MASTERWORKS

ADDITIONAL READINGS

THE NEAR EAST

At the center of the ancient Near East was Mesopotamia, found in the valleys of the Tigres and Euphrates
rivers. From around 3300 bc, it was occupied by a succession, of different states, which developed at the
same time as ancient Egypt
The first peoples to settle in Mesopotamia were the Akkadians and Sumerians. They built cities and
developed organized religions based on a rich mythological tradition. They were followed by the Assyrians
in the north and the Babylonians in the south These new cultures kept the ancient myths. Neighboring
civilizations, such as the Phoenicians and the Persians, also shared many of the Mesopotamian myths.

Powerful gods
Mesopotamian civilizations were warlike. They produced a mythology in which powerful male gods
destroyed the gods of the invader and inflicted cruel punishments on the people. Most of the female gods
were weak by comparison, and they are rarely shown in Mesopotamian art. Heroes are always male; myths
regularly involve violent battles with other men or monsters.

In most Mesopotamian cities stepped brick tower called ziggurats were built. At the top were small temples
dedicated to the gods that the city worshiped. Here the king, who was also the high priest, performed
religions ceremonies and sacrifices.

 A winged god or “genie” holding a bucket and a pine cone. These objects were associated with purification.
Images of genies were placed in buildings to protect people against demons and disease.

There was a strong relationship between the king and his patron gods. For example. AHURA MAZDA is
shown in Persian art with wings spread protectively over the kings. Art often shows the king making
offerings to the gods, and both figures are shown at the same size. This suggests that they were equally
important since other members of society are smaller in scale. It may be the cases, that mythology was used
support the social structure As well as the gods, royal palaces were protected by the figures of fierce winged
genies.

In Mesopotamia the land was dry, and irrigation was vital to grow crops. In a climate like this it is not
surprising that the creation myth tells how, in the beginning, everything came from fresh water and salt
water. From the mingled waters came two monstrous serpents who gave birth to Anshar, the sky, and
Kishar, the Earth. In turn, sky and Earth gave birth to the gods. The gods then fought one another for
control over the universe
When human beings were finally created, they soon offended the gods with their bad behavior and were
punished with a great flood. Only UTANAPISHTIM was warned in advance to build a boat and save his
family and their animals. After seven days the terrible rain ceased and the beat settled on a mountaintop.
Utanapishtim was blessed by the gods with immortality.

 In one scene from the Epic of Gilgamesh, the hero battles with the Bull of Heaven, which Ishtar had sent to
destroy him.

 The Persian god AHURA MAZDA is a good spirit who battles forever with the evil Angra Mainyu. This an
example of the Persian belief that the force of good and the force of evil both exist in the world and are in
eternal conflict.

The Near Eastern myths spread westward when the Phoenicians established colonies in the western
Mediterranean region. The growth of the Persian Empire helped the survival of Mesopotamian myths,
although the Persians also developed new beliefs.

 The longest and best- known Mesopotamian myth is the Epic of Gilgamesh. It tells the story of a king of
Uruk and his search for eternal life. Recorded on 12-clay tablet, it was discovered during the 1800s by
archaeologists.
ADAPA
 In Babylonian myth, the wise priest of the god EA. He liked to go fishin on the Euphrates River. One day a
strong south wind caused his boat to capsize. He cursed the bird god of the wind and broke its wings. Avu,
the supreme god, called Adapa to heaven to explain his behavior. Ea warned Adapa that he would be fed
the bread and water of death, which he must refuse. In fact Anu offered him the bread and water of life,
and Adapa's refusal cost humanity the gift of eternal life.

AHURA MAZDA
 A powerful Persian god or good spirit who battles constantly against his opposite god, the evil Angra
Mainyu. While Ahura Mazda is creator of all good things, such as fire and flowers, Angra Mainyu spoiled
them by adding smoke and thorns. In the end, Ahura Mazda will defeat Angra Mainyu and all evil will be
flushed from the world in a torrent of molten metal.

ANAT
 A Phoenician fertility goddess and the sister of BAAL. After Baal had been killed by MOT, Anat went down
to the Underworld to plead for her brother's life When Mot refused, she destroyed him in a fit of fury. Baal
was revived and returned to Heaven. Mot also overcame death, and the story repeats itself each year, which
explains Earth's annual cycle of decay in winter and renewal in the spring.
 AIthough a fertility goddess, ANAT was once the cause of a drought. She desperately wanted a magic bow
owned by a famous king. She offered him riches and even immortality, but the king would not part with it.
In a fit of temper Anat killed the king, but the Earth fell barren at his death and the rain refused to fall
until he was brought back to life

ANU

 The supreme Babylonian god of the sky. He lives apart from other gods and mortals on the highest summit
of Heaven where he eats and drinks the bread and water of eternal life. Anu was so remote that he was later
replaced by his son EA

ASSHUR

 The leading Assyrian god of war and husband of ISHTAR. He appears as an archer within a winged disk.
When Assyria became more dominant, Asshur replaced the Babylonian god MARDUK as protector of the
universe against chaos.

ASTARTE
 The Phoenician mother goddess who is visible from Earth as the planet Venus. Astarte was worshiped
throughout the eastern Mediterranean as a fertility goddess of both love and war.

BAAL
 The god of storms who sends rain to water the crops. Baal is the son of EL. He defeated Yam, the sea god,
with his mighty mace. Yam's death allowed people to sail the seas. The victory went to Baal's head, and he
treated MoT disrespectfully. Mot summoned Baal to the Underworld, and made him eat the mud of death.
The Earth would have turned into a desert if ANAT had not rescued Baal. His return to Heaven restored
fertility to the soil.
 BAAL the young storm god, raises his mace to make the sound of thunder and holds the lance which will
unleash lightning

EA (OR ENKI)
  The Sumerian and Babylonian god of wisdom. His name means "of great intellect." Ea is one of the creators
of humankind and the patron of the arts. He gave men and women the ability to reason. Ea constantly
fought for divine power against his parents. In the end he overthrew his father, APSU, and took his place as
god of fresh water.

EL
 Supreme and all-knowing god of the Phoenicians. As creator of the universe he was known as "father of
time." Like the Babylonian god ANU, he kept apart from other gods and mortals.

ENKIDU
 The heroic companion of GILGAMESH. He lived like a wild animal in the hills outside of Uruk, where
Gilgamesh was king. Gilgamesh sent a woman to lure Enkidu into the city. After testing each other's
strength in a wrestling match, they became friends and enjoyed many adventures together.

ENLIL
 The Sumerian and Babylonian god of the air who brings both good and bad weather to the Earth. Enlil is
one of the creators of humankind but grew weary of their noise and sent down a great flood to destroy them.
Ea warned a family, who built a boat and survived.

ERESHKIGAL
 The Babylonian goddess of the Underworld. She was pulled from her throne by the war god, NERGAL, but
instead of fighting they fell in love and agreed to marry and share their powers.

ETANA
 A man chosen by the gods to be the first Sumerian king on Earth. He was childless and prayed to
SHAMASH everyday that he might be given a child. The god led him to an eagle, who took him to Heaven
on its back in search of the plant of birth.
 ETANA rescued an eagle from a deep pit, where it had been flung with broken wings as a punishment for
eating the snake's children Etana fed the bird and taught it to fly again, and as a reward the eagle took him
to find the plant of birth.

GILGAMESH
 The king of the Uruk, a man of unrivaled strength and courage, and a renowned Babylonian hero. He went
on many adventures with his friend Enkidu and became so famous that the Goddess Ishtar wanted him to be
her lover. When he refused, ANU, punish him by sending down a plague which killed Enkidu. Gilgamesh
became afraid of death and set out to find the secret of eternal life from UTANAPISHTIM. He returned
without the secret and accepted his own morality.

HADAD
 The son of ANU and the Assyrian and of storms and floods. He brought destruction to his enemies by
sending down torrential rain to devastate their homes and crops. He brought wealth and prosperity to those
who worshiped him by flooding the river plains each year to make their lands fertile.

INNANA
 The Sumerian goddess of both love and war, and the queen of Heaven Inanna was obsessed with the
Underworld because she wanted to test her powers against ERISHKIGAL, the goddess of the dead. As a
condition of entry Inanna had to shed an item of clothing at each of the seven doors of the Underworld, until
she stood naked before the goddess of the dead, Inanna tried to pull Ereshkigal from her throne but failed,
and was condemned death. She saved herself by ordering her husband, Damuzi to die in her place.
ISHTAR
 The Babylonian goddess of both physical love and war. She is closely identified with INANA and also
descended to the Underworld, where she suffered a similar fate. She ordered her husband. Tammuz, to take
her place with the dead. The Assyrians adopted Ishtar both as their goddess of war and as a wife for Asshur.
 When ISHTAR was portrayed as the goddess of physical love, she was often shown naked or naked from the
waist down. As a war goddess she appeared as a fearsome warrior who terrified even the gods. She was
armed with every kind of weapon and accompanied by a lion, the symbol of ferocity.

MARDUK
 Leading god of Babylon and eldest son of EA. in the struggle for divine power between the gods and the firs
beings, TIAMAT AND APSU, only Marduk was brave enough to challenge Tiamat. She was the monster of
chaos, but Marduk destroyed her, cut up her body and created the universe from the pieces.

MOT
 The Phoenician god of death infertility, and the Underworld. He is in constant conflict with BAAL. Each
year, Mot summons Baal to die in the Underworld, and each time Mot is destroyed by ANAT, who grinds
down his body and scatters it over the fields. Baal revives to restore fertility to the Earth, and Mot revives in
time for the harvest.

NABU
 The son of MARDUK and the Babylonian god of wisdom, speech, and writing He carries messages from the
gods to mortals and taught human kind how to speak and write.

NERGAL
 The Babylonian god of war who led the gods into battle. Nergal became god of the dead when he wed
Erishkigal who ruled the Underworld. Like Mot, he was an evil god who brought war and disease to the
Earth in order to increase the numbers in his on kingdom.

NINURTA
 A Sumerian war god and the son of ENLIL. When nature rose up against Ninurta, he put down the
rebellion and imposed order over chaos. Ninurta also taught mortals metalwork and pottery.
 Ninurta was the only God brave enough to face the lion-like monster bird ANZU. They met on the side of a
mountain. Ninurta called the winds to his aid and as the two faced each other, a storm rages about them.
Ninurta killed the bird with an arrow tipped with poison

SHAMASH
 The Sumerian god of the Sun who flew across the sky by day. Since he could see everything on Earth,
Shamash was also the god of justice.
 Worshipers pay homage to SHAMASH. He is seated behind an altar, which supports his symbol, the solar
disk.

TAMMUZ
  The Babylonian god of plants. He was the young husband of ISHTAR, who offered him to the Underworld
in her place. Because the Earth is barren without him, each spring Ishtar arranges for his release, so that
new crops can grow.

TIAMAT AND APSU

 The first beings, according to Babylonian mythology. Apsu was an abyss and the guardian of fresh water.
Tiamat was the monster of chaos and represented salt water. They were the parents of the first gods but
tried to kill their children because they made too much noise. In the terrible struggle that followed, Apsu
was overthrown by EA, and Tiamat was slain by MARDUK, who created the Earth and sky from her body
and established order.

UTANAPISHTIM
 A legendary Sumerian mortal who survived a great flood sent by ENLIL to punish humans. The grateful
Utanapishtim made a sacrifice to the gods and was forgiven and made immortal by Enlil.

 The Sumerian Moon god, Sin, is also the god of time because the waxing and waning of his light governs the
passing of the months.