to 3 for multi-channel configuration and with
rectangular and semi-circular single channel specimen using 2 mm wide and 4 mm deep channels. Water and R141b
were used as working fluids. The experiments were carried out under saturation conditions at pressures of 1 bar and 2
bar with different mass fluxes. The employed heat fluxes ranged from 1 % CHF to 17 % CHF depending on the design
of the specimen and the used working fluid. Due to the design of the test rig, visual observations of the boiling
phenomena were possible.

INTRODUCTION

Two-phase heat exchangers have a wide range of applications in various industries and an
improvement of their heat transfer characteristics will not only contribute to a reduction of energy
and material consumption, but also to an environmental pollution abatement. The heat transfer
efficiency of two-phase heat exchangers can be significantly improved by enhanced heat transfer
surfaces, e.g. surfaces with micro structures, such as tubes with distorted fins forming reentrant
cavities/channels [1], or plates with micro channels [2].

Some efforts were made in the past to understand the heat transfer mechanisms of heat transfer
surfaces. A summary of literature referring to investigations on boiling in narrow channels was
published by Wambsganss et al. [3]. Peng and Wang [4] have investigated flow boiling of
subcooled water in a rectangular channel (0.6 mm x 0.7 mm) with heat fluxes up to the critical heat
flux (CHF). Their results show a significant enhancement of the heat transfer coefficients for
nucleate boiling compared with larger tubes and no influence of flow velocity and liquid
subcooling. The effect of small channel geometries on flow boiling phenomena was investigated
by Kew and Cornwell [5, 6]. They defined three boiling regimes and developed a separate heat
transfer correlation for each regime. The influence of the channel size is described by the
Confinement number Co = [)/ (g ('f - 'g))] 0.5 / de which is used to determine the transition from
isolated bubble regime to confined bubble regime.
The aim of the presented experimental investigations was to investigate the heat transfer
characteristics of two-phase heat transfer in narrow channels. A test rig was designed and build up
for flow boiling tests with multi-channel specimen and single channel specimen.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Flow boiling test rig

The flow boiling test rig (Fig. 1) is designed

for fluid temperatures up to 393 K and
pressures up to 2 bar. The test rig consists of a
stainless steel fluid tank with separate internal
heating and cooling systems, a magnetically
coupled gear pump, a flow-meter, a pre-heater,
the test section and various stainless steel
valves and piping. Visual observation of the
flow boiling phenomena in the narrow
channels is possible due to a transparent plate
covering the channels.
A PC-based data acquisition system is
employed to measure the temperatures in the
fluid tank and the test section, the mass flux of
the working fluid, the absolute pressure in the
fluid tank and the test section and the pressure
difference between inlet and outlet of the test
section. Additionally the data acquisition
system is used to set the input data for the
power supplies of the test section and the pre-
heater and to set the mass flux by changing the
number of revolutions of the pump.

Fig. 1 Flow boiling test rig

Test sections

Two different kinds of test sections were used for experimental investigations, viz. test sections
with single channels and test sections with multi-channels. First experiments with various multi-
channel test sections were carried out, then the best channel geometry was used for single channel
experiments.
Both, the single channel test section (Fig. 2) and the multi-channel test section (Fig. 3) are of
modular design. The main components are aluminium frames, one copper heater block for the
multi-channel test sections and 4 separate copper heater blocks for the single channel test sections,
provided with heater cartridges and Ni-CrNi thermocouples. The fluid inlets and fluid outlets are
made of stainless steel, the copper test plates with the channels are covered with a glass or plastic
front plate and a PTFE-plate for thermal insulation. To avoid liquid cross flow between the separate
channels of the multi-channel test sections an air pressure system is used for experiments with a
saturation pressure of 2 bar (not shown in Fig. 3).
Fig. 2: View of single channel test section

Fig. 3: View of multi-channel test section

The copper heater block of the multi-channel test section is electrically heated by 16 built-in heater
cartridges with a power of 850 W each. The total power input of 13.6 kW leads to a maximum heat
flux of 227 kW/m2 (reference area is the projection of the multi-channel test section, i.e. heated
width x heated length of the test section).
Two heater cartridges in each of the 4 separate heater blocks of the single channel test section
provide a total power input of 2.52 kW. Due to the smaller dimensions of the single channel test
section the maximum heat flux for this configuration can be increased up to 300 kW/m2 (reference
area is again heated width x heated length of specimen).
Test specimen

The test specimen (Figs. 4 and 5) consist of planar copper plates with rotary-grinded channels. For
multi-channel specimen 1 mm, 2 mm and 3 mm wide rectangular channels were used with aspect
ratios of to 3 . Depending on the channel width the number of channels varies for a constant heat
transfer area, viz. 101 for 1 mm wide channels, 50 for 2 mm wide channels and 33 for 3 mm wide
channels. Single channel experiments were carried out with relatively large rectangular and semi-
circular channels, 2 mm wide and 4 mm deep.
The different designs and channel geometries are used for the denomination of the specimen. The
name of a specimen consists of one or two characters and two numbers. The first character is M for
multi-channel and S for single channel specimen, the second character is only used for single
channel specimen and indicates the shape of the channel, R means rectangular and C means semi-
circular. The numbers are the channel width and channel depth.

Fig. 4: View of multi-channel test specimen

Fig. 5: View of single channel test specimen

Experimental parameters

The experiments were carried out with working fluids water and R141b in the flow boiling mode
at saturation temperatures corresponding to 1 bar and 2 bar, respectively; i.e. temperatures of 373
K and 393 K for water (p/pcr = 0.0045 and 0.009) and of 303 K and 323 K for R141b (p/pcr = 0.023
and 0.045). The employed mass flux varied in the range from 50 kg/m2s to 300 kg/m2s for multi-
channel test specimen and in the range from 200 kg/m2s to 700 kg/m2s for single channel test
specimen.

RESULTS FOR MULTI-CHANNEL SPECIMEN

The results of all experiments are rather similar. With increasing mass fluxes there is an increase of
the heat flux for a given wall superheat. Between the two highest mass fluxes of 200 kg/m2s and
300 kg/m2s there seems to exist an optimum, especially for the test sections with 2 mm and 3 mm
wide channels. Best results were obtained for specimen with an aspect ratio of 2. For working fluid
water at 393 K (Fig. 7) larger scatter and greater differences than for 373 K (Fig. 6) are obtained.
The test surface M2x4 shows the best performance, followed by M3x3, however, for 373 K M1x2
exhibits second best performance. For working fluid R141b (Fig. 8) M2x4 shows best results,
M1x2 shows second best results with the exception of low heat fluxes (< 10 kW/m2). There, equal
or even better heat transfer performances are observed with M1x1.

20 20
Multi - Channel Multi - Channel
Water Water
373 K, 200 kg/m²s 393 K, 200 kg/m²s

10 10
α [kW/m2K]

α [kW/m2K]

M1x1 M1x1
M1x2 M1x2
M1x3 M1x3
M2x2 M2x2
M2x4 M2x4
M3x3 M3x3
2 2
10 100 q [kW/m2] 1000 10 100 q [kW/m2] 1000

Fig.6: Multi-channel specimen, working fluid Fig.7: Multi-channel specimen, working fluid
water at 373 K, mass flux 200 kg/m2s water at 393 K, mass flux 200 kg/m2s

5
Multi - Channel Despite the scatter of data there seems to be a
R141b
303 K, 200 kg/m²s
distinict trend:  decreases with incerasing q or
remains about constant.
This behavior of the multi-channel specimen is
α [kW/m2K]

quite different from that of the single channel

specimen, where the heat transfer coefficient 
1
increases with increasing heta flux q.
M1x1 M2x2
M1x2 M2x4
M1x3 M3x3
0.5
5 10 q [kW/m 2] 50

Fig.8: Multi-channel specimen, working fluid

R141b at 303 K, mass flux 200 kg/m2s
RESULTS FOR SINGLE CHANNEL SPECIMEN

Results for SR2x4

The results for working fluid water at saturation temperatures of 373 K and 393 K show no strong
differences concerning the influence of mass flux (Fig. 9). Again a maximum exists for mass fluxes
around 200 to 300 kg/m2s. The heat transfer coefficients  range from 2 kW/m2K to 4 kW/m2K for
373 K and from 2.5 kW/m2K to 4 kW/m2K for 393 K (q = 15 kW/m2 to 100 kW/m2).
For working fluid R141b at saturation temperatures of 303 K and 323 K the experiments show very
similar results for all mass fluxes (Fig. 10). The heat transfer coefficients  range from about 0.7
kW/m2K to 1.8 kW/m2K for 303 K and for 393 K.

5 5
Single Channel Single Channel
SR2x4 SR2x4
Water 373 K R141b 303 K

α [kW/m2K]
α [kW/m2K]

1
200 kg/m²s 200 kg/m²s
300 kg/m²s 300 kg/m²s
500 kg/m²s 500 kg/m²s
700 kg/m²s 700 kg/m²s
1 0.5
10 q [kW/m2] 100 1 10 q [kW/m2] 100

Fig.9: Single channel specimen SR2x4, Fig.10: Single channel specimen SR2x4,
working fluid water at 373 K working fluid R141b at 303 K

Results for SC2x4

For working fluid water at saturation temperatures of 373 K and 393 K the experimental results for
all mass fluxes are very similar (Fig. 11). The optimum mass flux is again around 200 kg/m 2 . The
heat transfer coefficients  range from 2.1 kW/m2K to 3.9 kW/m2K for 373 K and from 2.9
kW/m2K to 4 kW/m2K for 393 K (q = 15 kW/m2 to 100 kW/m2).

5 2
Single Channel Single Channel
SC2x4 SC2x4
Water 373 K R141b  K
α [kW/m2 K]

α [kW/m2K]

200 kg/m²s 200 kg/m²s

300 kg/m²s 300 kg/m²s
500 kg/m²s 500 kg/m²s
700 kg/m²s 700 kg/m²s
1 0.5
10 q [kW/m2] 100 1 10 q [kW/m2] 100

Fig.11: Single channel specimen SC2x4, Fig.12: Single channel specimen SC2x4,
working fluid water at 373 K working fluid R141b at 303 K
 2
Single Channel
SC2x4
R141b 323 K
α [kW/m2K]

200 kg/m²s
300 kg/m²s
500 kg/m²s
700 kg/m²s
0.5
1 10 q [kW/m2] 100

Fig.13: Single channel specimen SC2x4,

working fluid R141b at 323 K

Concerning results for single channel test specimen SC2x4 with working fluid R141b at 303 K and
323 K, there is a noticeable difference. The heat transfer coefficient increase much stronger with
increasing heat flux in the case of T = 323 K than for T = 303 K. At small q (< 20 kW/m2), they are
higher for lower T, which is a surprising fact (Figs. 12, 13). The heat transfer coefficients  range
from about 1 kW/m2K to 1.6 kW/m2 K for 303 K (q = 5 to 45 kW/m2 ) and from 0.5 kW/m2K to 1.8
kW/m2K for 323 K (q = 3 to 45 kW/m2).

VISUALISATION

For multi-channel specimen the boiling follows the well-known sequence from generation and flow
of isolated bubbles to generation of confined bubbles and slug flow and further to annular flow.
Depending on the different channel geometries the heat flux range varies for different boiling
modes.
For working fluid water and geometries with wide and deep channels (M3x3, M2x4) a distinct
nucleate boiling occurs, which changes to confined bubble formation (20  q  100 kW/m2) and
then to annular flow (q 100 kW/m2). Each flow boiling regime can be observed very clearly and
is well separated from the other. For test sections with smaller channels the lifetime of the single
bubbles decreases, and for some test sections like M1x2 and M1x1 it is very difficult to observe
single bubbles.
For working fluid R141b smaller bubbles occur and the flow boiling pattern changes already at low
heat fluxes to confined bubbles (7  q  20 kW/m2) and then to annular flow (q 20 kW/m2) which
could be observed most of the time during the experiments. Also for test sections with wider and
deeper channels the annular flow regime is reached at low heat fluxes and exists nearly during the
whole experiment, i.e. from low to maximum heat fluxes.
Another observed phenomenon is that the evaporation in the channels seemed not to be a
continuous process. The bubbles are generated especially in the lower part of the test sections, grow
there and finally flow away. The frequency of bubble generation is higher for the smaller and flatter
channels (estimated 10 Hz for water and up to 40 Hz for R141b, respectively). The frequencies also
depend on the heat fluxes, higher heat fluxes lead to higher frequencies.
The vapour does not leave the channels immediately, but stays in the channels during the bubble
growth time and also for a certain time thereafter. For lower mass fluxes and high heat fluxes (to a
lesser degree for medium heat fluxes), some channels are completely filled with vapour which
blocks the channels or even moves in the direction opposite to the liquid mass flow. For high heat
fluxes, dry-out starts in the upper outer regions of the test specimen.
The visualisation of the single channel specimen shows single bubbles for working fluid water and
low heat fluxes. For medium heat fluxes confined bubbles occur and for high heat fluxes the flow
boiling pattern changes to annular flow.
For working fluid R141b small bubbles occur for very low heat fluxes, but the flow boiling pattern
changes already at low heat fluxes to confined bubbles and then to annular flow. The flow boiling
phenomenology is very similar to that in the multi-channel configuration. A similar pulsation of the
evaporation can also be observed.

CONCLUSIONS

With one exception best results were obtained, surprisingly, with 2 mm wide channels and aspect
ratios of 2, followed by groove widths of 1 mm. The specimen with 1 mm wide and 2 mm deep
channels show somewhat better results for low heat fluxes using working fluid R141b at 2 bar. A
distinct influence on the boiling phenomena was caused by the working fluid and the operating
temperatures /pressures, less influence was exerted by the mass flux. For the tested specimen very
similar boiling performances were obtained.
Further investigations are planned using heat transfer surfaces with smaller channels, viz. 0.5 mm
and 0.25 mm wide channels. It shall be investigated whether higher heat transfer coefficients can be
obtained for reduced channel sizes, especially at larger wall superheats and whether a continuous
smooth transition from nucleate to film boiling may occur.

NOMENCLATURE

effective diameter de [m] temperature T [K]

gravitational constant g [m/s2] wall superheat T [K]
mass flux m [kg/m2s] heat transfer coefficient  [kW/m2K]
reduced pressure p/pcr [-] density of liquid, gas 'f, 's [kg/m3]
heat flux q [kW/m2] surface tension ) [N/m]

REFERENCES

[1] Mertz, R., Groll, M., Pool boiling with propane from enhanced tubes. 4th World Conf. on Exp.
Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics, Brussels, 1997
[2] Mertz, R., Wein, A., Groll, M., Experimental investigation of flow boiling heat transfer in
narrow channels. 2nd European Thermal-Sciences and 14th UIT National Heat Transfer
Conference, Rom, 1996
[3] Wambsganss, M.W, Shah, R.K., Gelata, G.P., Zummo, G., Vaporization in compact heat
exchangers. Proc. 4th World Conf. on Exp. Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics and
Thermodynamics, Brussels, Vol. 4, pp 2049 - 2062, 1997
[4] Peng, X.F., Wang, B.X., Forced convection and flow boiling heat transfer for liquid flowing
through microchannels. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, Vol. 36, pp 3421 - 3427, 1993
[5] Kew, P., Cornwell, K., Confined bubble flow and boiling in narrow spaces, 10th Int. Heat
Transfer Conference, Brighton, Vol. 7, 1994
[6] Kew, P., Cornwell, K., Correlations for the prediction of boiling heat transfer in small diameter
channels. Applied Thermal Engineering, Vol. 17, Nos. 8 - 10, pp 705 - 715, 1997