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Bar-Ilan University
Recent meta-analysis studies offer growing evidence of positive This paper opens with a review of recent research findings
relationships between music and learning in other subject areas. pertaining to music and cognition, and an outline of the interactive
Calls for further research seek to understand how and why such and dynamic theories of cognitive modification and mediated
transfer occurs (Winner and Hetland, 2000; Scripp, 2002). learning that serve as the foundation for this project. It continues
with a description of the “Jaffa Music Project,” in which at-risk
This study hypothesizes that targeting specific learning skills, youngsters from “culturally deprived” backgrounds, grades 1-6,
active in music and in other areas, will tighten the linkage between study music within mediated learning environments. The paper
music education and scholastic achievement. It reports on the concludes with a video presentation, demonstrating mediated
initial findings of a pilot study conducted in an afternoon child- student-teacher interactions that constitute the unique educational
care center in Jaffa, Israel involving forty children, aged 6-11. experience of this music project.
Activities include music appreciation, individual and group
performance and interactive computer sessions. The learning 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
skills targeted are: 1) self-regulation; 2) sequential and global
perception; 3) the construction of multiple representations; 4)
relating simultaneously to multiple sources of information; and 5) A. Music and Cognition
the conservation of constancies amid processes of variation. All of
the teachers attend introductory workshops, where they study high- A number of empirical studies that identify cognitive skills
quality teaching strategies. Children, thereafter, are encouraged to enhanced during the study of music include:
focus, attend, and compare; to expand their inquiries beyond the
immediate; to discover meaning and excitement in what they are Spatial-temporal reasoning: Positive significant associations
learning; restrain impulsive behavior; and understand the have been found between music and spatial temporal reasoning
prerequisites of success. Such “Mediated Learning” has been (Hetland, 2000; Rauscher, 1999; Bilhartz , Bruhm and Olson,
shown empirically to advance intellectual growth within a wide 2000; Costa-Giormi, 1999), and spatial aspects of mathematics
variety of age groups and cultural settings. This project will be (Graziano, Peterson, and Shaw, 1999). Specifically, it was found
among the first to apply principles of mediated learning to music that following a wide range of music programs in preschools and
education. Connecting between theory and practice, it provides an elementary schools, as well as keyboard lessons, 70% of the
educational framework that may serve as a model for future children showed improvement in spatial-temporal reasoning.
cognitive development, while further justifying a core status for
music within public education. Reading and gross and fine motor skills: A significant
correlation has also been found between the study of music and
1. INTRODUCTION performance on standardized reading and verbal tests (Butzlaff,
2000). Further, musical performance creates opportunities for
Human beings, wherever they are, have always been attracted to developing gross and fine motor skills, and also for improving
the sounds of music. Involvement in this rich art, a principal writing and drawing abilities (Boxhill, 1985; Lathom, 1980;
source of human enjoyment and emotional release, engages the Moore and Mathenius 1987; Levitin and Bellugi, 1998).
minds and feelings of people of all ages. In addition, recent
research offers a theoretical basis for, and growing evidence of, the Social activities: Music performance initiates positive social
significant effects on general academic achievement that result activity (Kirk, Kallagher, and Anastasiow, 1986). During group
from learning music, especially among underprivileged, performances, each child must adopt appropriate social codes,
elementary school children. (Wolf, 1978; Winner and Hetland, including cooperative action, sharing of feelings, and tolerance.
2000; Bamberger, 2000b; Scripp, 2002). These positive reports Such activities contribute to the restraint of impulsive behavior.
have led to calls for more research that explains why and how such Touching on emotional development, research shows that musical
transfer occurs. Our program aims to address this central question. performance coupled with cognitive strategies also improves self-
It proposes that while most music programs offer a variety of efficacy in at-risk youth (Kennedy, 1998). Improvement in self-
multifaceted activities, including listening, singing, and efficacy relies on critical thinking. This finding supports claims
performing, without knowing for sure whether or not the children that self-esteem rises when a child understands the processes that
will acquire additional learning skills, The Jaffa Music Program lead to success (Feuerstein, 1988; Klein, 1996).
selects and implements a curriculum that fosters the development
of specific learning skills. Our hypothesis suggests that by Active processing - Creating musical coherence: Music does not
sensitizing teachers to the importance of these skills, and by exist as a tangible entity; rather, listeners construct and organize
involving the children in interactive music studies, these skills will the auditory stimuli in their minds.
Numerous components of such musical organization are intuitive, simultaneously to and integrate multiple sources of
as children automatically attribute functional significance, e.g. "a information, for example attending to pitch, rhythm, dynamics
beginning," "a continuation," or "an ending" to various sections of and expression when listening to music and conservation of
the music (Bamberger, 1996, 2000a). In so doing, children activate constancies in some attributes and dimensions, while change is
basic cognitive functions such as attending, defining, comparing, taking place in others. This enhances perceptual stability and
and relating simultaneously to and integrating multiple sources of accuracy. The recognition of a musical theme, despite melodic,
information (Bamberger, 1996; Brand, 1997; Cohen, 1986; harmonic, or rhythmic variations and transformations, is frequently
Serafine, 1988). found in music listening.
Active perception - Music perception: During the elaboration In the elaboration stage, relations between global and local
stage, researchers have noted the relationship between global and perception are basic to understanding musical structures
local perception with regard to how children understand music (Bamberger, 1991, 2000a, 2002; Brand, 1997; Cohen, 1986;
(Globerson, 1989; Davidson, 1985; Davidson, McKernon, and Serafine, 1988). Integrating multiple representations in music,
Gardner, 1981). Thus, some children follow sequential, detailed including visual, aural and kinesthetic images, reflects different
specific components of the music, such as melodic or rhythmic ways of understanding, and enriches the musical experience
motifs, melodic line, etc., while others reflect on complete musical (Cohen, 1997; Gruhn and Rauscher, 2002).
pieces, noting patterns of repetition, contrast, and variation.
Bamberger’s in-depth case study surveys a developmental During the output stage, self-restraint is basic to solo and group
progression, in which the child moved from following detailed performance (Kirk, Kallagher, and Anastasiow, 1993)
specific components to more reflective, global perception
(Bamberger, 1991). Brand (1997) found successful learners Cognitive modification occurs when children become aware of the
generally moved from one strategy to another, as they found skills and strategies they require to learn. This awareness is
necessary, whereas unsuccessful learners tended to repeat fostered through a type of responsive interaction, known as
strategies, or cognitive functions, even after they had been proven Mediated Learning Experiences.
inadequate.
Early intervention programs aim to assist at-risk children in coping Expanding: Going beyond the immediate (Transcendence):
with the demands of modern life. Our project draws on dynamic Stimulating mental flexibility, the mediator broadens the
theories of cognitive modifiability, pioneered in the 1940s by educational situation by extending it to include new situations.
Reuven Feuerstein, and further developed by researchers and
practitioners in the fields of cognitive education, cognitive Mediation of meaning and excitement results from the
psychology, and child development. Based on the optimistic belief mediator’s verbal or non-verbal expressions of excitement, and
that human beings are open systems, accessible to change appreciation with regard to what is being studied. Such mediation
throughout their life spans, this approach promotes aspirations for arouses curiosity and motivation.
excellence among at-risk children who often remain in the
periphery of educational settings. Rewarding: Mediating feelings of competence expresses
satisfaction with a child’s accomplishments, while identifying the
Probing into the process of thinking, these theories identify specific components that contribute to the success. This process
universal cognitive functions that affect the three stages of mental promotes feelings of control and boosts self-esteem.
thought: i.e. input, elaboration, and output and ways to develop
them. The research presented here addresses five of these Regulation of behavior teaches the child to relate actions to the
functions that show particular potential for development through requirements of a specific task and to assess the effort that will be
musical activities. The input stage includes: the ability to relate required to successfully complete the task (Klein, 1996).
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ICMPC8, Evanston, IL, USA August 3-7, 2004
Numerous empirical studies testify to the contribution of mediated songs. They learn to attend to short musical works, analyze their
learning to cognitive and social development (Feuerstein, 1988; different sections, reflect on emotional content, and create their
Klein, Weider, and Greenspan, 1987; Klein, 1988, 1991; Klein and own improvisations and representations.
Alony, 1993; Tzuriel and Ernst, 1990; Zambrana-Ortiz and Lidz,
1995; Klein, 1996; Tzuriel,1999, 2000; Young-Sim Kang and Particular effort is made to discuss abstract events and to introduce
Oon-Seng Tan, 2003). Moreover, follow-up studies, conducted basic music concepts. Within individual, interactive computer
three and six years after intervention, indicate that at-risk children lesssons, the children are made aware of processes that cultivate
consistently outscore children not exposed to mediation in both global perception, consideration of multiple sources of
language performance and verbal reasoning (Klein, 1996). information, integrated representational thinking, and conservation
of constancies (Portowitz, 2001, 2002a,b).
Deficient cognitive processes may be related to poor mediation
experiences, as children deprived of mediation often lack B. Individual instrument lessons and
flexibility of thought and have difficulties in benefiting from new
experiences. By contrast, children who have benefited from performance ensembles
mediation seem more secure and interested both in people and in
the world around them (Feuerstein, 1979; 1980, Klein, 2000). Learning to play a musical instrument nurtures a close one-on-one
relationship, in which the teacher designs personal programs built
around attainable goals. Such programs contribute to the children’s
3. THE JAFFA MUSIC PROJECT self-efficacy (McPherson and Renwick, 2000). Group
improvisation and performance stimulate active, creative
The Jaffa Music project is dedicated to helping young people, partnership, and provide opportunities for public recognition. The
irrespective of their diverse backgrounds, develop learning skills instruments to be taught include saxophone, clarinet, trumpet,
while engaging in cultural enrichment. flute, piccolo, xylophone, organ, drums, violin, and guitar.
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ICMPC8, Evanston, IL, USA August 3-7, 2004
disciplines, in and out of school? 2) Do mediated music lessons Davidson, L. Tonal Structures of Children’s Early Songs, Music
stimulate curiosity, motivation, and self-esteem, essential Perception, 2 (1985): 361-374.
prerequisites for cognitive modification? 3) Do mediated music Davidson, L., McKernon, P., and Gardner, H. The Acquisition of
lessons contribute towards social-emotional development and Song. A Developmental Approach. In Documentary
behavior modification? Report of the Ann Arbor Symposium: Applications of
Psychology to the Teaching and Learning of Music.
Finally, by combining theory with detailed analysis of Reston: Music Educators National Conference, 1981.
observations and intervention strategies, this study attempts to Design-Based Research Collective. Design-based Research: An
provide a valid assessment of suggested means by which to Emerging Paradigm for Educational Inquiry. Educational
enhance the potential and deepen the long-term effects of music Research, 32 (2003): 5-13.
education. Feuerstein, R., Rand, Y., and Hoffmann, M.B. The Dynamic
Assessment of Retarded Performers: The Learning
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