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186

CHAPTER 9

SOME BILATERAL ELEMENTS IN ANLO KINSHIP

* G . K. NUKUNYA

A l t h o u g h the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f the A nl o i s based

on an e s s e n t i a l l y p a t r i l i n e a l i d e o l o g y , i n p r a c t i c e a
number o f b i l a t e r a l e l ement s ar e f ou n d i n the v a r i o u s
a r e a s o f the s o c i a l system. Mor eover s e v e r a l i n s t i t u ­
t i o n s f o un d i n the more p u b l i c i s e d p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t i e s
a r e e i t h e r t o t a l l y a b s e n t or p r a c t i s e d on a s u b s t a n t i a ­
l l y reduced s c a l e . Such p r a c t i c e s as the l e v i r a t e ,
woman m a r r i a g e , s o r o r a l p o l y g y n y and the t r a n s f e r o f
r i g h t s in genetricem are t o t a l l y a b s e n t . 1 In t h i s paper
an attempt i s made t o d e s c r i b e b o t h the i d e a l i s e d p a t r i ­
l i n e a l system and the i n s t i t u t i o n s and p r a c t i c e s which
h i g h l i g h t the b i l a t e r a l e l e m e n t s . We w i l l then consider
some o f the o t h e r ways i n which t h e system d i f f e r s from
th e b e t t e r known p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t i e s .

The A n l o , who number ab out 250, 000, are the most

numerous o f the E w e - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e and occupy an area
o f about 880 s q u a r e m i l e s i n the ext reme south eas ter n
c o r n e r o f Ghana i mm e d i a t e l y e a s t o f the V o l t a R i V e r .
The l a n d s c a p e o f t h e i r c o u n t r y i s domi nated by the
l a r g e K e t a l a g o o n which o c c u p i e s the southern h a l f of
the c o u n t r y , about a t h i r d o f the t o t a l a r e a , and by the
numerous streams and c r e e k s which j o i n t h i s l a g o o n with
the V o l t a R i v e r . Today the A n l o p u r s u e both s e a and
l a g o o n f i s h i n g i n a d d i t i o n t o f a r m i n g o f mai ze, cassava
and s e v e r a l k i n d s o f v e g e t a b l e s .

The key to u n d e r s t a n d i n g A nl o s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n
i s p a t r i l i n e a l d e s c e n t which i s b a s e d on c l a n s h i p and
lineage organisation. There a r e at l e a s t f i f t e e n clans
a r ou nd which the s o c e i t y i s o r g a n i s e d . As i n many
c l a n - b a s e d s o c i e t i e s , the number o f the c l a n s i s
sometimes s u b j e c t to argument. In c e r t a i n p a r t s o f
n o r t h e r n and e a s t e r n A n l o t h e r e a r e d e s c en t groups
whi ch ar e n o t g e n e r a l l y a cc o r d e d c l a n s t a t u s though they
sometimes c l a i m to be i n de p en d en t o f the main c l a n s .
The l a t e P r o f e s s o r Westermann^, who w it h S p i e t h ^ d i d
p i o n e e r i n g work among th e Ewe, e x p l a i n e d i n h i s Die

* D r . Nukunya i s a l e c t u r e r in the Department o f

S o c i o l o g y , Legon.
 187

GLliivi -- l-.we that the c o n f l i c t i n g s t a t e m e n t s as to the

number, of A n l o c l a n s i s due to the r e c o g n i t i o n sometimes
of these g r ou ps as s e p a r a t e c l a n s . He f u r t h e r e x p l a i n e d
that these g r o u p s , due to t h e i r n u m e r i c a l weakness in
the p a s t , p l a c e d t h e m s e l v e s under t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f
others and t h e r e f o r e l o s t t h e i r i n de p en d e n c e . The
structure and o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e s e a c c e s s o r y g r o u p s
are q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from the c l a n s . i n any c a s e they
are not r e c o g n i s e d o f f i c i a l l y at A n l o g a the t r a d i t i o n a l
capital as c l a n s . 4

The Anl o term f o r c l a n i s h i p . T h i s may be d e f i n e d

as a group o f p e o p l e who a r e b e l i e v e d t o have des cend ed
p a t r i l i n e a l l y from a common p u t a t i v e a n c e s t o r and who
share the same t o t e m i c and o t h e r o b s e r v a n c e s . Clan
membership i s o b t a i n e d by b i r t h , but s t r a n g e r s and
slaves were sometimes i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the c l a n s o f
their masters and were a c c o r d e d al mo st f u l l membership
status, e xce pt t h a t today when t h e i r f o r e i g n o r i g i n s ar e
remembered they a r e r e f u s e d s u c c e s s i o n r i g h t s . Stran­
gers who were no t s p e c i f i c a l l y a t t a c h e d t o any p a r t i c u ­
lar Anlo were g r o u p e d i n t o one s p e c i a l c l a n c r e a t e d f o r
strangers o n l y . The d e s c e n d a n t s o f t h i s s p e c i a l s t r a n ­
gers cl an ar e known today as the B l u c l a n . The compo­
sition o f t h i s B l u c l a n i s q u i t e u n i q u e i n c l a n o r g a n i ­
sation, f o r a l t h o u g h r e c r u i t m e n t i n t o i t has b ee n and
still i s b a s e d .on p a t r i - f i l i a t i o n , t h o s e who o r i g i n a l l y
composed i t d i d n o t have any common p a t r i l i n e a l t i e s .
The only t h in g t h e y had i n common was t h e i r f o r e i g n
origin. As such the d e f i n i t i o n o f the c l a n as a gr ou p
of agnates t r a c i n g p a t r i l i n e a l d e s c e n t from a common
ancestor does not a p p l y t o the B l u .

A l l the f i f t e e n c l a n s a r e d i s p e r s e d t h r o ug h ou t
the en t ir e A nl o c o u n t r y i n such a way t h a t e v e r y l a r g e
settlement has a b r a n c h o f most o f the c l a n s l i v i n g i n
it. Although i t i s a d i s p e r s e d gr ou p the c l a n has
many c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c o r p o r a t e n e s s . Land, palm
groves and c r e e k s a r e owned by c l a n s . They have
appointed l e a d e r s i n whom a r e v e s t e d l e g a l and r i t u a l
powers. They a l s o meet o c c a s i o n a l l y t o d i s c u s s m a t t e r s
°f common i n t e r e s t . A l l the c l a n s e x c e p t the y e t s o f e
have t h e i r a n c e s t r a l s h r i n e s a t A n l o g a , the t r a d i t i o n a l
capital, where e v e r y y e ar cl ans men from a l l o v e r the
tribe make p i l g r i m a g e s . In t h e p a s t , t h e s e p i l g r i m a g e s
Were made f o r s p e c i f i c r i t u a l and c e r e m o n i a l p u r p o s e s .
188

A p a r t from t he u s u a l o f f e r i n g s and p r a y e r s , chiLdren

were b r o u g h t to the s h r i n e to be washed i n the agba-
met s i the c l a n ’s r i t u a l w a t e r and i n d u c t e d i n to ful]
membership o f t h e c l a n c u l t . I t was a l s o d u r i n g
t h e s e p i l g r i m a g e s t h a t f a c i a l marks were made. Today
though . p r a ye r s a r e o f f e r e d d u r i n g t h e s e v i s i t s , they
a r e more o f s i g h t - s e e i n g e x c u r s i o n s than r e l i g i o u s
pilgrim ages. The Y e t s o f e have t h e i r r i t u a l centre
at Tsiame about t e n m i l e s n o r t h o f A n l o g a . In the
p a s t v en geanc e was e f f e c t e d t h r o u g h the c l a n . An offer,
d e r woul d have h i s clansmen t a ke n or k i l l e d i f he ran
away or somehow e v a d e d the punishment a p p l i c a b l e to the
o f f e n c e committed. L i k e w i s e an o f f e n d e d p a r t y was ent­
i t l e d to h e l p from h i s f e l l o w clansmen.

There a r e no a r i s t o c r a t i c c l a n s i n A n l o . A l l are
e q u a l i n s t a t u s b u t p e r f o r m d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n s to the
s e t t l e m e n t s and the t r i b e . The Paramount s t o o l belongs
t o t he A d z o v i a and the B at e c l a n s who a l t e r n a t e l y
p r o v i d e the k i n g ; the L a f e a r e the k i n g makers ; and the
L a f e t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e Amlade a r e the h e r e d i t a r y priests
i n each s e t t l e m e n t and at the n a t i o n a l l e v e l , while the
D z e v i a r e th e c h i e f p r i e s t s f o r t h e war g o d , Nyigbla.
But i n each s e t t l e m e n t the c l a n dominant i n terms of
numbers or w hi ch was t h e f i r s t t o s e t t l e t h e r e provides
the c h i e f .

Membership o f a c l a n c a r r i e s many s o c i a l attributes i

which d i s t i n g u i s h members o f one from the o t h e r . Some
o f t h e s e a r e names, f o o d t a b o o s , a v o i d a n c e s , injunctions
and the p o s s e s s i o n o f a c l a n c u l t . Fo r i n s t a n c e every
c l a n has a p a i r o f names, one f o r men and the other for
women. Each h a s i t s own totems whi ch a r e ass oci at ed
w i t h s t o r i e s a b o u t the c l a n and i t s o r i g i n o r some
e x p l o i t o f the f o u n d i n g a n c e s t o r . A c l a n a l s o has its
own f u n e r a l r i t e s .

Membership o f a p a r t i c u l a r c l a n i s b e l i e v e d to
imply c e r t a i n p e r s o n a l q u a l i t i e s . A p a r t i c u l a r clan
may be spoken o f as b e i n g a d d i c t e d t o c e r t a i n practices
o r as b e i n g n o t a b l y w i c k e d , e v e n - t e m p e r e d , v i o l e n t or
fertile. The p o i n t b e i n g t h a t t h e s e q u a l i t i e s are
i mputed no t t o a p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p o f a g n a t e s but to all
the members o f the c l a n .
i
The A n l o c l a n i s not exogamous. I n f a c t i n the
 109

past, and today i n some remote v i l l a g e , m a r r i a g e s are

encouraged b e t we en c l a n f o l k between whom g e n e a l o g i e s
could not be t r a c e d , but t h e r e was no r u l e o f c l a n
endogamy.

The r e l a t i o n between clansmen i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d

by f r i e n d l i n e s s and mutual h e l p i n g e n e r a l te rms . Of
great imp ort ance from the i n d i v i d u a l s t a n d p o i n t i s
perhaps the h e l p a man may r e c e i v e from clansmen o u t ­
side h i s own s e t t l e m e n t . An A nl o t r a v e l l e r s t r a n d e d
in any p a r t o f Anlo c o u n t r y would o n l y have to t r a c e
his f e l l o w clansmen i n that l o c a l i t y and be a s s u r e d
of the utmost h o s p i t a l i t y * T h i s i s b a s e d on the b e l i e f
that members o f the same c l a n , wher ever they might be
l i v i n g , have a common p a t r i l i n e a l a n c e s t o r a l o n g time
ago though the g e n e o l o g i c a l l i n k s j o i n i n g them may be
unknown. I t i s the r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h i s b e l i e f t h a t
keeps clansmen t o g e t h e r and makes mutual h e l p amongst
them an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p . In t h i s
way c l a n s h i p p r o v i d e s f o r th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f k i n s h i p
c a t eg o ri e s o ve r a s o c i a l f i e l d much more e x t e n s i v e
than known o r p u t a t i v e k i n s h i p o f o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s .

A l l the l a r g e s e t t l e m e n t s have segments o f the

clans l i v i n g i n them. The members o f t h e s e l o c a l s e g ­
ments o f the c l a n , who t r a c e common d e s c e n t from a
known a n c e s t o r , , form what we may c a l l the l i n e a g e .
There are i n some s e t t l e m e n t s more than one l i n e a g e
of the same c l a n . U n l i k e the c l a n , t he word l i n e a g e
does not seem to have any e x a c t Ewe e q u i v a l e n t . Thi s
is p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e the A n l o t h e m s e l v e s are not al ways
d e f i n i t e about i t and r e f e r t o i t r a t h e r l o o s e l y w i t h
various t e r m s . Some a u t h o r i t i e s ^ in clu din g Wester-
mann, B a r b a r a Ward, Manoukian and Fiawoo have s u g g e s ­
ted the term f o m e . But the term fome i s u n a c c e p t a b l e
because i t i s a more i n c l u s i v e term and c e r t a i n l y has
many b i l a t e r a l c o n n o t a t i o n s . When however i t i s
necessary f o r t he A n l o to d i s t i n g u i s h th e l i n e a g e
from the k i n gr ou ps w i t h b i l a t e r a l c o n n o t a t i o n s the
term afedo i s commonly us ed . For i n s t a n c e the l i n e a g e
ancestors a r e c a l l e d a f e d o - me - q o l i w o as opposed t o
togben.oliwo the a n c e s t o r s i n g e n e r a l ; t h e a n c e s t r a l
rites are c a l l e d a f e d o - n u ; and the l i n e a g e members a r e
called a f e d o deka-me t o w o . A f e d o t h e r e f o r e seems to
be the most a p p r o p r i a t e Ewe e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e Anlo
 lineage.

The Af edo may be d e f i n e d as t ha t b r a n c h o f a cl an

found i n a s e t t l e m e n t which c om p r i s e s A l l t h o s e persons
male and f e m a l e , who a r e a b l e to t r a c e r e l a t i o n s h i p by
a s e r i e s o f g e n e a l o g i c a l s te p s through the male l i n e to
a known a n c e s t o r and t h e o r e t i c a l l y to each o t h e r . It
i s an exogamous gr oup o f n e a r l y e i g h t to t e n generat ions.
I t i s named a f t e r i t s f o u n d i n g a n c e s t o r and has as
sy mbol s o f i n t e r e s t and u n i t y a s t o o l ( z i k p u i ) , an
a n c e s t r a l s h r i n e , a l i n e a g e c u l t , a l i n e a g e head and
common p r o p e r t y .

W i t h i n the l i n e a g e members are e n t i t l e d to a

number o f r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s . By h i s membership
e v e r y man has a p l o t o f l a n d to c u l t i v a t e , a c r e e k to
f i s h i n , p l a c e t o l i v e and a gr oup to c a r e f o r him in
time o f d i f f i c u l t y . With t h e s e r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s
go d u t i e s and o b l i g a t i o n s such as h e l p i n g needy members,
wo rk i ng towards t h e mai ntenance o f the good name o f the
l i n e a g e , the p r o m ot io n o f - i t s u n i t y , r e v e r e n c e to the
w i s h e s o f the l i n e a l a n c e s t o r s and o b e d i e n c e t o the
l i n e a g e head and o t h e r o l d e r members.

The l i n e a g e hea d was u s u a l l y i t s o l d e s t male

member o f the o l d e s t l i v i n g g e n e r a t i o n , and the o l d e r
he was the g r e a t e r h i s r i t u a l p ow er s. Today however
the o f f i c e i s e l e c t i v e and t h e r e f o r e younger members
w i t h q u a l i t i e s o f l e a d e r s h i p may be p r e f e r r e d t o o l d e r
men. He a d m i n i s t e r s the l i n e a g e and o t h e r p r o p e r t y ,
and no t r a n s a c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h i s o r o t h e r l i n e a g e
i n t e r e s t s may ta ke p l a c e w i t h o u t h i s k n ow l ed g e. He
j u d g e s d i s p u t e s i n v o l v i n g members o f th e l i n e a g e and i s
t he g r o u p * s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e on the v i l l a g e * s g o v e r n i n g
council. He i s n o r m a l l y c o n s u l t e d ab out any maj or
u n d e r t a k i n g i n an i n d i v i d u a l member's l i f e such as
m arriage. He i s a l s o the c h i e f p r i e s t o f the l i n e a g e ,
and i s r e g a r d e d i n t h i s c a p a c i t y to be th e l i n k between
the l i v i n g and the d ead, and the o nl y one who c o u l d
s peak w i t h s u f f i c i e n t a u t h o r i t y to the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
the a n c e s t o r s . A l l o f f e r i n g s made t o them a r e presented
by him on b e h a l f o f h i s p e o p l e .

M a r r i a g e among the A n l o i s u s u a l l y v i r i l o c a l and

t h e r e f o r e a l i n e a g e i s al most a l w ay s c o n f i n e d to a s e c ­
t i o n o f the town a l t h o u g h some may be l i v i n g w i t h t h e i r
m a t e r n a l r e l a t i v e s e l s e w h e r e in t he town.
 JOI

These i n b r i e f a r c the main f e a t u r e s o f A n l o d e s ­

cent. g r o u p s . On the s u r f a c e they p r e s e n t a p i c t u r e o f
a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t y , which i n d e e d
it is . But a number of p r a c t i c e s and o b s e r v a n c e s show
that t h e r e can be a Jot o f d i f f e r e n c e between a t heo ­
r e t i c a l s t r u c t u r e and o b s e r v a b l e p r a c t i c e . This l a s t
poi nt i s c r u c i a l i n the l i g h t o f the l i t e r a t u r e we
have had so f a r on A f r i c a n p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t i e s whi ch,
with the p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n o f the T a l l e n s i , 6 L u g b a r a 7
and a few o t h e r s , tend to o v e r - e m p h a s i z e the importance
of d es cent g r o u p s . In v i e w o f t h i s , i t i s i n t e n d e d as
a f i r s t s t e p t o make a f e w o b s e r v a t i o n s on p a t r i l i n e a l
s o c i e t i e s i n g e n e r a l , i n or deer to b r i n g out the s i m i ­
l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s between the A n l o and some o f
the b e t t e r known p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t i e s o f A f r i c a .

The l i t e r a t u r e on t h e s e A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s s u g g e s t s
that a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g n a t i c l i n e a g e s a r e i n s t i t u t i o n s
and p r a c t i c e s which a r e d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y c o n­
cerned w i t h the c o n t i n u i t y and s t r e n g t h o f the a g n a t i c
group. These a r e mo stl y r u l e s o f m a r r i a g e and the
f i lia t io n of children. The f i r s t p r a c t i c e t h a t comes to
mind i s t h a t m a r r i a g e i n th e se s o c i e t i e s t r a n s f e r s
what Bohannan c a l l s r i g h t s i n g e n e t r i c e m , by which i s
meant t h a t by the payment o f b r i d e w e a l t h the b r i d e ­
groom a c q u i r e s r i g h t s o v e r the r e p r o d u c t i v e s e r v i c e s
of the woman. That i s a f t e r the m a r r i a g e a l l c h i l d r e n
born t o the woman, r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l
fa t he r ho o d, w i l l be c o un t ed as the c h i l d r e n o f the man
who p a i d b r i d e w e a l t h f o r the woman. T h i s p r a c t i c e has
the e f f e c t o f :
(i) making d i v o r c e d i f f i c u l t and
(ii) e n s u r i n g t h a t enough men are
r e c r u i t e d i n t o the a g n a t i c gr oup

Since m a r r i a g e t r a n s f e r s a b s o l u t e l y the r e p r o d u c t i v e
s e r v i c e s o f t h e woman, s t e p s ar e t a k e n to r e t a i n these
r i g h t s i n the a g n a t i c l i n e a g e a i t e r the d e at h o f the
husband. U s u a l l y a p r o - h u s b a n d fr om the l i n e a g e o f
the d e c e a s e d hu sb a nd s u c c e e d s him under the i n s t i t u t i o n s
of the l e v i r a t e and widow i n h e r i t a n c e . Evans P r i t c h a r d
d i f f e r e n t i a t e s between widow i n h e r i t a n c e and the t r ue
levirate.® In t h e t r u e l e v i r a t e c h i l d r e n b o r n t o the
woman a f t e r the h u s b a n d ’ s d ea th a r e r e g a r d e d as the
dead man’ s and n o t the p r o - h u s b a n d ' s . In widow i n h e ­
r i t an c e the i n h e r i t o r a c t u a l l y r e - m a r r i e s the widow and
i s t h e pat or o f the c h i l d r e n b or n to the widow. There
i s a l s o among t h e s e p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t i e s what F.vans-
P r i t c h a r d c a l l s " ghos t m a r r i a g e * ’ . That i s the p r a c ­
t i c e by which a kinsman t a k e s a w i f e to the name o f a
man who d i e d w i t h o u t l e g a l male h e i r s . The i d e a i s
t ha t c h i l d r e n o f t h i s m a r r i a g e w i l l be counted as
b e l o n g i n g to the dead man. A l s o i n most o f t h e s e s o ­
c i e t i e s a b a r r e n woman w o ul d marry another woman and
h i r e a kinsman t o s l e e p w i t h t h i s woman- wife, so as to
r a i s e c h i l d r e n to the name o f the b a r r e n woman. Asso­
c i a t e d wi t h t h i s p r a c t i c e i s t h a t o f an impotent man
h i r i n g a kinsman t o s l e e p w i t h h i s w i f e to p ro du c e
c h i l d r e n f o r the impotent man. In most o f t h e s e s o ­
c i e t i e s the m a r i t a l s t a t u s o f the mother d e t er m i ne s the
s t a t u s >the l e g i t i m a c y or o t h e r w i s e o f her c h i l d r e n .
Hence f i v a n s - P r i t c h a r d * s famous s t a t e m e n t , ’’the p r i n c i p l e
o f a g n a t i c d e s c e n t i s by a k i n d o f p a r a d o x t r a c e d
t h r o u g h the m o t h e r ” . I n d e e d a more a p p r o p r i a t e statement
cannot e p i t o m i s e the i n s t i t u t i o n s o f these s o c i e t i e s .

The p r i m a r y aim o f m a r r i a g e i n A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s i s
the r a i s i n g o f a f a m i l y . I f t h e r e f o r e a woman f a i l s to
pro duce c h i l d r e n i t i s o b l i g a t o r y i n t h e s e p a t r i l i n e a l
s o c i e t i e s f o r the l i n e a g e o f the b a r r e n w i f e to s u p pl y
another w i f e u s u a l l y a s i s t e r f o r the husband. T hi s
i n s t i t u t i o n o f the s o r o r a t e u s u a l l y goes w i t h s o r o r a l
p o l y g y n y , whereby p r e f e r e n c e i s g i v e n to m a r r i a g e o f
s i s t e r s t o the same man whether or not the f i r s t marriage
i s b a r r e n , as i t i s s a i d i n t h e s e s o c i e t i e s the l o v e o f
s i s t e r s w o u l d f o r e s t a l l or at l e a s t h e l p overcome the
j e a l o u s i e s o f polygyny. Si n ce such s o r o r a l p ol y gy n y
s e r v e s as a t e n s i o n - r e d u c i n g mechanism i n the polygynous
f a m i l y and t h e r e b y h e l p s t o s t a b i l i s e m a r r i a g e .

Thes e ar e b u t some o f the i n s t i t u t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t i e s as a l r e a d y ment ioned. They
a r e more or l e s s co nc e rn e d w i t h the c o n t i n u i t y and
n u m e r i c a l s t r e n g t h o f the a g n a t i c g r o u p . The important
t h i n g t o remember i s t h a t they a r e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i s e d
p r a c t i c e s f o u n d i n most o f the a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l y w e l l
known s o c i e t i e s w i t h a g n a t i c l i n e a g e s . In f a c t they
a r e p r e v a l e n t i n so many s o c i e t i e s t h a t some a nt h r o p o ­
l o g i s t s w r i t e as i f t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s ar e n e c e s s a r y
f e a t u r e s o f p a t r i l i n e a l descent. I t was t h i s c o n s i d e ­
r a t i o n t h a t l e d Gluckman t o put f o r w a r d h i s c o n t r o v e r ­
s i a l h y p o t h e s i s on k i n s h i p s t r u c t u r e and m a r i t a l s t a ­
b ility .^ i t i s s u f f i c i e n t to say h e r e t h a t t h e r e are
 193

quite a number o f p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t i e s which d i f f e r

r a d i c a l l y from the N u e r - Z u l u type o f s o c i e t y i n not
having most o f th e se i n s t i t u t i o n s . In t h i s r e g a r d
the East A f r i c a n Kingdoms o f the i n t e r l a c u s t r i n e
Bantu a r e a p r o v i d e ample examp les . Among b o t h the
Ganda and the S o g a m a r r i a g e s do not n e c e s s a r i l y
t r a n s f e r a l l the woman’ s r e p r o d u c t i v e s e r v i c e s to the
husband. In a l l c a s e s b i o l o g i c a l f a t h e r h o o d i s the s o ­
le b a s i s f o r p a t r i f i l i a t i o n . As such t h e r e i s no room
for woman m a r r i a g e , m a r r i a g e o f an impotent man and
ghost m a r r i a g e . And among the S o ga e s p e c i a l l y , F a l l e r s
has shown that w i v e s a r e not a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e i r
husbands' l i n e a g e s , t h at t hey s t i l l re ma in under the
p r o te c ti on o f t h e i r own p a t r i l i n e a l a n c e s t o r s and l i n e ­
age c u l t s , even a f t e r m a r r i a g e . In A n l o , the p o s i t i o n
is almost e x a c t l y the same. M a r r i e d women remain mem­
bers o f t h e i r f a t h e r s ' d e s c e n t g r o u p s , and a l l c u l t
a f f i l i a t i o n they had b e f o r e m a r r i a g e a r e not a f f e c t e d
by t h e i r m a r i t a l s t a t u s . Thus i n m a t t e r s a f f e c t i n g
r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s and a f f i l i a t i o n s as w e l l as f u n e r a l s ,
women a r e v e r y c l o s e l y a t t a c h e d to t h e i r l i n e a g e
b rothers. In A f r i c a t h e r e seems to be a g r e a t e r
emphasis on k i n s h i p t i e s as o pp o se d to a f f i n a l t i e s
and t h i s a p p e a r s t o h o l d whether we a r e c o n s i d e r i n g
those s o c i e t i e s w hi ch i n c o r p o r a t e w i v e s i n t o t h e i r
husbands' d e s c e n t g r o u p s and t h o s e which do not .

As a l r e a d y ment ioned the main co nce rn i n the

present e x e r c i s e i s to f i n d out w het her the A n l o have
these i n s t i t u t i o n s which a r e u s u a l l y found i n p a t r i l i n e a l
s o c i e t i e s o f the N u e r - Z u l u t y p e . The p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n ­
ce of th e se i n s t i t u t i o n s w i l l h e l p i n t e r p r e t e problems
such as m a r i t a l s t a b i l i t y and the l i k e . Nuer l e a v e
behind t h e i r w i v e s and i f the w i v e s happen to have
children wi t h l o v e r s d u r i n g the abs e nc e o f the husbands
the Nuer woul d c l a i m the c h i l d b o r n to h i s w i f e ; the A n l o
husband w o ul d c l a i m damages b ut not the c h i l d . I n d ee d
the Anlo man woul d n o t o n l y go on to s ee k d i v o r c e from
the a d u l t r e s s , i t i s even c o n s i d e r e d dange ro us f o r him
to s le ep w i t h the w i f e a f t e r she has been sed uce d.

A l s o b e c a u s e o f the p r im a cy o f b i o l o g i c a l f a t h e r ­
hood, woman- marriage and the r e l a t e d p r a c t i c e s o f an
impotent man m a r r y i n g f o r a p r o - h u s b a n d a r e a b s e n t .
The s o r o r a t e i s n e v e r p r a c t i s e d and t h e r e i s a t o t a l
taboo on s o r o r a l p o l y g y n y . Whereas th e Z u l u say t h at
th e l o v e o f s i s t e r s w o ul d overcome the j e a l o u s i e s of
c o - w i v e s , the A n l o say t h at the j e a l o u s i e s o f co-wi ves
w o u l d s p o i l the l o v e o f the s i s t e r s . T h i s t aboo on
s o r o r a l p o l y g y n y i n A n l o e x t e nd s t o a l l c l o s e cognates
t o such an e x t e n t t h a t even s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s ar e p r o h i ­
b i t e d bet ween c l o s e a f f i n e s .

These A nl o p r a c t i c e s , I have m ent i one d, show how

t hey d i f f e r i n many r e s p e c t s fr om some o f the b e t t e r
known p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t i e s . I t must be mentioned
t h a t the A n l o a r e e s s e n t i a l l y p a t r i l i n e a l and t h i s i s
shown i n many s p h e r e s o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t y . Clanship
and l i n e a g e o r g a n i s a t i o n have a l r e a d y b e en d e s c r i b e d .
P a t r i l i n y i s f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e d i n r u l e s o f s u c c es si o n ,
i n h e r i t a n c e , a n c e s t o r w o r s h i p , ward membership and the
residence pattern. R e s i de n ce e s p e c i a l l y e x a m p l i f i e s
the a g n a t i c p r i n c i p l e b e c a us e the l o c a l a g n a t i c i n c i ­
dence f o r a d u l t s i s o v e r 75%. I t has j u s t been men­
t i o n e d t h a t s u c c e s s i o n , i n h e r i t a n c e , a n c e s t o r worship
and w a r d o r g a n i s a t i o n a r e o t h e r f i e l d s o f a c t i v i t y
where t h e a g n a t i c p r i n c i p l e i s b r o u g h t i n t o f o c u s . We
may however add i m m e d i a t e l y t h a t i n a l l t hes e spheres
o f a c t i v i t y t h e r e i s al ways a d e g r e e o f l a x i t y i n the
a p p l i c a t i o n o f the p a t r i l i n e a l r u l e . Property usually
p a s s e s from f a t h e r to son b u t i n c a s e o f l a n d , r i g h t s
o f u s u f r u c t a r e e x t e n d e d to d a u g h t e r s a l s o . P l o t s so
i n h e r i t e d by women may be u s e d by t h e i r own c h i l d r e n
and p a s s down t o them a f t e r the death o f t h e i r mothers.

Women's p r o p e r t y such as t r i n k e t s , b e a d s , cl othi ng,

e a r - r i n g s , p a s s to d a u g h t e r s . S u c c e s s i o n to o f f i c e s
e s p e c i a l l y c h i e f s h i p and l i n e a g e h e a d s h i p i s s t r i c t l y
t h r o ug h the p a t r i l i n e a l l i n e . H er e we h a ve a thorough
a p p l i c a t i o n o f t he p a t r i l i n e a l p r i n c i p l e b e c a u s e only
a g n a t e s o f t h e r o y a l l i n e a g e can s uc c ee d t o the c h i e f ­
s h i p , and o n l y a member o f a l i n e a g e can become i t s
l e a d e r , but even h e r e t h e r e a r e i n s t a n c e s t o show that
where n e c e s s a r y s i s t e r ' s c h i l d r e n a r e sometimes c o n s i ­
d e r e d . 12

A n c e s t o r s h i p i s p e r f o r m e d on l i n e a g e b a s i s . The
l i n e a g e head as t h e c h i e f p r i e s t o f the gr ou p perforins
the a n c e s t r a l r i t e s on b e h a l f o f the g r o u p . But the
l i n e a l d e s c e n d a n t s o f the f o u n d e r do no t p a r t i c i p a t e
i n the w o r s h i p a l o n e . A l l r e l a t i v e s o f the l i n e a g e
i n c l u d i n g a l l the c o g n a t i c d e s c e n d a n t s o f the founding
 195

ancestor ar e i n v i t e d to p a r t i c i p a t e . The b e l i e f i s
that the a n c e s t o r s do make demands on b o t h t h e i r l i n e a l
and c o g n a t i c d e s c e n d a n t s a l i k e and b o t h c a t e g o r i e s o f
kin can ex pect f a v o u r s and punishments from them. This
is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to t h e i r . b e l i e f i n r e i n c a r n a t i o n . 13
Unlike many p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t i e s which f o l l o w t h i s
b e l i e f , the de a d among the Anlo a r e b e l i e v e d to r e t u r n
into the w o r l d not n e c e s s a r i l y i n t o t h e i r l i n e a g e bu t
rather as members o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l k i n d r e d or through
both l i n e a l ahd c o g n a t i c d e s c e n d a n t s , that i s , a dead
man i s b e l i e v e d t o come b a c k i n t o the w o r l d e i t h e r i n t o
his own l i n e a g e group o r i n t o the f a m i l y o f any c o g n a t e .

Ward membership may be c o n s i d e r e d f i n a l l y . Anlo

settlements a r e u s u a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o war ds . The number
of wards i n any s e t t l e m e n t depends on i t s r a n g i n g from
two i n the s m a l l e s t to o v e r ten in the l a r g e r towns.
The ward o r g a n i s e s the f u n e r a l s o f dead members and a l s o
acts as a d a n c i n g group.. A p e r s o n n o r m a l l y b e l o n g s to
the ward o f h i s f a t h e r bu t t h i s i s not always the c a s e .
He can i f he l i k e s choose h i s m o t h e r ' s i f th e p a r e n t s
belong to d i f f e r e n t w a r d s . The f a c t i s t h a t though
every ward i s t e r r i t o r i a l l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h a s e c t i o n
of the se t t le m e n t which the members occupy, to the An lo
themselves, i t i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the w a r d ' s a c t i v i t i e s ,
not residence which d e t e r m i n e s t o which ward a person
belongs. A man whose p a r e n t s b e l o n g t o d i f f e r e n t w a r d s ,
and who p r e f e r s f o r i n s t a n c e the songg o f h i s m o t h e r ' s
ward may choose t h a t ward i n s t e a d o f the f a t h e r ' s . Thus
although the l a r g e m a j o r i t y b e l o n g t o t h e i r f a t h e r ' s
wards i t happens t h a t a p e r s o n c o u l d l i v e w i t h h i s l i n e ­
age members i n the ward and y et b e co unted a s a member
of another w a r d . I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e f o r two f u l l
brothers to b e l o n g to two d i f f e r e n t wards i f one c ho os es
the f a t h e r ' s and the o t h e r the m o t h e r ' s .

We have t r i e d t o p r e s e n t w i t h the h e l p o f the

preceding e x a m p l e s , sopie a s p e c t s o f the a g n a t i c p r i n c i ­
ple as a p p l i e d t o t h e A n l o . What has emerged i s t h a t
Anlo s o c i a l o r g a n i s a t i o n i s b a s e d on p a t r i l i n e a l d es ce n t
with i n h e r i t a n c e , s u c c e s s i o n and r e s i d e n c e a l l f o l l o w i n g
the p a t r i l i n e a l p r i n c i p l e . But the system i s not a
rigid one. There a r e c e r t a i n sphe res o f l i f e where the
lineal p r i n c i p l e i s l a x enough to admit b i l a t e r a l
dements, as seen e s p e c i a l l y i n i n h e r i t a n c e and a n c e s t o r
worships Some i n s t i t u t i o n s such as t h e s o r o r a t e , s o r o -
19b
/

r a l polygyny, lev.irate, ghost-marriage and woman-

m a r r i a g e , which a r e e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s o f some o f the
b e t t e r known p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t i e s a r e not p r e s e n t .
Tn the words o f L a u r a Rohannan we may say that marriage
in A n l o t r a n s f e r s r i g h t s i n uxorem b ut not r i g h t s
in g e n e t r i c e m s i n c e the known q e n i t o r i s i n a l l c as es
the p a t e r .14 In the same way i n A n l o , " th e p r i n c i p l e
o f a g n a t i c d es cent i s not t r a c e d through the mother",
as c l a i m e d by E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d . I t i s t r a c e d through
the c j e n l t o r . But the Anl o c a s e i s not u ni q u e . Examples
o f s i m i l a r systems have a l r e a d y been mentioned and the
i mp o r t a n c e o f n o n - a g n a t i c k i n s f o l k i n p a t r i l i n e a l s o­
c i e t i e s has a l s o b e en emphasised i n the works o f
Professor Fortes. In the c a s e o f r i g h t s i n v o l v e d in
m a r r i a g e the A n l o m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e s ano ther example
to show d i v e r g e n c e fr om what u s e d to be r e g a r d e d as the
i n s t i t u t i o n s u s u a ll y found in p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t i e s .

In the k i n s h i p system as a whole the Anlo materi al

s u g g e s t s t h a t a l t h o u g h d e s c e n t gr ou p s can r i g h t l y be
seen as the s t r u c t u r e s ar ou nd which the s o c i a l system
i s b u i l t , an i n d i v i d u a l ' s r i g h t s , o b l i g a t i o n s and p r i ­
v i l e g e s a r e not l i m i t e d t o th e se g r o u p s . In A n l o i t
a p p e a r s an i n d i v i d u a l can t u r n with g r e a t e r c a s e and
c o n f i d e n c e to c o g n a t i c r e l a t i v e s f o r h e l p than i n many
p a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e t i e s i f a g n a t e s a r e not i n a p o s i t i o n to
f u l f i l their lineage o b ligatio n s.
 197

Footnotes

1. A f u l l e r account o f the k i n s h i p system may be

found i n the author * s K i n s h i p and M a r r i a g e among
the Anlo E w e , London School o f Economics monographs
on S o c i a l A n t h r o p o l o g y , N o . 37 London, A t h l o n e
Press, 1969.

2. See D. Westermann, Die G l i d v i - E w e in To go , Berlin,

1935, p . 160.

3. Jacob S p i e t h ' s works on the Ewe i n c l u d e Die Ewe

Stamme, B e r l i n , 1906 and D ie R e l i g i o n d er Eweer
in S u d - T o g o , B e r l i n , 1911.

4. The o f f i c i a l l i s t o f the c l a n s was g i v e n by the

King’ s c o u r t at a d u rb a r on 8th December, 1962
during the A n l o m i g r a t i o n f e s t i v a l at A n lo g a . They
were g i v e n i n t h i s o r d e r : L a f e , Amlade, A d z o v i a ,
Bate, L i k e , Bamee, K l e v i , T o v i , Tsiama, A ga ve , Amc,
Dzevi, Uif em e, I fe ts o fe , and B l u .

5. See e s p e c i a l l y Westermann, 1935 i b i d , B . E . Ward,

The S o c i a l O r g a n i s a t i o n o f the E w e - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e ,
Unpublished M.A. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f London 1949,
p . 71, M. Manoukian, The E w e - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e o f
Togoland and the G o l d C o a s t , E t h n o g r a p h i c Su rv ey o f
A f r i c a , W e s t e r n A f r i c a , N o . 6 1952 p . 22 and D.K.
Fiawoo, The i n f l u e n c e o f contemporary s o c i a l
changes on the m a g i c o - r e l i g i o u s c on ce pt s and o r g a ­
nisa tio n o f th e So uth ern E w e - s p e a k i n g p e o p l e s o f
Ghana, u n p u b l i s h e d P h. D . t h e s i s . Ed inb urg h 1958 p . 91

6. Examples a r e F o r t e s ’ The Web o f K i n s h i p among the

f a l l e n s i and " D e s c e n t " F i l i a t i o n and A f f i n i t y ” in
Man, 1959, 309 and 3 3 1.

7. J. M id dl et on , L u g b a r a R e l i g i o n , London 1960.

E.E. E v a n s - P r i t c h a r d , K i n s h i p ahd M a r r i a g e among the

Nuer 1951 p . 1 12.
9. M. Gluckman, " K i n s h i p and M a r r i a g e among the L o z i
of Northern R h o d e s i a and the Z u l u o f N a t a l " in
A.R. R a d c l i f f e - B r o w n and D. Forde ( e d s . ) A f r i c a n
Systems o f K i n s h i p and M a r r i a g e , London 1950
PPTI66-206.-------------
198

I.0. See e s p e c i a l l y L . A . P a l l e r s , ’’Some d et er mi na nt s

o f M a r r i a g e S t a b i l i t y i n B us oga: A r e f o r m u l a t i o n of
Gl uc k ma n' s h y p o t h e s i s " , i n A f r i c a 1957 p . 100-121
and M a r t i n So ut hw ol d, "The Cianda o f U g a n d a " i n J.L.
Q i b b s ( e d . ) P e o p l e s o f A f r i c a , p .105.

II. op * c i t . l o c . c i t .

12. S t o o l h i s t o r i e s o f many Anlo chi ef do ms show that

i n the a b s e n c e o f s u i t a b l e c a n d i d a t e s i n the male
l i n e , m a t e r n a l r e l a t i v e s are c o n s i d e r e d f o r the
chiefship.

13. Nukunva, op. cit. p . 40.

14. Bohannan L . L952 A G e n e a l o g i c a l Charter. A f r i c a XXII.

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