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Physical Geography

Arid geomorphology
David J. Nash
Progress in Physical Geography 2000 24: 425
DOI: 10.1177/030913330002400308

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Progress in Physical Geography 24,3 (2000) pp. 425–443

Arid geomorphology
David J. Nash
School of the Environment, University of Brighton, Cockcroft Building, Lewes Road,
Brighton BN2 4GJ, UK

The interaction of wind and water over time is arguably the key influence upon the con-
temporary geomorphology and longer-term landscape development of arid regions of
the world. The significance of this interaction is reflected in the considerable volume of
publications devoted to the study of aeolian and fluvial processes, as well as
Quaternary and Holocene desert environments, which have appeared in the last year.

I Aeolian processes, sediments and landforms in deserts

Our understanding of the work of the wind in deserts has progressed considerably in
the past year with the publication of two books and two journal special editions, as well
as numerous high-quality articles, devoted to aeolian geomorphology. The first of the
books is Desert winds: monitoring wind-related surface processes in Arizona, New Mexico and
California (Breed and Reheis, 1999), a wide-ranging collection which presents results of
research undertaken during the 18-year ‘Desert Winds Project’. The remaining
collections are from the Fourth International Conference on Aeolian Research (ICAR-4)
held in Oxford in 1998. The most useful of these is the excellent volume Aeolian envi-
ronments, sediments and landforms (Goudie et al., 1999a) which contains state-of-the-art
reviews by keynote speakers at the conference encompassing the key areas of aeolian
geomorphology. Selected papers from ICAR-4 on dust, wind erosion and dunes are
compiled in a Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie Supplementbände (Livingstone, 1999),
whilst others on aeolian sand transport processes are included in Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms Volume 24, part 5 (1999).
The majority of publications on aeolian geomorphology focus upon aeolian
processes, including reviews of recent advances in the physics and measurement of
sand transport (Gillette, 1999; Helm and Breed, 1999), airflow and sediment transport
over dunes (Nickling and McKenna Neuman, 1999) and wind erosion of agricultural
land (Leys, 1999). The greatest interest in the past year has been in the study of aeolian
sand transport. One of the key publications in this area is by Kocurek and Lancaster

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426 Arid geomorphology

(1999) who elegantly conceptualize the controls upon sediment flux through time
(namely, interactions between sediment supply, sediment availability and the transport
capacity of the wind), supported by field data from the Kelso dunefield. Along similar
lines is the assessment of the ‘Climatic Index for Dune Mobility’ which is tested and
validated for decadal timescales by Lancaster and Helm (2000) on the basis of long-term
monitoring of dunes at three sites in the USA. Modelling studies include attempts to
simulate sand transport across transverse dunes (van Boxel et al., 1999; van Dijk et al.,
1999) and processes of wind erosion of soil surfaces (Rice et al., 1999). Wind tunnel
investigations encompass studies of the impact of wind speed and bed slope (Iversen
and Rasmussen, 1999), rough surfaces (McKenna Neuman, 1998) and roughness
elements (Al-Awadhi and Willetts, 1999) upon particle transport and deposition. Other
interesting experimental work includes studies of the impacts of particle abrasion upon
biological crusts (McKenna Neuman and Maxwell, 1999), the development of mountain
dune forms (Liu et al., 1999), and the assessment of optical and thermal sensors for
measuring near-bed sediment flux (Butterfield, 1999a; 1999b). A number of field-based
studies also focus upon fundamental processes of sediment transport. These include
monitoring investigations of sediment fluxes on flat loose sand beds (Rasmussen and
Sørensen, 1999; Wang and Kraus, 1999), silt loam soils (Sterk et al., 1999) and reversing
dunes (Walker, 1999), as well as work by Gillette and Chen (1999) which considers the
importance of sandblasting mechanisms in the entrainment process. At a regional scale,
both Pease et al. (1999) and Ramsey et al. (1999) describe attempts to characterize
sediment sources and sand transport pathways using Landsat TM and thermal infrared
remote sensing, respectively.
As noted in last year’s progress report (Nash, 1999), there has been less work
undertaken on aeolian landforms when compared to aeolian processes. Several useful
overviews have, however, appeared including reviews of the advances in dune studies
over the last 100 years (Goudie, 1999a), desert sand seas (Lancaster, 1999) and the
management of continental and coastal dunes (Thomas, 1999). The processes leading to
the formation of erosional landforms including yardangs and pans are described by
Goudie (1999b), with new data on yardangs from southwestern Egypt also presented
(Goudie et al., 1999b). Work on individual dune forms includes studies of barchan
dynamics in Peru (Gay, 1999) and Egypt (Stokes et al., 1999), reticulate dunes in China
(Ha et al., 1999), and sand ridges, barchans, barchanoid and star dunes in the United
Arab Emirates (El-Sayed, 1999). Investigations of dune sediments include studies in the
Senegal Delta (Mohamedou et al., 1999), Tengger (Ha et al., 1999), Taklimakan (Honda
and Shimuzu, 1998), Kalahari (Livingstone et al., 1999), Simpson, Strzelecki and Tirari
Deserts (Pell et al., 2000). On a more theoretical level, Werner and Kocurek (1999)
discuss the importance of the behaviour of defects, or the ends of crest lines, in
controlling spacing of bedforms at a variety of scales.
The use of luminescence dating techniques to unravel sequences of environmental
changes from aeolian sediments has continued in the last year, with two interesting and
user-friendly reviews of the principles and applications of the technique provided by
Singhvi and Wintle (1999) and Stokes (1999). The dating method is not, however,
without its problems, and Haskell et al. (1999) demonstrate that the luminescence age
estimate obtained from a sediment body is highly dependent upon laboratory methods
employed. In addition to these reviews of dating techniques, Tchakerian (1999)
provides an extremely useful summary of the various criteria which may be used in

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 David J. Nash 427

constructing past environmental records from dune systems. Individual contributions

on palaeodune systems include further studies from the Mega Kalahari (O’Connor and
Thomas, 1999; Thomas et al., 2000) which demonstrate increasingly complex regional
variability in late Quaternary and Holocene dune activity. These patterns are modelled
and partially explained in an important chapter by Stokes et al. (1998) which provides
the first attempt to link palaeodata to a general circulation model for this region.
Elsewhere in Africa, research into Holocene palaeodune activity in the Sahel (Holmes et
al., 1999) demonstrates that semi-aridity was established after 4 ka BP, whilst aeolian
and lacustrine records in the northern Sahara (Swezey et al., 1999) suggest that at least
four regional millennial-scale wet–dry climatic cycles may have occurred during the
late Quaternary and Holocene. In South America, de Oliviera et al. (1999) provide the
first information for vegetation changes on the fossil dunefields of the São Francisco
River, demonstrating that late Pleistocene climates were wetter than present. Studies in
North America include work on aeolian sedimentation (Gustavson and Holliday, 1999)
and lunette dune chronologies (Rich et al., 1999) in the Southern High Plains of Texas
and New Mexico, and Holocene deposits in Baja California Sur, Mexico (Murillo de
Nava et al., 1999).

II Dust

There continues to be a large amount of research into the generation and impacts of
desert dust transport and deposition. Much of the recent work is summarized in an
excellent review by McTainsh (1999) which is an essential read for experts and novices
alike. Identifying, predicting and characterizing dust emissions have continued to be a
major research focus at a variety of scales. Regional-scale studies include Claquin et al.
(1999), who describe a technique for analysing the mineralogy of dust sources by
modelling the mineralogical compositions of major arid-zone soil groups. Chomette et
al. (1999) determine the wind speed thresholds for dust emission using infrared remote-
sensing techniques, whilst Nickling et al. (1999) discuss the processes and sources of
dust emissions in western Queensland. Studies of dust transport and deposition have
included investigations into dust fluxes from playa lakes (Niemeyer et al., 1999),
patterns of dust deposition in rocky deserts (Goossens, 2000), transport pathways over
the Arabian Sea (Tindale and Pease, 1999), and dust fall over the Taklamakan Desert in
China (Weinan et al., 1999) and urban areas of western Nevada (Gillies et al., 1999).
Other studies have considered the impacts of dust deposition, including the implica-
tions of dust for human health (O’Hara et al., 2000), soils (Reheis, 1999a), riverine (Leys
and McTainsh, 1999) and playa environments (Blank et al., 1999).
Studies of Quaternary and Holocene dust deposits have predominantly focused
upon loess (Pye and Sherwin, 1999) and coarser aeolian sediments in China. The most
significant studies concern links between desert margin expansions and loess
deposition, including investigations from the margin of the Mn Us Desert (Ding et al.,
1999b; Sun, 2000) where a 580 000-year loess–sand–soil sequence has been interpreted
in relation to cyclical climate variability (Sun, J.M. et al., 1999). Ding et al. (1999c; 1999d)
have analysed the sand content of loess deposits across the Chinese Loess Plateau and
suggest that observed increases in sand content may be more closely linked to
expansions of deserts than enhanced winter monsoon conditions as commonly thought

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428 Arid geomorphology

(Liu and Ding, 1998; Zhang et al., 1999). Both Ding et al. (1998b; 1999e) and Xiong et al.
(1999) discuss red clay formations within loess sequences and consider that they have
a predominantly wind-blown origin. Finally, the links between past dust generation
and climatic conditions have been assessed through the analysis of high-resolution
loess (Ding et al., 1998a; 1999a; Huang et al., 2000) and other dust deposits (Kang, S. et
al., 1999). Work in other regions includes studies of loess records in Colorado (Aleinikoff
et al., 1999; Muhs et al., 1999), Iowa (Muhs and Bettis, 2000), Washington and Oregon
(Richardson et al., 1999). Hesse and McTainsh (1999) demonstrate from research in the
Tasman Sea that whilst enhanced dust deposition occurred at the Last Glacial
Maximum there is no evidence for stronger winds off Southern Hemisphere mid-
latitude land masses at this time.

III Desert hillslope morphology and hydrology

One of the greatest limits to our understanding of arid-zone hillslope development has
been the lack of accurate data with which to constrain landscape evolution models. The
situation is changing, however, with the increased use of cosmogenic and other dating
techniques to determine denudation rates. Cockburn et al. (1999) use cosmogenic
radionucleides to identify denudation rates of c. 5 m Ma–1 for granitic inselbergs in the
hyperarid central Namib. These rates are an order of magnitude greater than values
reported for inselbergs in arid South Australia but are comparable with data from the
Drakensberg escarpment where summit denudation rates of c. 6 m Ma–1 and
escarpment retreat rates of 50–95 m Ma–1 have been estimated (Fleming et al., 1999). The
relatively high denudation rates on Namibian inselbergs are most likely due to the con-
tribution to weathering of salts introduced by coastal fog (see below), and may be of
significance over long timescales given that the Namib has experienced aridity for
much of the last 130 Ma (Goudie and Eckardt, 1999). Elsewhere, scarp retreat rates of
0.9–1 mm yr–1 have been estimated for semi-arid northeast Spain using radiocarbon
dating of slope deposits (Gutiérrez et al., 1998). Other work on slope morphology has
been undertaken in Australia, where the origins of bornhardts (Twidale and Bourne,
1998a) and flared slopes (Twidale and Bourne, 1998b) are considered, and in Jordan
(Allison and Higgitt, 1998; Higgitt and Allison, 1999a; 1999b) and the USA (Edinger-
Marshall and Lund, 1999), where relationships between slope form and stone cover are
discussed.
There have also been a large number of studies of arid-zone hillslope hydrology,
using field monitoring, modelling and remote-sensing (Tansey et al., 1999) techniques.
One of the most interesting of these is by Wainwright et al. (1999a) who demonstrate
that disturbed desert pavements can reform within as little as 10 rainfall events. The
same authors (Wainwright et al., 1999b) have also used simulated rainstorms to reveal
that creosote bushes can absorb up to 90% of the incoming kinetic energy from rainfall.
Other hydrological investigations focus upon the interactions between precipitation,
slope form (Scanlon et al., 1999) and vegetation (Kutiel and Lavee, 1999). One of the
most significant of these is by Puigdefabregas et al. (1999), describing results from the
intensively monitored Rambla Honda site in southeast Spain. In this area, mosaics of
bare and vegetated ground have developed over time in order to minimize water and
sediment redistribution lengths on slopes, but overland flow is comparatively rare due

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 David J. Nash 429

to the fact that soils only become saturated under very specific within-event rainfall
conditions. Other studies of the influence of vegetation cover upon water and sediment
redistribution include work on semi-natural (Romero-Diaz et al., 1999; Martinez-Mena
et al., 2000) and managed or abandoned sites (Wijdenes et al., 1999; Zhu et al., 1999;
Lasanta et al., 2000), as well as on sand dune slopes (Kidron, 1999; Kidron et al., 1999).
There has also been a large number of contributions concerning the development of
vegetation patterns in arid and semi-arid regions, including Bergkamp et al. (1999),
Bryan and Brun (1999), Cammeraat and Imeson (1999), Chappell et al. (1999), Dunkerley
and Booth (1999), Dunkerley and Brown (1999a), Eddy et al. (1999), Galle et al. (1999),
Issa et al. (1999), Janeau et al. (1999), Leprun (1999), Ludwig et al. (1999), MacDonald et
al. (1999), Valentin and d’Herbes (1999), Valentin et al. (1999) and Zonneveld (1999).

IV Components of the arid-zone fluvial system

A considerable volume of research into the various components of dryland fluvial

systems, including studies of upland alluvial fans, endogenic and exogenic rivers, and
playas, has appeared in the past year. The majority of publications have focused upon
the modelling (Kang, E. et al., 1999; Lange et al., 1999; Abdulla and Al Badranih, 2000),
generation and hydrological characteristics of dryland floods. These include two
studies from Spain in which catchment monitoring has been used to assess spatial and
temporal variations in flood development (Martín-Vide et al., 1999; Bull et al., 2000), as
well as research from Australia (Dunkerley and Brown, 1999b) and Israel (Shentsis et al.,
1999) into the impacts of transmission losses. The increase in the number of process-
orientated investigations of dryland floods noted in the last progress report has
continued unabated. Greatest attention has focused upon flash-flood events in gravel-
bed rivers, with some of the most interesting results arising from detailed studies in
Israel (Reid et al., 1998) and Algeria (Touaibia et al., 1999). Synchronous monitoring of
cross-stream bedload flux and stream discharge in two ephemeral channels in the
Negev (Powell et al., 1998; 1999) reveals considerable spatial variability in cross-channel
sediment transport induced by sidewall drag and, possibly, the development of cellular
secondary currents. Results of previous research in Israel have also been compared with
studies of bedload transport in gravel-bed rivers in the UK and USA, and identify the
importance of variations in water-surface slope in determining bedload sediment
transport in arid zone streams (Meirovich et al., 1998). These investigations have been
extended to allow an assessment of the impacts of future climate changes upon con-
temporary rivers (Reid et al., 1998) and also the extent to which arid zone rivers may be
used as indicators of past climates (Nanson and Tooth, 1999). The relationship between
discharge and the transport of fine sediment has also been considered. The impacts of
natural and human-induced supply limitation upon sediment transport in the
Colorado River are described by Topping et al. (2000a; 2000b), whilst the transport of
coarser material within sand rivers in Botswana is assessed by Hassan et al. (1999) who
reveal that the distance of sediment transport of gravel-sized particles in channels
dominated by sand is independent of particle size and shape.
There have been a number of publications concerning channel morphology and
development, the foremost of which are from arid central Australia. Tooth and Nanson
(1999) provide the first detailed account of the characteristics of anabranching rivers in

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430 Arid geomorphology

the Northern Plains region of central Australia. River sections containing multiple
channels are usually located downstream of confluences, with channel pattern
influenced by the distribution of vegetation on the floodplain as well as by inputs of
water and sediment from tributary systems. The characteristics of central Australian
‘floodouts’ – sections of rivers where the channel disappears due to a combination of
diminishing discharge, excess sediment, declining valley gradients or obstructions to
flow – are described in an interesting study by Tooth (1999), which has widespread
implications for the understanding of similar features in other arid regions. Studies of
the development of drainage systems over long timescales focus upon sedimentary and
structural evidence, and include studies from central Australia (Croke et al., 1998; Alley
et al., 1999), the Kalahari (de Wit, 1999; Bootsman et al., 2000) and southern Spain
(Dabrio et al., 1998; Stokes and Mather, 2000). An exception to this approach is the work
of Lancaster et al. (2000) who use radar remote-sensing techniques to identify relict
former courses of the Kuiseb and Tsondab Rivers in the northern Namib Sand Sea.
Studies of desert alluvial fans continue to concentrate upon the nature and controls
of fan surface sedimentation (de Chant et al., 1999; Parker, 1999). Milana and Ruzycki
(1999) identify how variations in sediment transport efficiency control fan slope, whilst
Blair (1999) assesses the controls of fan-surface sheetflood and debris flow processes.
Mack and Leeder (1999) and Harvey et al. (1999) consider the impacts of climatic fluc-
tuations and tectonic activity upon fan formation, with the former study providing
convincing arguments for the identification of tectonic and climatic controls upon sed-
imentation patterns in six palaeofans.
Work on arid-zone lake basins centres upon studies of sediment sources in dry lakes,
surface and subsurface water dynamics in playa systems, and extracting palaeoenvi-
ronmental records from lacustrine sediments and landforms. Studies of lake deposits
include analyses of recent sediments in ephemeral pans (Luo et al. 1999), and the dis-
tribution of calcium carbonate (Mees, 1999a; Ringrose et al., 1999), gypsum and
kalistrontite (Mees, 1999b) in dry lake basins. Bryant (1999) describes the dynamic
nature of surface-water availability within Chott el Djerid in Tunisia, with an attempt
to model water fluxes beneath dry salt lakes made by Boufadel et al. (1999). Two studies
also consider the ecology of playa lake systems (Williams et al., 1998; Comin et al., 1999),
both containing interesting data on playa water quality. Studies of lake palaeoenviron-
mental records have been undertaken in the USA, Australia, Israel, Turkey (Roberts et
al., 1999), India (Enzel et al., 1999), Botswana (Holmgren and Shaw, 1997), Ethiopia
(Telford and Lamb, 1999; Lamb et al., 2000), Chile (Geyh et al., 1999) and China (Chen et
al., 1999; Feng et al., 1999), with an essential summary of tropical African lake-level fluc-
tuations since the Last Glacial Maximum provided by Gasse (2000). Much of the work
from the USA concerns the reconstruction of lake fluctuations using beach features and
sediments (Reheis, 1999b), and provides further data for highstands in Lakes Lahontan
(Adams and Wesnousky, 1999), Bonneville (Oviatt et al., 1999; Sack, 1999), and Soda
Lake (Hooke, 1999), whilst other studies have used plant microfossils (Davis, 1999),
macrofossils (Wilf, 2000) and salt cores (Lowenstein et al., 1999) to unravel the palae-
olimnological record. Elsewhere, the history of Lake Eyre, Australia, is investigated
using AMS radiocarbon and amino acid racemization dating of mollusc and emu
eggshell samples (Magee and Miller, 1998), and sedimentation patterns in a Dead Sea
Rift playa are used to identify large-magnitude earthquakes (Amit et al., 1999).

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 David J. Nash 431

V Arid-zone weathering processes and products

Recent research into arid-zone weathering can be divided into two main categories:
studies of the operation and controls upon weathering processes, and investigations of
the origins of weathering features and geochemical sediments generated as a result of
interacting processes. The majority of studies use field (Paradise, 1998) and laboratory
simulation experiments to consider the action of individual processes. Salt weathering
of limestone is the focus of work by Goudie (1999c) who demonstrates that weathering
generally leads to a reduction in rock strength even though it may not always cause
identifiable disintegration. The same author (Goudie, 1999d) also shows that whilst a
rock may be susceptible to salt attack this does not automatically mean that it will be
equally prone to frost shattering as is often, incorrectly, inferred. Micro- and macroscale
investigations of salt weathering by Rodriguez-Navarro and Doehne (1999)
demonstrate that rock damage is closely controlled by the location of crystallization and
the solution supersaturation ratio, which are, in turn, influenced by solution
composition, environmental conditions, substrate properties and salt crystallization
growth patterns. Weathering in environments such as the Namib Desert, where fog
provides a major source of salt (Eckardt and Schemenauer, 1998; Eckardt and Spiro,
1999), is discussed by Goudie and Parker (1998) and Goudie et al. (1998) who
demonstrate that even minor additions of moisture from fog may greatly enhance rock
breakdown.
Three studies provide important cautionary notes for researchers interested in arid-
zone weathering. The first of these (Warke and Smith, 1998) assesses the effects of direct
and indirect heating of rocks, observing that lithologies respond differently to direct
insolation heating under natural conditions when compared to heating by indirect
sources in an environmental cabinet. Given that temperature is a major influence upon
rock-weathering processes in arid environments, it would appear to be essential to take
such differences into account in future experimental work. The second study (Warke,
2000), based upon fieldwork in Death Valley, identifies major differences between
desert macroenvironmental conditions and microenvironments at the air/rock
interface. The article concludes that macroenvironmental parameters should not be
used as a means of inferring the operation of microscale processes, an observation
which has major implications for laboratory-based simulation experiments. The final
study (Bland et al., 1998) uses an investigation of chondritic meteorites, which have
fallen in New Mexico, Western Australia, Algeria and Libya at known times in the past,
to assess the effects of weathering in different desert environments over time. One of
the most interesting outcomes of this study is that the extent of weathering appears to
be highly dependent upon the cumulative impacts of climatic changes over time, with
meteorites which have fallen during wetter periods of climate likely to preserve an
imprint of a phase of accelerated weathering.
The origin of weathering products is the subject of a number of publications. Tafoni
and honeycomb weathering are the focus of Rodriguez-Navarro et al. (1999) who note
the importance of interactions between microscale wind speeds and salt supply in
generating honeycomb features, and also extend their study to Martian environments
(Rodriguez-Navarro, 1998). The development of tafoni is also discussed by Turkington
(1998) and Campbell (1999) who identify the importance of salt-weathering processes,
controlled by microclimatic conditions and rock structure, in their formation. The char-

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432 Arid geomorphology

acteristics of weathering pits in the Namib Desert are discussed by Goudie and Migón
(1997) who identify their significance in granite pediment evolution. Tumuli developed
on macrocrystalline gypsum outcrops in southeast Spain are discussed by Calaforra
and Pulido-Bosch (1999) who suggest that they form by dissolution and subsequent
reprecipitation of microcrystalline gypsum within gypsiferous layers. Wright et al.
(1998) simulate the processes by which loess-sized silt might be produced, suggesting
that glacial and cold weathering processes are not the only mechanisms which generate
significant volumes of silt.
Studies of geochemical sediments focus predominantly upon calcium carbonate
accumulations within soils, but there are also some interesting studies of pre-
Quaternary tufa and travertine (Evans, 1999), rock varnish (Fleischer et al., 1999; Liu
and Broecker, 2000) and silica accumulation (Ben Brahim and Thiry, 1999) in deserts.
Studies of calcretes include work on their geotechnical properties (Ramakrishnan and
Tiwari, 1999), timing of formation (Pickford et al., 1999), and use as a palaeoprecipita-
tion indicator (Royer, 1999), in addition to three contributions on the role of biological
mechanisms in calcium carbonate precipitation (Alonso-Zarza, 1999; Loisy et al., 1999;
Schmittner and Giresse, 1999). Some of the most interesting work concerns the identifi-
cation of carbonate sources for duricrust formation and the links between calcrete
formation and global climate change. Three studies (Capo and Chadwick, 1999; Chiquet
et al., 1999; Hamidi et al., 1999) employ strontium isotopes to identify if carbonate within
calcretes is derived from local rocks or external inputs, all concluding that allochtonous
inputs are the predominant source. Finally, a fascinating article by Adams and Post
(1999) models the role of calcrete as a carbon store during the shift from low-latitude
desert glacial aridity to moister early interglacial conditions, concluding that there
would have been a 30–45% decrease in carbon in land carbonate at this time accompa-
nying the change from glacial to interglacial conditions.

VI Environmental changes in drylands

In addition to the material dealing with past environments mentioned in sections I–IV,
there have been a number of other studies concerning recent to Quaternary environ-
mental changes which will be of general interest to arid-zone geomorphologists. One of
the more wide-ranging publications is Paleoenvironmental reconstruction in arid lands
(edited by Singhvi and Derbyshire, 1999) which provides an overview of approaches
for analysing evidence of environmental changes in deserts. However, possibly the
most important article published in the last year is the controversial review by
Colinvaux et al. (2000) which provides convincing arguments for the rejection of the
long-standing late glacial aridity and refugia hypotheses for Amazonian environments.
The refugia concept is also discussed by van der Hammen and Hooghiemstra (2000) for
Amazonia and by Nichol (1999) for Africa. Elsewhere, several studies determine
Quaternary and Holocene terrestrial palaeoenvironments from the marine record,
including research from Chile (Lamy et al., 1999), southwest (Shi et al., 1998) and
northwest Africa (de Menocal et al., 2000; Ternois et al., 2000), as well as from cave
deposits in Israel (Frumkin et al., 1999), Egypt (Moeyersons et al., 1999), Madagascar
(Brook et al., 1999) and Australia (Desmarchelier et al., 2000). A number of lines of
palaeobotanical evidence have been used for environmental reconstruction including

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 David J. Nash 433

studies of plant microfossils in the USA (Litwin et al., 1999), Chile (Heusser et al., 1999),
Ethiopia (Barboni et al., 1999), China (Yan et al., 1999), plant macrofossils in Argentina
(Bonadonna et al., 1999) and Australia (Pearson, 1999), and mollusca in the
Mediterranean (Goodfriend, 1999), Australia (Murray-Wallace et al., 2000) and China
(Sun, Z. et al., 1999). Four studies attempt to map or model Holocene to recent changes
in the extent of the Sahara. Tucker and Nicholson (1999) map the extent of the Sahara
over the past 20 years using combined satellite and rainfall data and demonstrate that,
although the total area of the desert has changed considerably over this time, there has
been no overall increasing or decreasing size trend. Modelling studies include Brovkin
et al. (1998) and Claussen et al. (1998; 1999), all of whom have attempted to simulate
climate conditions around the mid-Holocene when Saharan vegetation switched from
savannah to desert communities.

Acknowledgements
Special thanks to Patrick Warren, Debbie Jones, Jo Bateson, Ian Cordell, Vanessa Hayes
and Yvonne Prentice of the University of Brighton Aldrich Library for their assistance
in rapidly obtaining literature, and to all authors who responded so promptly to
requests for offprints. Special apologies to Athol Abrahams for accidentally accrediting
his work (Abrahams et al., 1998) to Tony Parsons in the last progress report – I hope the
reference is correct this time!

References

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Atkinson, J.F. 1998: Predicting sediment
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