T Pi Hve 0650 0690 Eng

TECHNICAL QUALIFICATION.
PRODUCT INFORMATION.
BMW GROUP HIGH-VOLTAGE EXPERT.

General information
Symbols used
The following symbol is used in this document to facilitate better comprehension or to draw attention
to very important information:
Contains important safety information and information that needs to be observed strictly in order to
guarantee the smooth operation of the system.
Information status and national-market versions
BMW Group vehicles meet the requirements of the highest safety and quality standards. Changes
in requirements for environmental protection, customer benefits and design render necessary
continuous development of systems and components. Consequently, there may be discrepancies
between the contents of this document and the vehicles available in the training course.
This document basically relates to the European version of left hand drive vehicles. Some operating
elements or components are arranged differently in right-hand drive vehicles than shown in the
graphics in this document. Further differences may arise as the result of the equipment specification in
specific markets or countries.
Additional sources of information
Further information on the individual topics can be found in the following:
• Owner's Handbook
• Integrated Service Technical Application.
Contact: conceptinfo@bmw.de
©2019 BMW AG, Munich
Reprints of this publication or its parts require the written approval of BMW AG, Munich.
The information contained in this document forms an integral part of the technical training of the
BMW Group and is intended for the trainer and participants in the seminar. Refer to the latest relevant
information systems of the BMW Group for any changes/additions to the technical data.
Information status: April 2019

Technical qualification.
CONTENTS.
1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 9
2. Laws................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 10
2.1. German Basic Law (Deutsches Grundgesetz).................................................................................................... 11
2.1.1. Fundamental rights....................................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2. Social Security Code (Sozialgesetzbuch)................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.1. SGB VII – Statutory accident insurance....................................................................................... 13
2.3. German Occupational Safety and Health Act (Arbeitsschutzgesetz).............................. 13
2.4. German Social Accident Insurance (Deutsche Gesetzliche
Unfallversicherung)......................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
2.4.1. German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 1.......................................................... 15
2.4.2. German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 3.......................................................... 16
2.4.3. German Social Accident Insurance Information 200-005................................ 17
2.5. Association for Electrical, Electronic & Information Technologies –
standards........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 17
2.5.1. DIN VDE 0100....................................................................................................................................................................... 18
2.5.2. DIN VDE 0105....................................................................................................................................................................... 19
2.5.3. DIN VDE 0113....................................................................................................................................................................... 20
2.6. Ordinance on Hazardous Substances (Gefahrstoffverordnung)..............................................20
2.7. Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health
(Betriebssicherheitsverordnung)............................................................................................................................................... 20
2.7.1. Technical Regulations for Operational Safety (Technische Regeln für
Betriebssicherheit)......................................................................................................................................................... 21
2.8. Brief explanation of other laws, regulations and rules.............................................................................22
2.8.1. Equipment and Product Safety Act.................................................................................................... 22
2.8.2. First regulation of the Equipment and Product Safety Act............................. 22
2.8.3. Occupational Safety Act (Arbeitssicherheitsgesetz)............................................... 22
2.8.4. Occupational Safety Ordinance
(Arbeitssicherheitsverordnung)..................................................................................................................22
2.8.5. Accident prevention regulations.............................................................................................................. 23
2.8.6. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 305......................................................................... 23
2.9. EU influences........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
2.9.1. EU standards.......................................................................................................................................................................... 23
2.9.2. EU Directives.......................................................................................................................................................................... 23
2.9.3. ECE R 100.................................................................................................................................................................................. 24
3. Specialist responsibility............................................................................................................................................................................................. 26
3.1. Organisation of occupational safety....................................................................................................................................26
3.1.1. The basic duties of the employer.......................................................................................................... 26
3.1.2. Delegation responsibility of management............................................................................... 27
3.1.3. Responsible of High-Voltage Expert.................................................................................................. 27
3.2. Possible legal consequences in the case of non-compliance.................................................... 29
CONTENTS.
3.2.1. Liability in occupational safety....................................................................................................................30

3.3. Sources of danger........................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
3.3.1. Hazard assessment...................................................................................................................................................... 30
3.3.2. Legal certainty of hazard assessment............................................................................................ 30
3.3.3. Structure of the hazard assessment................................................................................................. 31
3.4. Work instruction.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 34
3.4.1. Documentation of the work instruction........................................................................................ 34
3.5. Operating instructions............................................................................................................................................................................... 35
3.5.1. Documentation of the operating instruction......................................................................... 35
3.6. Briefings............................................................................................................................................................................................................................35
3.6.1. Legal guidelines for a formal briefing...............................................................................................36
3.7. Formal briefings................................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
3.7.1. Legal guidelines for a formal briefing...............................................................................................36
3.7.2. Documentation of a formal briefing.................................................................................................... 37
4. Protective measures......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
4.1. Levels of protection....................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
4.1.1. Basic protection includes protection against direct contact
(Protection Level 1).......................................................................................................................................................38
4.1.2. Fault protection is protection against indirect contact (Protection
Level 2)............................................................................................................................................................................................. 38
4.1.3. Protection against direct contact is additional protection (Protection
Level 3)............................................................................................................................................................................................ 38
4.2. Direct and indirect contact................................................................................................................................................................. 39
4.3. Types of protection........................................................................................................................................................................................ 39
4.4. Protection classes............................................................................................................................................................................................ 41
4.5. The five safety rules..................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
4.6. Warning signs.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 44
4.7. Personal protective equipment ................................................................................................................................................. 45
4.7.1. Checklist for work clothes and personal protective equipment.............. 46
5. Measuring equipment.....................................................................................................................................................................................................48
5.1. Measuring device.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 48
5.1.1. CAT categories.................................................................................................................................................................... 49
6. Network configuration................................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
6.1. TN-C system............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 51
6.2. TN-S system............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 52
6.3. TN-C-S system.....................................................................................................................................................................................................52
6.3.1. TN-C-S protection in the event of a fault.................................................................................. 53
6.4. IT system........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 54
CONTENTS.
6.4.1. Structure of the IT system................................................................................................................................ 54

6.4.2. Fault tolerance of IT system........................................................................................................................... 55
6.4.3. Protective measures in the IT system............................................................................................ 55
6.5. Potential compensation...........................................................................................................................................................................55
6.5.1. 2-wire measurement...................................................................................................................................................56
6.5.2. 4-wire measurement...................................................................................................................................................56
6.6. Insulation measurement......................................................................................................................................................................... 57
6.6.1. Insulation measurement for an electric drive....................................................................... 57
6.6.2. Insulation measurement procedure.................................................................................................... 57
7. Electrical laboratory........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 61
7.1. Function of the electrical laboratory....................................................................................................................................61
7.2. Disconnecting the electrical laboratory from the power supply...............................................62
7.3. Residual Current protective Device...................................................................................................................................... 63
7.4. Circuit symbols......................................................................................................................................................................................................64
7.5. Switch contactor circuitry.................................................................................................................................................................... 66
8. Electrical machine................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 67
8.1. Types of electrical machines...........................................................................................................................................................67
8.2. Pairs of poles............................................................................................................................................................................................................68
8.2.1. Number of pole pairs and speed.............................................................................................................69
8.2.2. Number of pole pairs and torque............................................................................................................69
8.3. Structure of a synchronous machine.................................................................................................................................70
8.3.1. Permanently excited synchronous machine.......................................................................... 71
8.3.2. Separately excited synchronous machine................................................................................ 72
8.3.3. External rotor synchronous machine................................................................................................ 73
8.3.4. Internal rotor synchronous machine.................................................................................................. 74
8.4. Structure of the asynchronous machine...................................................................................................................... 75
8.4.1. Operating principle of the asynchronous machine..................................................... 75
8.4.2. Motor/Alternator effect of asynchronous machine......................................................76
8.5. Comparison of synchronous and asynchronous machine................................................................77
8.6. Connection of the electrical machine............................................................................................................................... 77
8.6.1. Terminal board...................................................................................................................................................................... 77
8.6.2. Star connection...................................................................................................................................................................78
8.6.3. Delta connection............................................................................................................................................................... 79
8.6.4. Phase current/Phase voltage........................................................................................................................ 79
8.6.5. Line current............................................................................................................................................................................... 80
8.6.6. Line voltage............................................................................................................................................................................... 80
8.6.7. Chaining factor..................................................................................................................................................................... 80
8.7. Power at the electrical machine.................................................................................................................................................82
CONTENTS.
8.7.1. Apparent power.................................................................................................................................................................. 82

8.7.2. Active power............................................................................................................................................................................ 82
8.7.3. Reactive power.................................................................................................................................................................... 83
8.8. Type plate designation..............................................................................................................................................................................83
8.8.1. Types of protection....................................................................................................................................................... 84
8.8.2. Insulating material class........................................................................................................................................ 84
8.8.3. Operating modes..............................................................................................................................................................85
8.8.4. Power input/output........................................................................................................................................................ 86
9. High Voltage.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................87
9.1. History of alternative drives.............................................................................................................................................................. 87
9.2. Hybrid technology............................................................................................................................................................................................ 92
9.2.1. Definition........................................................................................................................................................................................ 92
9.2.2. Classification according to the arrangement of the drives.............................. 92
9.2.3. Serial hybrid drive............................................................................................................................................................93
9.2.4. Parallel hybrid drive.......................................................................................................................................................94
9.2.5. Plugin hybrid............................................................................................................................................................................ 94
9.2.6. Operating modes concepts............................................................................................................................. 95
9.2.7. Classification of the hybrid vehicles according to power.................................. 97
9.3. Energy sources..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 99
9.3.1. High-voltage battery....................................................................................................................................................99
9.3.2. Cells...................................................................................................................................................................................................105
9.3.3. module.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 105
9.3.4. Capacitor................................................................................................................................................................................... 106
9.4. Service Disconnect (High-Voltage safety connector).......................................................................... 108
9.4.1. "Physical" separation............................................................................................................................................ 108
9.4.2. "Logical" separation................................................................................................................................................ 109
9.5. Precharging............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 109
9.6. Switch contactors.........................................................................................................................................................................................111
9.7. High-Voltage components.............................................................................................................................................................. 111
9.7.1. Electric A/C compressor.................................................................................................................................. 111
9.7.2. Electrical heating.......................................................................................................................................................... 112
9.7.3. DC/DC converter.......................................................................................................................................................... 113
9.7.4. Power electronics........................................................................................................................................................ 114
9.8. Rectifier......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 115
9.8.1. Half-wave rectifier....................................................................................................................................................... 115
9.8.2. Full-wave rectifier........................................................................................................................................................ 116
9.8.3. B6 Bridge rectifier...................................................................................................................................................... 117
9.9. Conductors.............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 119
9.9.1. High-Voltage cables.................................................................................................................................................119
CONTENTS.
9.9.2. Laying High-Voltage cables.........................................................................................................................121

9.9.3. Electromagnetic compatibility for High-Voltage cable...................................... 122
9.9.4. Connection systems for High-Voltage cables................................................................ 122
9.10. Charging.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................125
9.10.1. Charging modes............................................................................................................................................................ 125
10. Safe working/First Aid.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 128

10.1. General information................................................................................................................................................................................... 128
10.2. Effect of electricity on people................................................................................................................................................... 128
10.3. Hazardous situations............................................................................................................................................................................... 131
10.3.1. Important warnings, instructions and prohibition notices............................ 131
10.3.2. Hazardous substances........................................................................................................................................132
10.3.3. Causes of accidents when working on electric vehicles................................ 134
10.3.4. Effects of electrical currents on the human body.....................................................135
10.3.5. Fixed limit values for contact voltages i.a.w. VDE 0100 and
ECE R 100............................................................................................................................................................................... 138
10.4. Proper conduct in the event of accidents, First Aid............................................................................... 139
10.4.1. Legal aspects – General information............................................................................................ 139
10.4.2. Rescue chain...................................................................................................................................................................... 140
10.4.3. Own safety............................................................................................................................................................................. 140
10.4.4. Correct reporting of emergency.......................................................................................................... 142
10.4.5. Rescue measures........................................................................................................................................................ 142
10.4.6. Use of an automatic external defibrillator.............................................................................. 144
11. Live working................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 146

11.1. Minimum personnel criteria.......................................................................................................................................................... 146
11.1.1. Pre-selection....................................................................................................................................................................... 146
11.1.2. Training......................................................................................................................................................................................... 147
11.1.3. approval....................................................................................................................................................................................... 147
11.2. Minimum technical criteria............................................................................................................................................................. 147
11.3. Organisational requirements....................................................................................................................................................... 147
11.4. Legal frameworks in Germany..................................................................................................................................................148
11.4.1. Innovations............................................................................................................................................................................. 148
1. INTRODUCTION.
This product information bulletin was compiled as an accompanying book for the training for the BMW
Group High-Voltage Expert. The BMW Group High-Voltage Expert must be familiar with the current
legal situation, regulations, and standards, and be able to apply such, in order to protect himself and
his colleagues against dangers of high-voltage vehicles in the workshop area. The BMW Group High-
Voltage Expert can work FREELY on the high-voltage vehicles following his training. This means that
he is enlisted for work which his colleagues are no longer able to perform under the law.
The BMW Group High-Voltage Expert must also understand the electrical engineering principles of

the high-voltage system, so that he recognises the dangers when working on systems that are not
intrinsically safe, and adopts suitable countermeasures. This reflects the huge responsibility behind
the training to become a BMW Group High-Voltage Expert.
This product information bulletin should also serve as a reference book, and help consolidate the
content communicated in the face-to-face training. Therefore, you also find informative content here,
some of which extends beyond the content of the technical training. The content of this product
information bulletin has been prepared to the highest standard. Recent findings or laws must be
observed, and may overrule existing information and regulations.
The product information bulletin is composed according to German law. Laws and standards of other
countries take precedence over German law locally.
The BMW Group (and all other automobile manufacturers) are bound to provisions in Germany
to provide special training to Service personnel. It is the responsibility of the markets to obtain
information on the provisions which apply to their countries for handling high-voltage systems. The
markets themselves must make any resulting adaptation of the training concept.
9
2. LAWS.
Laws
Definition:
1 In the formal sense: All legal provisions adopted by the legislative bodies in a formal legislative
procedure, generally prescribed in the constitution
2 In the material sense: In addition to the laws in the formal sense, also statutory instruments,
statutes and the common law.
Everyone who has something to do in the working environment with electric vehicles is subject to very
comprehensive and extensive laws and regulations - from the manufacturer to Service personnel in
the workshop. Here it is important to obtain regular information and training, in order to protect oneself
against an accusation of gross negligence.
The laws and regulations which must be observed in the area of electric mobility can be displayed
as a building (see graphic below). Framework directives and EU regulations are defined by the
EU Commission, which are implemented by the federal government and the countries in national
legislation.
The monitoring authorities are, on the one hand, the state with the trade supervisory boards, who
ensure that laws and administrative regulations are observed. On the other hand, the trade supervisory
boards monitor and compile the German trade association regulations, rules and information.
The rule affecting electric mobility can be examined like the structure of a building.
10
2. LAWS.
Index Explanation
1 Laws
2 Ordinances
3 Regulations
4 Information
2.1. German Basic Law (Deutsches Grundgesetz)

The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (also called the German Constitution)
contains the legal and political principles of the Federal Republic of Germany. The German word
"Grundgesetz" (Basic Law) first appeared in the 17th century, and is considered by linguists to be a
loan translation of the Latin legal term lex fundamentalis ("(State) Basic Law").
Drawn up at the request of the three Western occupying powers, the German Basic Law was accepted
by the Parliamentary Council and the state parliaments (initial exception: Bavaria); there was no
referendum. The German Basic Law was not considered a permanent constitution and was also
not deliberately named as such – the Parliamentary Council assumed that the Soviet occupation
zone would soon be reunited with the other zones. It became the constitution of the German people
after the German reunification on 3 October 1990. The German Basic Law already satisfied the
criteria of a material constitutional concept from the start, because a basic decision on the form of the
political existence of the country was made: democracy, republic, social state, federal state, as well
as principles of the rule of law. In addition to these basic decisions, it controls the organisation of the
state, secures individual freedoms and sets up an objective system of values.
The fundamental rights embedded in the German Basic Law are of special importance given the
experiences of the National Socialist illegitimate state. They link all authorities of the state as directly
applicable law (Art. 1 Paragraph 3). With their definition in the constitution, the fundamental rights are
thus not simply state objectives; on the contrary, a judicial authority is generally not required for their
perception, and the legislation, executive power and judiciary are bound by them.
From this the principle is derived that the fundamental rights are to be primarily understood as
the citizen's right to defend himself against the state, while they also embody an objective set of
values, which is considered as a basic constitutional decision for all areas of the law. The social and
political structure of the state society is thus defined under constitutional law. As an independent
constitutional body, the Federal Constitutional Court maintains the function of the fundamental rights,
the political and state-organised system, and further develops this. The German Basic Law for the
Federal Republic of Germany in today's form can only be replaced by a decision establishing a new
constitution (Art. 146).
2.1.1. Fundamental rights

In the German Basic Law most of the fundamental rights are guaranteed in the first section of the
same name.(Article 1 to 19). They are subjective public rights with the status of a Constitution, which
bind all authorities of the state.
In Article 2 (Clause 2) of Part 1 (Fundamental rights), the German Basic Law defines the following
important fundamental right of a person within the area of application of the German Basic Law:
(2) Every person shall have the right to life and physical integrity. Freedom of the person shall
be inviolable. These rights may be interfered with only pursuant to a law.
11
2. LAWS.
This fundamental right to physical integrity forms the basis of the entire occupational health and safety
system in Germany. Originating from the fundamental law in its general sense, all other
• laws (for e.g. German Occupational Safety and Health Act (Arbeitsschutzgesetz ArbSchG),
• regulations and ordinances, for e.g. German Social Accident Insurance Regulations
(DGUV Vorschriften (DGUV Regulations)), Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health
(Betriebssicherheitsverordnung BetrSichV),
• EU regulations (for e.g. ECE R100),
• standards (for e.g. DIN VDE 100),
• internal company regulations (for e.g. Group Standard) and the
• "state-of-the-art"
define the individual procedure for work more precisely and in more detail. But the objective is always
the same: physical integrity.
2.2. Social Security Code (Sozialgesetzbuch)

The Social Security Code (Sozialgesetzbuch SGB) consists of twelve books and controls social
security in the Federal Republic of Germany.
• SGB I – General

• SGB II – Basic provision for jobseekers
• SGB III – Employment promotion
• SGB IV – Common rules for social insurance
• SGB V – Statutory health insurance
• SGB VI – Statutory pension insurance
• SGB VII – Statutory accident insurance
• SGB VIII – Child and youth welfare
• SGB IX – Rehabilitation and participation of people with disabilities
• SGB X – Administrative procedures and social security data protection
• SGB XI – Social care insurance
• SGB XII – Social welfare.
12
2. LAWS.
2.2.1. SGB VII – Statutory accident insurance
SGB VII – Statutory accident insurance
The Seventh Book (SGB VII) – Statutory accident insurance – is the legal basis for statutory accident
insurance in Germany. It contains regulations for the prevention and financial compensation of
occupational accidents and illnesses, on medical, occupational and social rehabilitation and on the
organisation of accident insurance providers.
The SGB VII also determines under what conditions employers, colleagues or third parties are liable
for occupational accidents. It also includes special regulations on data protection, which supplement
the general data protection standards in SGB X.
2.3. German Occupational Safety and Health Act

(Arbeitsschutzgesetz)
German Occupational Safety and Health Act (Arbeitsschutzgesetz ArbSchG)
The German Occupational Safety and Health Act (Arbeitsschutzgesetz ArbSchG) is a German law on
the implementation of EU Directives on occupational safety.
13
2. LAWS.
The aim of the law is to protect and improve the health of all employees through occupational health
and safety measures. Sections 2 (Duties of the employer) and 3 (Duties and rights of the employees),
in particular, are important in terms of occupational safety and accident prevention.
Occupational safety
Index Explanation
1 Occupational safety
2 Aims and guidelines
3 Organisational structure (tasks and functions)
4 Process organisation (integrating measures and activities)
5 Continuous improvement (inspection and control processes)
6 Basics (employee – resources – documentation – specifications)
2.4. German Social Accident Insurance (Deutsche Gesetzliche

Unfallversicherung)
The German Social Accident Insurance (Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung) (DGUV) is the
umbrella association of the accident insurance institutions for the industrial and public sectors
(the professional trade associations (BG) and the public-sector accident insurers respectively). It
assumes responsibility for the common interests of its member institutions and promotes their
functions in the interests of both member companies and insured individuals. The German Social
Accident Insurance (DGUV) represents the statutory accident insurance institutions in their dealings
with policymakers, regional, national, European and international institutions, and employers' and
employees' representative bodies.
They are responsible for preventing occupational accidents and illnesses, as well as work-related
health risks. Employees, who have been involved in an occupational accident or suffered an
occupational illness, are rehabilitated by the German Social Accident Insurance (medical, occupational
and social). Furthermore, the German Social Accident Insurance are obligated to provide financial
compensation for the consequences of the accident or illness.
According to § 14 SGB VII, one of the main tasks of the German Social Accident Insurance is to
prevent industrial and commute-related accidents, occupational illnesses and work-related health
risks using all appropriate means. They primarily satisfy this prevention task i.a.w. § 17 SGB VII
by providing advice to companies on issues concerning industrial safety and health protection.
14
2. LAWS.
The German Social Accident Insurance issue accident prevention regulations i.a.w. § 15 SGB VII,
the so-called German Social Accident Insurance regulations, and monitor their compliance and
implementation.
The monitoring and advisory service is carried out by so-called supervisors (previously: Technical
Supervisory Officers), who are equipped with official powers. The measures prescribed by the
supervisors, for e.g. the immobilisation of a machine operating in a condition detrimental to safety, can
be enforced by applying coercive measures in the event of an emergency (§ 18, § 19 SGB VII).
The German Social Accident Insurance regulations (DGUV Regulations) are the accident prevention
regulations issued by the German Social Accident Insurance (insurance companies).
These regulations are divided into four categories:
• Category A: General regulations and operational occupational safety organisation

• Category B: Effects
• Category C: Operating mode and activities
• Category D: Workbay and work process.
The German Social Accident Insurance Regulations (DGUV Regulations) are supplemented by
the German Social Accident Insurance Rules (DGUV Rule), the German Social Accident Insurance
Information (DGUV Information) and the German Social Accident Insurance Principles (DGUV
Principle).
2.4.1. German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 1
DGUV Regulation 1 (Picture shows the old Designation until 2014, BGV A1)
The German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 1 (DGUV Regulation 1) is an important accident
prevention regulation of the German Social Accident Insurance, which examines in particular the
principles of prevention. For this purpose, it defines:
• Duties of the employer

• Duties of the insured (employee)
• The necessary organisation of occupational safety
15
2. LAWS.
• The administrative offences

• Transition and implementation provisions
• The repeal of accident prevention regulations.
2.4.2. German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 3
DGUV Regulation 3 (Picture shows the old Designation until 2014, BGV A3)
The important German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 3 (DGUV Regulation 3) "Electrical
systems and equipment" controls the checking of electrical devices used in companies. An important
point of the DGUV Regulation 3 is that live working is prohibited. Deviations from this principle can only
be made in special exceptions, which are regulated in the DGUV Regulation 3.
16
2. LAWS.
2.4.3. German Social Accident Insurance Information 200-005
DGUV Information 200-005 (Picture shows the old Designation until 2014, BGI/GUV-I 8686)
The German Social Accident Insurance Information 200-005 (DGUV Information 200-005) is a white
paper of the German Social Accident Insurance. It contains important information for the employer/
superiors on how the electrical hazards can be identified on the basis of a hazard assessment. In
addition, it shows which qualifications are required for working in research and development or in
service workshops.
2.5. Association for Electrical, Electronic & Information

Technologies – standards
VDE
17
2. LAWS.
The VDE is the Association for Electrical, Electronic & Information Technologies, their sciences,
corresponding technologies and applications. The VDE is committed to an improved climate for
innovation, safety standards, for modern engineering education and a high acceptance for technology
by the public. The VDE combines science, standardisation and product testing. Safety in electrical
engineering and the development of recognised rules of technology as national and international
standards are thus focal points of the VDE.
2.5.1. DIN VDE 0100
DIN VDE 0100 "Erection of power installations with rated voltages below 1000" is a series of
standards comprising a variety of individual standards, each of which are assigned in turn to an
individual group. This series of standards is structured as follows:
• Group 100 – Field of application, General requirements

- Part 100 – Field of application, purpose and principles
• Group 200 – Definitions
• Group 300 – Assessment of general characteristics
- Part 300 – Assessment of general characteristics with the sections:
- Power requirement
- Simultaneity/Diversity factor
- Types of distribution systems
- Power supplies
- Division in circuits
- Compatibility
- Repair option
- Current sources
- External influences
• Group 400 – Protective measures

- Part 410 – Protection against electric shock
- Part 420 – Protection against thermal influences
- Part 430 – Protection of cables and lines in the event of overcurrent
- Part 442 – Low-voltage systems in the event of earth faults in networks with higher voltage
- Part 450 – Protection in the event of undervoltages
- Part 460 – Disconnection and switching
- Part 482 – Fire protection in the case of special risks and dangers
18
2. LAWS.
• Group 500 – Selection and erection of electrical equipment

- Part 510 – General rules
- Part 520 – Cable systems
- Part 530 – Switching devices and control units
- Part 540 – Earthing, protective earth, potential compensation conductor
- Part 550 – Other electrical equipment
- Part 560 – Electrical systems for safety purposes
• Group 600 – Verification
- Part 610 – Initial inspections with the sections:
- Inspection
- Testing and measurement
- Protective earth and potential compensation
- Isolation resistance
- Protection by safe disconnection
- Protection by automatic shutdown of the power supply
- Polarity
- Functional checks
- Detection of voltage drop
• Group 700 – Requirements for special installations or locations

- Part 701 – Rooms with bathtub or shower
2.5.2. DIN VDE 0105
DIN VDE 0105 includes regulations for electrical installations: The operation of electrical systems
and work at, with or in the vicinity of electrical systems, is regulated here. This regulation relates to
electrical systems of all voltage levels, i.e. from low voltage to high voltage. The term "high voltage"
includes the voltage levels "medium voltage" and "maximum voltage". DIN VDE 0105 also covers the
high voltage (HV) range.
The standard not only refers to private, but also professional operation.
The objective of DIN VDE 0105 is to guarantee the safety of people and animals, as well as avoid
damage to property by malfunctions or incorrect operation of electrical systems. To achieve this, the
standard states accordingly:
• Access to areas where there is an electrical hazard must be regulated and controlled by the
system operator for lay people.
• There must be a responsible person for every electrical system. This person must be a
BMW Group High-Voltage Expert.
• Every change made to an electrical system (installation, maintenance, repair, retrofitting) must
be checked by a BMW Group High-Voltage Expert. Furthermore, repeat checks must take
place at regular intervals.
19
2. LAWS.
2.5.3. DIN VDE 0113
The standard DIN EN 60204-1 (VDE 0113-1) "Safety of machines – Electrical equipment of machines
– Part 1: General requirements" is used to check the electrical equipment of a machine.
The purpose of the set of rules is to avoid hazardous situations and their risks, and consider safety
precautions during the design. Furthermore, as a result, maintenance and repair measures should be
made easier, the machine should become more reliable and easier to operate.
2.6. Ordinance on Hazardous Substances (Gefahrstoffverordnung)

The Ordinance on Hazardous Substances (Gefahrstoffverordnung GefStoffV) is an ordinance for the
protection against hazardous substances in the German occupational safety and health legislation.
The power to issue statutory instruments is contained in the Chemicals Act (ChemG). Since 2005,
the German Occupational Safety and Health Act (Arbeitsschutzgesetz) is also a legal basis for the
Ordinance on Hazardous Substances (GefStoffV).
In particular, Sections 1 to 4 are important for handling hazardous substances in work, in order to
maintain the effect of hazardous substances on organisms as low as possible.
Effects of hazardous substances on organisms

hyperacute acute chronic
• Death • Poisoning • Reciprocal effect with genetic

material (malformation, tumour)
• Chemical burns
• Long-term poisoning with
• Irritation
organ damage (liver, kidneys)
• Combustion (following
• Allergies
explosion)
2.7. Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health

(Betriebssicherheitsverordnung)
The Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health (Betriebssicherheitsverordnung BetrSichV) is the
German implementation of the Work Equipment Directive 89/655/EEC, subsequently replaced
by Directive 2009/104/EC. In Germany, the Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health (BetrSichV)
controls the provision of work equipment by the employer, the use of work equipment by the
employees in their work, as well as the operation of systems requiring monitoring in accordance with
occupational safety. The protection concept contained therein can be applied to all hazards posed by
work equipment.
The basic components of this protection concept are:
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2. LAWS.
• A standard hazard assessment of work equipment

• Safety evaluation for the operation of systems requiring monitoring
• "State of technology" as uniform safety standard
• Suitable protective measures and checks
• Minimum requirements for the quality of work equipment.
2.7.1. Technical Regulations for Operational Safety (Technische Regeln für

Betriebssicherheit)
The Technical Regulations for Operational Safety (Technische Regeln für Betriebssicherheit TRBS)
describe the state of technology, occupational medicine and industrial hygiene, as well as other
ergonomic findings, for the provision and use of work equipment, as well as for the operation of
systems requiring monitoring.
They are established or adapted by the Committee for Operating Safety, and made known by the
Federal Ministry for Labour and Social Affairs in the Joint Ministerial Gazette.
TRBS 1201
Within the framework of its scope of application, this TRBS specifies the requirements of the
Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health (BetrSichV). With compliance of the Technical Regulations
(Technische Regeln), the employer can assume that the corresponding requirements of the ordinance
are satisfied. If the employer chooses another solution, he must achieve at least the same level of
safety and health protection for the employees with this solution.
TRBS 1201 provides specifications for checking work equipment and systems requiring monitoring.
TRBS 1203
TRBS 1203 provides technical regulations on qualified individuals. For the BMW Group High-

Voltage Expert, the TRBS 1203 in Section 3 is particularly important. This part lays down additional
requirements, which all qualified individuals must satisfy, and tests to which these individuals are
subject for the protection of electrical hazards.
State-of-the-art
State-of-the-art is a technology provision. The technical possibilities at a certain time, based on

validated knowledge of science and technology, should be presented here. This technology provision
is deliberately defined in general terms, in order to obtain the topicality of the text parts, if there are
newer developments.
The state-of-the-art is often not adequately tested and not tested for many years, and is frequently
only known to specialists. The "accepted rules of engineering" are more wide known than the term
"state-of-the-art", which are also called "generally accepted rules of engineering". State-of-the-art is
often described by standards and industry standards.
In the European standard EN 45020 "Standardisation and associated activities - General definitions
(ISO/IEC Guide 2:2004)", state-of-the-art is defined as follows under Clause 1.4:
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2. LAWS.
"State-of-the-art: Developed stage of the technical possibilities at a certain time, insofar as products,
processes and services are concerned, based on corresponding findings from science, technology
and experience".
In laws and regulations on occupational safety (for e.g. German Occupational Safety and Health
Act (ArbSchG), Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health (BetrSichV), Ordinance on Hazardous
Substances (GefStoffVer)), reference is often made to the general term "state-of-the-art", without
having to modify the law in the case of each new finding.
2.8. Brief explanation of other laws, regulations and rules
2.8.1. Equipment and Product Safety Act
CE mark
Equipment must be certified in order to be allowed bear the familiar CE mark. This need arises from
the Equipment and Product Safety Act (GPSG).
2.8.2. First regulation of the Equipment and Product Safety Act

The provisions for the quality of electrical equipment applicable in Germany are contained in the first
regulation of the Equipment and Product Safety Act (1. GPSGV). The European Low Voltage Directive
is thus implemented into German law.
2.8.3. Occupational Safety Act (Arbeitssicherheitsgesetz)

The Occupational Safety Act (Arbeitssicherheitsgesetz ASiG) contains the essential regulations on
the company's organisation of occupational safety and health. According to this, the employer must
appoint occupational health physicians and skilled personnel for occupational safety. The aim is that
regulations on occupational safety and accident prevention are applied accordingly, depending on the
operating conditions.
2.8.4. Occupational Safety Ordinance (Arbeitssicherheitsverordnung)

The ordinance on optical radiation (BGBI. II No. 221/2010) is particularly interesting here, as it also
relates to, for example, stray light: "In each case, suitable personal protective equipment for eyes and
skin or suitable protective clothing must be made available to employees in areas where an exposure
limit value is exceeded."
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2. LAWS.
2.8.5. Accident prevention regulations

The accident prevention regulations regulate the duties of the employer and the insured persons with
regard to safety and health protection in the workplace.
According to § 15 of the SGB II, the German Social Accident Insurance issue German Social Accident
Insurance Regulations (DGUV Regulations). The regulations must be approved by the Federal Ministry
for Labour and Social Affairs.
2.8.6. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 305

The Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 305 (FMVSS 305) was issued by the U.S. Department of
Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Federal law on vehicle safety – electric
vehicles: Protection against the leaking of battery acid and electric shocks: Impact protection.
2.9. EU influences
2.9.1. EU standards
The European standards (EN) are regulations which have been ratified by one of the three committees
for standardisation (European Committee for Standardisation (CEN), European Committee for
Electrical Engineering Standardisation (CENELEC) and the European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ETSI)). All European standards originate from an official standardisation process.
The ECE regulations describe a catalogue of internationally agreed, standard technical regulations for
vehicles, as well as for parts and equipment of vehicles. ECE stands for the Economic Commission for
Europe, the name of the Economic Commission for Europe in the United Nations (UN/ECE).
The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) is the international body of standardisation
organisations, and develops international standards in all areas with the exception of electrical
engineering and electronics, for which the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
is responsible, and with the exception of telecommunications, for which the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) is responsible. Together these three organisations form the WSC
(World Standards Cooperation).
The International Electrotechnical Commission ( IEC) is an international standardisation organisation

with its head office in Geneva and is responsible for developing standards in the area of electrical
engineering and electronics. Some standards are developed jointly with the ISO.
2.9.2. EU Directives
EU directives or directives are acts of law of the European Union and thus part of European Union law.
Directives are issued, depending on the topic of the directive, on the basis of one of the procedures
stipulated in the contracts. A distinction is made between legislative acts, implementing directives of
the Commission and delegated directives.
Directives which are legislative acts are generally issued, at the suggestion of the European
Commission, by the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament in accordance
with ordinary legislative procedures. However, in certain cases special legislative procedures are
provided. The directives contain an identification, which is made up of the word "directive", the
23
2. LAWS.
year, a consecutive number, as well as the EU identification (for e.g. directive 2010/25/EU). Older
directives from the era of the European Community or the European Economic Union still bear the
corresponding identification EU or EEU, they are also called EU directives or EEU directives.
The individual Member States are responsible for deciding on how to implement the directives.
They have certain leeway in the implementation of the directive. However, if the directive demands
the introduction of certain powers or duties, the national law, which serves for the implementation,
must justify specific powers or duties accordingly. Under German law, a formal law or a regulation is
therefore generally required for the implementation. In contrast to EU Directives, EU regulations are
effective immediately and binding, and do not need to be implemented by national legislative acts. The
precise definition of the directive can be found in Art. 288 Paragraph 3 of the Treaty of the Functioning
of the European Union.
Low-Voltage Directive
The Low-Voltage Directive (official name: Directive 2006/95/EU of the European Parliament and
European Council dated 12 December 2006 to approximate the laws of the Member States relating to
electrical equipment for use within certain voltage limits) is the most important regulatory instrument
for the safety of electrical devices, besides the EMC Directive.
The Low-Voltage Directive applies to "electrical equipment for use at a nominal voltage between 30 V
and 1000 V for alternating current and 60 V and 1500 V for direct current" with some exceptions.
The directive requires that Member States take all appropriate measures to ensure that electrical
equipment may be placed on the market only if, having been constructed in accordance with good
engineering practice in safety matters in force in the Community, it does not endanger the safety
of persons, domestic animals or property when properly installed and maintained and used in
applications for which it was made.
Electrical equipment, which satisfies the Low-Voltage Directive, have a so-called CE mark (Art. 10).
The so-called presumption of conformity, i.e. the individual Member States assume that an electrical
device with a CE mark satisfies the criteria of the Low-Voltage Directive or other applicable directives.
This should reduce the trade barriers between the individual Member States.
2.9.3. ECE R 100

The so-called ECE homologation (Economic Commission for Europe) is a supranational system for the
approval of vehicles and vehicle components. With ECE R 100 – the regulation for battery-operated
electric vehicles –, the legislator once again tightened its relevant certification standard. From 2016,
the ECE R 100 (official name: Regulation No. 100 of the Economic Commission for Europe of the
United Nations (UN/ECE) – Uniform provisions concerning the approval of vehicles with regard to
special requirements of the electric drive) is binding for everyone.
24
2. LAWS.
ECE R 100 (battery-operated vehicles)
• Electromagnetic compatibility
- ECE R 10 or 2004/104/EU
• Functional safety
- EN/IEC 61140 Electric shock
- IEC 61508 Functional safety, in the future ISO 26262
• Electrical safety
- EN/IEC 61140 Electric shock
- EN/IEC 60664–1 Insulation coordination
- EN 50178 Electrical equipment
- ISO 6469: Part 1/2/3 Electric vehicles
- EN/IEC 60034 Motors
- EN/IEC 61558 Transformers
- EN/IEC 61146 Rectifiers.
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3. SPECIALIST RESPONSIBILITY.
The term "responsibility" is widely viewed as the assignment of a duty to a person or group of
people with respect to another person or group of people due to a normative requirement, which
can be demanded by an authority and must be justified (of defended) against this authority. Actions
and the results of actions can, depending on their social practice and system of values for the
responsible parties, have consequences such as praise and criticism, rewards, penalties, or claims for
compensation. The relationship between the actors involved is tied to the result of the action.
Specialist responsibility includes the responsibility for the work results.
3.1. Organisation of occupational safety
3.1.1. The basic duties of the employer

The basic duties of the employer are defined in § 3 of the German Occupational Safety and Health
Act (Arbeitsschutzgesetz ArbSchG). The basic duties of the employer in the German Social Accident
Insurance Regulation 1 § 2 (DGUV Regulation 1), as well as in the German Social Accident Insurance
Regulation 3 § 3 (DGUV Regulation 3).
German Occupational Safety and Health Act (ArbSchG) § 3 – Basic duties of the employer
(1) The employer is obligated to adopt the necessary occupational health and safety measures
considering the circumstances, which influence the safety and health of the employees at work. The
employer must check the effectiveness of the measures and adapt such if necessary. In the process,
he must strive to improve the safety and occupational health of the employees.
(2) For the planning and implementation of the measures according to Paragraph 1, the employer,
taking into consideration the type of activities and the number of employees, must
1 ensure appropriate organisation and provide the appropriate means, as well as

2 take precautions so that the measures are observed if necessary for all activities and integrated
in the operational management structures, and the employees can meet their obligations to
cooperate.
(3) The employer cannot impose the costs for measures according to this law on the employees.
German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 1 § 2 – Basic duties of the employer
(1) The employer must adopt the necessary measures for the prevention of industrial accidents
and injuries, occupational illness and work-related health risks, as well as for effective First Aid. The
measures to be adopted are defined in more detail in the relevant national occupational health and
safety regulations (Appendix 1), this accident prevention regulation and in other accident prevention
regulations.
(2) For the measures according to Paragraph 1, the employer must consider the general principles
i.a.w. § 4 German Occupational Safety and Health Act (ArbSchG), and consult in particular the national
and German Social Accident Insurance Regulations.
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(3) The employer must plan, organise, and implement the measures according to Paragraph 1 and,
if necessary adapt these measures to the modified circumstances, pursuant to the provisions of § 3
Paragraph 1 Clauses 2 and 3, and Paragraph 2 of the German Occupational Safety and Health Act
(ArbSchG).
(4) The employer cannot issue any instructions that are detrimental to safety.
(5) The employer cannot impose the costs for the measures according to this accident prevention
regulation and other applicable accident prevention regulations on the insured persons.
German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 3 § 3 – Principles
(1) The employer must ensure that electrical systems and equipment are only erected, modified
and repaired by a BMW Group High-Voltage Expert, or under the management and supervision of
a BMW Group High-Voltage Expert, according to the rules of electrical engineering. Furthermore,
the employer must ensure that the electrical systems and equipment are operated according to the
electrical engineering rules.
(2) If a fault was identified with an electrical system or electrical equipment, i.e. it does not correspond
or no longer corresponds to the electrical engineering rules, then the employer must ensure that the
fault is remedied immediately, and if there is imminent danger up until the fault is eliminated, ensure
that the electrical system or the electrical equipment is not used in the faulty state.
3.1.2. Delegation responsibility of management.

The transfer of duties is defined in § 13 of the German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 1 (DGUV
Regulation 1).
German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 1 § 13 – Transfer of duties
The employer can instruct reliable and qualified staff in writing to perform tasks under their own
responsibility which are incumbent upon the employer according to the accident prevention
regulations. The assignment must define the responsibility and authorities and be signed by the
appointed person. A copy of the assignment must be given to the appointed person.
3.1.3. Responsible of High-Voltage Expert

The professional requirements of people to carry out electrical work are defined in various regulations
and VDE regulations, in particular in:
• German Occupational Safety and Health Act (ArbSchG)

• DGUV Regulation 3 "Electrical Systems and Equipment"
• DIN VDE 0105-100 "Operation of Electrical Systems"
• DIN VDE 1000-10 "Requirements of people working in the electrical engineering area".
High-Voltage Expert
A High-Voltage Expert can only assume specialist responsibility and perform electrical work in zones/
work areas of electrical engineering, for which they have acquired or possess
27
• professional training
• expertise and experience
• and knowledge of the relevant regulations
in order to enable them to assess the work assigned to them, detect possible dangers and define
the necessary protective measures. The requirement for professional training is generally satisfied
by the completion of a recognised electrical professional training course or a comparable electrical
qualification for the intended tasks. The necessary knowledge and experience is attained by
appropriate professional work in the respective zone or area of electrical engineering. The term
"knowledge of the relevant regulations" is generally understood as the corresponding VDE
regulations, legal regulations and accident prevention regulations.
The term "High-Voltage Expert" is not a job title, but outlines by its definition the competence,
capacity and skill of the employee to independently carry out electrical work in a certain area of
electrical engineering on his own authority. The High-Voltage Expert always assumes specialist
responsibility, i.e. he is responsible for the professional result of the electrical work performed by him.
High-Voltage Expert with specialist responsibility
If the High-Voltage Expert is also entrusted with the management and supervision of other
employees, he is responsible for the management of these employees, as well as the correct and safe
implementation of the work.
High-Voltage Expert with additional qualification for live working
When a person works on live electrical equipment with supply voltages over 120 V direct current or
50 V AC voltage, this is called live working. In Germany this work is only allowed for specially trained
High-Voltage Experts, who also use special equipment (insulated tool) and wear personal protective
equipment.
Qualified electrician for specified activities
Employees, who do not satisfy the requirements of a High-Voltage Expert, can be appointed for
defined activities during the commissioning of electrical equipment according to the German Social
Accident Insurance Regulation 3 (DGUV Regulation 3). There is corresponding training to become a
"High-Voltage Expert for defined activities".
Instructed person
The German Social Accident Insurance Information 200-005 (DGUV Information 200-005) defines
this group of people as follows: "An instructed person, who is instructed, and, if necessary, trained
by a High-Voltage Expert about the tasks assigned to him and the possible dangers in the event of
improper conduct, and who has received training regarding the necessary protective devices, personal
protective equipment and protective measures.
Laymen in the field of electrical engineering
A layman in the field of electrical engineering is someone who is not a High-Voltage Expert or an
instructed person. This may also include electrical engineering students. Laymen in the field of
electrical engineering are prohibited from working on high-voltage systems in vehicles.
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Responsible High-Voltage Expert
A responsible High-Voltage Expert is generally required for the responsible and professional
management of an electrical company or operations. This person must have successfully completed
the training to become a state-High-Voltage Expert, industrial foreman, master craftsman, graduate
engineer, or has a Bachelor or Master degree. This is required if additional tasks are necessary, in
addition to the work on site in connection with the electrical engineering work, such as:
• Planning, project management, design

• Organising the work
• Defining work procedures
• Selecting suitable workers and supervisors
and, especially in the event of an electrical hazard as a result of high voltage in the vehicle:
• Notification and explanation of the relevant safety specifications

• Definition of the tools and auxiliary materials to be used
• Implementation of the necessary training measures
• Control of work processes by random samples or control procedures.
A responsible High-Voltage Expert assumes supervisory responsibility, in addition to the technical

responsibility. The responsible High-Voltage Expert must be appointed by the employer, and is not
subject to any technical instruction with regard to compliance with the electrical engineering safety
precautions. Only the responsible High-Voltage Expert is responsible for the electrical safety, and not a
disciplinary supervisor.
For service workshops, in which work is carried out at high-voltage intrinsically safe production
vehicles, a responsible High-Voltage Expert is generally not required.
3.2. Possible legal consequences in the case of non-compliance

Imprisonment/Fines:
• i.a.w. § 209 SGB VII up to € 10,000 in the case of intentional or gross negligent action contrary
to accident prevention regulations
• i.a.w. § 20 German Occupational Safety Act (ASiG) up to € 25,000
• i.a.w. §§ 130,30 Regulatory Offences Act (Ordnungswidrigkeitengesetz) up to € 50,000
(management)
• Imprisonment of up to 15 years depending on charge.
Recourse: Through the German Social Accident Insurance, in the case of accidental damages caused
by intent or gross negligence.
Several liability cases may coincide, which may involve a penalty and/or fine.
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3.2.1. Liability in occupational safety

Compensation according to § 823 German Civil Code (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch BGB):
(1) A person who, intentionally or negligently, unlawfully injures the life, body, health, freedom,
property, or another right of another person is liable to make compensation to the other party for the
damage arising from this.
(2) The same duty is held by a person who commits a breach of a statute that is intended to protect
another person. If, according to the content of the law, a breach is also possible without fault, then the
obligation to pay compensation only occurs in the case of a fault.
3.3. Sources of danger

A situation or circumstances, which may have a negative effect on people, objects, circumstances, the
environment or animals, is described as a danger. In order to avoid this hazard, hazard assessments are
written to eliminate or minimise any existing sources of danger.
3.3.1. Hazard assessment

The employer must define the necessary measures for the safe provision and use of the work
equipment on the basis of a hazard assessment i.a.w. § 5 of the German Occupational Safety and
Health Act (ArbSchG), in conjunction with § 3 Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health (BetrSichV).
Systems requiring monitoring must also be taken into account, which are used as work equipment by
employees for the work.
3.3.2. Legal certainty of hazard assessment
§ 5 German Occupational Safety and Health Act (ArbSchG) – Assessment of the working
conditions
(1) The employer must determine which occupational health and safety measures are necessary by
assessing the hazards associated with the work for the employees.
(2) The employer must perform the assessment, depending on the type of activities. In the case of
similar working conditions, the assessment of one workbay or activity suffices.
(3) A hazard may arise, in particular, by:
1 the arrangement and the setup of the workplace and the workbay
2 physical, chemical and biological effects
3 the design, selection and use of work equipment, in particular work materials, machines, devices
and systems, as well as their handling
4 the organisation of working and manufacturing procedures, workflows and working time and their
interaction
5 inadequate qualification and instruction of the employees
6 physical loads at work.
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3.3.3. Structure of the hazard assessment
General information
The German Occupational Safety and Health Act (ArbSchG) requires the employer to determine
whether there are risks to safety and health at the workplace, and to evaluate these risks. The
employer must adopt the necessary measures based on this evaluation and check the effectiveness
of the measures. This hazard assessment i.a.w. § 5 German Occupational Safety and Health Act
(ArbSchG) is substantiated by the requirements of the Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health
(BetrSichV) for the provision and use of work equipment.
In the Technical Regulations for Operational Safety (TRBS), the general process for the determination
and evaluation of hazards, as well as the deduction of measures, is described. The Technical
Regulations relating to hazards (2000 Series) can provide concrete assistance in the determination
and evaluation of the identified hazard. For example, the regulations contain measures which can be
used to deal with the hazard.
The scope and methodology of the hazard assessment are based on the type of individual work
equipment and the operational circumstances. In the case of similar work equipment and hazards,
the implementation of the hazard assessment for one piece of work equipment suffices. In the event
of changes to work equipment, materials, the work environment or the personnel using the work
equipment, a check must be carried out to see whether these changes have an effect on the results of
the existing hazard assessment, and whether additional or supplementary measures are required. New
findings, for e.g. based on tests, accidents, or customer complaints, may also require this action.
Obtain information
For the preparation of the hazard assessment, the employer must obtain the necessary information, for
example, on:
• Legal guidelines
• Existing hazard assessments
• Manufacturer and supplier information
• Information on work materials and the work environment
• Experiences of employees
• Accident frequency level
• Skills and suitability of employees using the work equipment.
Identifying hazards
For the identification of hazards, a check must be carried out to see whether impacts on the safety
and health of employees can be expected through the provision or use of the work equipment to be
examined.
Hazards include, for example:
• Mechanical hazards
• Hazards as a result of people, loads or materials falling
• Electrical hazards
31
• Hazards caused by vapours and pressure

• Fire and explosion hazards
• Thermal hazards
• Hazards as a result of physical effects, for e.g. noise, vibrations.
Hazards originating from the work equipment itself, or those which may occur as a result of
reciprocal effects with other work equipment, materials or the work environment, must be taken into
consideration.
Assessing hazards
The hazards identified must be assessed to see whether the safety and health protection of the
employees are guaranteed without further measures. If this is not the case the necessary additional
measures must be defined.
The Technical Regulations for Operational Safety on hazards can be used here for making decisions.
Furthermore, the following sources, for example, can be consulted for the evaluation:
• Operational experiences and personal assessments

• Operating instructions
• Regulations and rules of accident insurance companies
• Expert opinions
• Measuring results.
Matrix for risk assessment
The following matrix is based on the Nohl method. Using the matrix, the risk in real-life situations can
be very easily classified (see table below for example).
Extent of losses
without with Moderate Serious Death
loss of loss of permanent permanent
working working health health
hours hours damage damage
Probability I II III IV V
often A 1 2 3 3 3
occasionally B 1 2 3 3 3
seldom C 1 2 2 3 3
unlikely D 1 2 2 2 3
practically C 1 1 1 2 2
impossible
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Risk group Risk Measures

1 Small Organisational and personal measures sufficient
2 Medium Measures with normal protective effect required
3 High Measures with higher protective effect urgently required
Example: Probability D and extent of losses IV → Risk group 2.
Defining measures
The employer defines the necessary results as a result of the assessment of the hazards. The
measures are used to avoid or adequately restrict the hazard. The general principles i.a.w. § 4 German
Occupational Safety and Health Act (ArbSchG) must be considered when defining measures. The
following measures must be checked for their feasibility in the order specified:
1 Avoiding hazards
2 Remaining risk is maintained as low as possible
3 Protection against hazard by applying technical measures
4 Keep people out of the danger area
5 Training and instruction
6 Protection against hazards through use of personal protective equipment.
The connections between the workbay, work equipment, work organisation, work sequence and task
must be considered. The Technical Regulations for Operational Safety on hazards (2000 Series) take
this sequence into account for the measures mentioned, based on the specific hazard.
For checking the work equipment, the specific procedure for the determination of the type of test,
scope of the test, and test period, as well as the selection of the person to be appointed to carry out
the test, is described in the Technical Regulations for Operational Safety (TRBS) 1201. Requirements
for the selection of qualified personnel are contained in TRBS 1203. As a result of the assessment of
the hazards, requirements for the qualification of employees using the work equipment may also be
defined (for e.g. use of a forklift only by trained personnel).
Implementing measures
The employer must lay the foundations and ensure that the defined measures are implemented and
observed.
Checking the effectiveness of the measures
During the effectiveness check, the employer must determine whether
• the measures are suitable and adequately effective, and

• no new hazards result from these measures.
If it is identified that the measures are not sufficiently effective, or there are new hazards as a result,
the described process for the hazard assessment must be repeated.
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Documentation
The documentation i.a.w. § 6 German Occupational Safety and Health Act (ArbSchG) must be
checked to see whether supplements are required with regard to the determination of the test periods
according to type, period, scope, and test personnel for work equipment i.a.w. § 3 Paragraph 3
(Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health (BetrSichV)). In the case of similar work equipment and
hazards, it is suffice when the documentation contains summarised information.
German Occupational Safety and Health Act (ArbSchG) § 6 Documentation:
(1) The employer must possess the necessary documentation, depending on the nature of the
activities and the number of employees, which contains the result of the hazard assessment, the
occupational health and safety measures defined by the employer and the result of their monitoring.
In the case of a similar hazard situation, it is sufficient when the documentation contains summarised
information.
3.4. Work instruction

A work instruction is a verbal instruction or a document, which details to a greater or less extent how
certain tasks are to be performed. Work instructions are linked to a certain process or a product or
a workbay. They are a tool for every employee so that he can complete his tasks in line with quality
requirements. The individual operations are often recorded in flowcharts or in a type of checklist.
The use of a standard work instruction is mainly useful, if the same errors are made repeatedly
despite the experience and qualification of the employee, or due to the complexity of the task. Work
instructions are also suitable as a basis for briefing new employees.
Every company can define what a work instruction must look like. A statement on the compilation of an
instruction may read as follows: "Write in a way that the user can work!".
3.4.1. Documentation of the work instruction
• Title: Work instruction for . . .

• Work to be performed
• Number of people and type of qualification
• Necessary personal protective equipment, devices, tools
• Relevant documents
• Safety and precautionary measures
• How should one proceed in the event of a fault?
• Who needs to be informed?
• Workflow in individual steps
• Signed, Date.
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3.5. Operating instructions

In contrast to a Owner's Handbook, the operating instruction is a document which should only point
out dangers and show protective measures.
Operating instructions must be compiled in Germany for biological and chemical work materials,
hazardous substances and their preparations, which include these materials above certain
percentages, as well as for machines and other technical systems.
3.5.1. Documentation of the operating instruction

For operating instructions, the following content is proposed, for example, by the professional trade
associations:
1 Area of application
2 Risks for people and the environment
3 Protective measures and codes of conduct
4 Behaviour in the event of faults
5 Behaviour in the event of accidents, First Aid
6 Proper disposal / repair (for machines / technical systems)
7 Consequences of non-compliance.
3.6. Briefings
Briefings are part of occupational safety.
However, you cannot find the term "Briefing" in the German Occupational Safety and Health Act
(ArbSchG) Nevertheless, briefings are an essential part of occupational safety. What exactly should be
understood under a briefing becomes clear when one takes a closer look at the elements of a briefing.
The briefing is an element of a formal briefing.
For instance, the formal briefing also always includes a briefing on
• the operational features

• the precise operating sequences
• the safety precautions at the specific workbay.
A formal briefing also includes a briefing, for example, on the correct use of new devices, technologies
and procedures.
Practical example: Formal Briefing on a machine
If an employee is to operate a new or modified machine, in addition to the briefing which takes place at
least once a year, he must also receive a formal briefing on
35
• the specific operation of this machine

• the special risks
• the safety functions.
A machine-specific briefing should familiarise the future operator with the instructions and warnings of
the manufacturer (Owner's Handbook).
3.6.1. Legal guidelines for a formal briefing

Difference between briefing ↔ formal briefing:
The briefing is part of the formal briefing, but not the same. A briefing on a new or modified work
device does not suffice for safety.
Vice versa, a formal briefing without a specific, workbay-related briefing would also be insufficient.
3.7. Formal briefings

To formally brief means to convey knowledge and skills to a person in different ways. This is normally
effected by guiding, steering and pointing. The most frequent type of a formal briefing is the work
instruction. This is understood as the methodical communication of the skills, knowledge and
experiences required to fulfil a work task. For the formal briefing, the main emphasis is on the
communication of behaviour patterns and sense of responsibility.
In occupational education, an formal briefing is understood as a brief training on, for example, safety at
work, occupational safety, as well as education. There is also a class and a leader.
It relates to the formal briefing (s) of the employer for behaviour at the workbay in line with safety
requirements. It contains possible hazards, protective measures, codes of conduct and emergency
specifications, and can be supplemented with practical activities.
3.7.1. Legal guidelines for a formal briefing
German Occupational Safety and Health Act (ArbSchG) § 12 – Instruction
(1) The employer must adequately and appropriately instruct the employees on safety and
health protection at work during their working time. The formal briefing includes instructions and
explanations, which are specifically aimed at the workbay or the scope of duties of the employees. The
formal briefing must be carried out at the time of recruitment, in the event of changes to the scope of
duties, the introduction of new work equipment or a new technology, before the employee engages
in the activity. The formal briefing must be adapted to the hazard development and, if necessary, be
repeated at regular intervals.
(2) In the case of employee leasing, the obligation for the formal briefing according to Paragraph 1
rests with the lessee. The lessee must carry out the formal briefing taking into consideration the
qualification and experience of the people, who are leased to him to perform work duties. The other
occupational health and safety obligations of the lessor remain unaffected.
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3.7.2. Documentation of a formal briefing

The German Occupational Safety and Health Act (ArbSchG) does not contain any specific requirement
for the documentation of formal briefings, i.e. the recording of whether, when and with whom training
was carried out. In § 6 Paragraph 1 Documentation, it merely states:
"The employer must possess the necessary documentation, depending on the nature of the activities
and the number of employees, which contains the result of the hazard assessment, the occupational
health and safety measures defined by the employer and the result of their monitoring."
§ 3 The basic duties of the employer state that the employer must take precautions so that the
occupational health and safety measures are observed, and the employees have the opportunity
to satisfy their duty to cooperate. Thus there is a need for the employer to be able to show that he
has compiled with his duties in this regard. Other supplementary regulations of the German Social
Accident Insurance (in particular "Principles of prevention") contain more precise statements on the
documentation duty. Irrespective of whether (special) regulations apply to the job, a written record for
the instructions is offered, which results in the following advantages at least for the employer:
• Evidence of the fulfilment of the formal briefing duty within the framework of an official check
or in the event of an accident
• Self-monitoring and monitoring of the handling and adherence to regulations in the company.
A log of the implemented formal briefing should contain the following details:
• Topic of formal briefing

• When?
• Names of participants
• Name of the trainer
• Duration
• Final confirmation of the formally briefed employee by signature.
It may be useful to add other details such as the training materials used, reason for the formal briefing
and its sequence. The form of written documentation used is generally paper. Different publishing
houses and associations offer suitable templates to download. As most formal briefings are subject
to a regular cycle, an instrument should also be installed for monitoring dates and deadlines. Software
applications now exist which assume these tasks.
37
4. PROTECTIVE MEASURES.
4.1. Levels of protection

There are three levels of protection against dangerous body currents. A distinction is made between
the different levels of protection according to DIN VDE 0100 Erection of Power Installations with Low
Rated Voltages.
4.1.1. Basic protection includes protection against direct contact (Protection

Level 1)
This measure provides immediate protection against dangers which arise from direct contact with
active, live parts. A distinction is made here between
• complete protection by insulation (most common form of protection), covers, encasement,

sufficient distance, and
• partial protection against accidental contact, for example by obstacles and insufficient
distance, which is permitted, but only within self-contained electrical industrial premises.
4.1.2. Fault protection is protection against indirect contact (Protection Level

2)
This measure provides protection against dangers arising from contact with electrical components,
the so-called body (for e.g. the metal housing of an electrical device) or external conductive parts (for
e.g. heating, water pipe, etc.) of electrical equipment. Following the occurrence of faults, the task is to
• switch off dangerous contact voltages or

• prevent dangerous contact voltages.
Switching off (or reporting) by protective measures with protective earth conductor
Depending on the type of electrical system (TN system, TT system, IT system), the neutral conductor
(N) and the protective earth conductor (PE) or PEN are arranged and laid differently. Provided there
is proper earthing and potential compensation, systems are switched off in the event of a fault using
fuses or Residual Current protective Devices. For example, the following applies to the TN system:
All bodies must be connected to the star point of the supply network by a protective earth conductor
or PEN conductor. In the event of a fault to frame, a short circuit occurs and the high residual current
leads to the immediate shutdown of the affected circuit by fuses or circuit breakers.
4.1.3. Protection against direct contact is additional protection (Protection

Level 3).
The protection in the event of direct contact supplements the aforementioned protective measures, if,
for example, the basic protection fails and/or the fault protection, i.e. protective measures in the event
of indirect contact, becomes ineffective. However, it is not permitted as the sole form of protection.
This protection is achieved by the highly sensitive Residual Current protective Devices (RCD). Upon
the occurrence of residual currents up to 30 mA or less, which are generally not dangerous for the
person, Residual Current protective Devices shut down within 0.2 s.
38
4.2. Direct and indirect contact
Direct and indirect contact
Index Explanation
A Direct contact
B Indirect contact
1 Earth electrode
2 Fault to frame
The term "direct contact" refers to contact with parts of an electrical system, which carry voltage
against each other in proper conditions. The person makes contact with a live line. There is no fault
with the system. The protection is effected here, for example, with sufficient insulation.
As a result of an isolation fault, voltage may be present at parts, where there is no voltage in a trouble-
free condition. The contact with such parts is called "Indirect Contact". The person here touches the
housing of a machine which has an isolation fault. The supply voltage is at the housing as a result of
this isolation fault. The protection is effected here, for example, through an automatic shutdown of the
power supply.
4.3. Types of protection

Devices, which cannot be used in all ambient conditions, are divided into so-called IP protection
classes (IP = International Protection).
The following diagram is used for a more precise designation of the respective protection class: IP
XXXX
The letters IP represent the protection class and the four placeholders XXXX are replaced as follows:
39
• Position 1: Protection against accidental contact/Protection against foreign particles

• Position 2: Protection against water
• Position 3: Additional protection against accidental contact
• Position 4: Supplementary letters.
The 3rd and 4th digits are not always used.
If the 1st or 2nd digit is not important for the identification of the protection class, it is replaced with an
X.
Code digit for protection against accidental contact/protection against foreign particles
IP 0X Neither protection against accidental contact nor foreign particles
IP 1X Back-of-hand protection, protection against foreign particles with diameter > 50 mm
IP 2X Keep away from fingers, protection against foreign particles > diameter of 12 mm
IP 3X Protection against contact with tools, (test specimen: 12 mm diameter, 100 mm long)
Protection against foreign particles with diameter > 2.5 mm
IP 4X Keep away from tools, etc., protection against foreign particles > diameter of 1 mm
IP 5X Complete protection against accidental contact, protection against harmful dust
deposits in the inside
IP 6X Complete protection against accidental contact, protection against dust ingress (dust-
proof)
Code digits for protection against water

IP X0 Not protected against water ingress
IP X1 Protected against dripping water (vertically falling drops)
IP X2 Protected against dripping water (tilted up to 15° from the vertical)
IP X3 Protected against spraying water (up to 60° from the vertical)
IP X4 Protected against spraying water
IP X5 Protected against water jets (from all directions)
IP X6 Protected against water ingress in the event of temporary flooding
IP X7 Protected against water ingress in the event of immersion
IP X8 Protected against water ingress in the event of immersion for uncertain time
IP X9 K Protected against water ingress from any direction, also in the event of a considerable
increase of pressure against the enclosure (high pressure/steam cleaner, 80 – 100 bar)
Code letters for the 3rd digit

A Back-of-hand protection or objects with diameter > 50 mm
B Finger protection against fingers with diameter > 12 mm and up to 80 mm long
C Tool protection against tool with diameter > 2.5 mm and up to 100 mm long
D Wire protection against wires with diameter > 1 mm and up to 100 mm long
40
Code letters for the 4th digit

H High-voltage equipment
M Checked, if movable parts in operation
S Checked, if movable parts at a standstill
W Checked in the event of defined weather conditions
4.4. Protection classes

The electrical equipment is identified by three protection classes (protection class I to III).
Protection class I Protection class II Protection class III

Protective measure with earth Insulated (for e.g. plastic Protective Extra-Low Voltage
conductor housing)
All devices and system Double or reinforced insulation Devices, which are operated
parts with earth conductor practically makes isolation with Protective Extra Low
connection, which must faults impossible. A protective Voltage (max. 50 V AC or
be connected at the earth earth conductor cannot be 120 V DC) or with protection
conductor of the stationary connected. Today many transformers (for e.g. shaver
installation, for e.g. via a three- household appliances (food socket in the bathroom) and
pin grounded plug. In the processors, shavers, PC can be safely disconnected.
event of a fault, i.e. if the basic power packs, etc.) and
insulation fails, the circuit equipment (for e.g. light
is switched off, so that no switches) have protective
dangerous contact voltage insulation, can often be
remains. Only functions with recognised on the flat so-
main potential compensation called European plug without
and overcurrent protection protective earth conductor
device (fuse) or Residual contact.
Current protective Device
(RCD).
4.5. The five safety rules

In many countries certain regulations apply when working in and on electrical systems in order to avoid
electrical accidents, which can be summarised in the five safety rules. For Germany, these are listed in
the DIN VDE 0105 standard.
1 Disconnect the system from the power supply
41
The disconnection of an electrical system from live parts at all poles is called disconnecting the
system from the power supply. Depending on the operating voltage, a variable isolating distance
must be established between the live and de-energised system part.
F10H Disconnect the high-voltage system from the supply
2 Provide a safeguard against unintentional restart

In order to avoid the system currently being worked on being switched on again by mistake, a
restart must be reliably prevented and a prohibition sign "Do not switch on. Work in progress!"
indicating such must be erected. For this purpose, the unscrewed fuses in the area of the low-
voltage network are replaced with lockable devices. If possible, the main switch, control cabinet,
or fuse box, must be locked.
Prohibition sign "Do not switch on"
42
F10H Provide a safeguard to prevent unintentional restarting
3 Establish that the system is isolated from the power supply.

If the symbol for “high-voltage system turned off” does not appear in the instrument cluster, the
person working in the area must verify that the system is de-energised using suitable measuring/
testing equipment (for e.g. two-pole voltage detector) and high-voltage adapter.
Two-pole voltage detector
I01 Check Control symbol "De-energised high-voltage system"
Index Explanation
1 Check Control symbol for the display of the de-energised state and
text message "High-voltage system switched off"
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4 Earth and short circuit

After verifying the de-energised state, the conductor and the earthing system are connected
to short-circuit-proof earthing and short-circuiting devices, for example a earthing stick. This
measure means that if the system is switched on accidentally the upstream overcurrent
protection devices are activated, and the parallel lines, as for example in the case of overhead
lines, are not atmospherically charged by the capacitive coupling or by induction. The design
of the earth connection should be in the proximity and visual range of the place of work, if it is
designed with mobile devices such as the earthing stick. It is important that the earthing is carried
out first and then the short-circuiting.
The device must be measured with a sufficient cross-section for the expected short circuit
current up to shutdown.
In extra low and low voltage systems (below 1 kV AC or 1.5 kV DC), earthing and short-circuiting
can be avoided, except if there is a risk that voltage may be applied to the system (prevented by
rule 2).
5 Cover or cordon off neighbouring live parts
Insulating towels, hoses, plastic covers, etc., suffice as covers for systems below 1 kV. This
part can also be ignored in the case of proper implementation of rules 1 to 3 for voltages below
1 kV AC or 1.5 kV DC.
These five safety rules should be applied before working on electrical systems in the
aforementioned sequence. Once the work is completed, they are applied in reverse order
accordingly.
4.6. Warning signs

Regulations of professional trade associations A8 § 2 – Definitions
Within the meaning of this accident prevention regulation:
1 Safety and health protection sign

A sign which makes a safety and health protection statement (safety statement), in relation to
a certain object, a certain activity, or a certain situation, by means of a safety sign, a colour, a
luminous or acoustic signal, verbal signal, or a hand signal.
2 Safety sign
A sign which makes a certain safety and health protection statement through a combination of a
geometrical shape and colour, as well as a pictogram
3 Prohibition sign
A safety sign which prohibits conduct that may cause danger
4 Warning symbol
A safety sign which warns against a risk or danger
5 Mandatory sign
A safety sign which stipulates certain conduct
6 Escape symbol
A safety sign which marks the escape route or emergency exit, the route to First Aid facilities or
the facilities themselves
7 Fire protection symbol
A safety sign which marks the locations of fire alarms and fire extinguishers
8 Information sign
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A sign with text which provides other safety statements than the safety signs mentioned under 3
to 7
9 Additional sign
A sign which is used together with one of the safety signs described under 2, and contains
additional information in the form of short text
10 Combination sign
A sign on which the safety sign and additional sign are attached on a bracket
11 Pictogram
A certain graphic symbol which describes a situation or stipulates a form of conduct, and is
arranged on a safety sign or an illuminated area
12 Safety colour
A colour to which a certain significance is attached in relation in safety
13 Luminous sign
A sign which is generated by a facility with transparent or translucent surface that is illuminated
from behind, and therefore appears as an illuminated area or illuminates itself
14 Acoustic signal
An encoded acoustic signal without the use of human or synthetic voices
15 Verbal signal
A notification with defined words with the use of human or synthetic voices
16 Hand signal
An encoded movement and position of arms and hands for instructing people to perform
activities, which may pose a risk or hazard.
4.7. Personal protective equipment

Personal protective equipment in electrical engineering:
Almost every job description has its own working clothes for the safe implementation of the
corresponding work. The same also applies to work in the electrical engineering area. Depending on
the application range, special articles of clothing and, if necessary, additional auxiliary materials or
special tools, are used. The use of suitable clothing and protective equipment for the implementation
of work is stipulated and prescribed in the German Occupational Safety and Health Act (ArbSchG), and
in the accident prevention regulation "Principles of Prevention" (DGUV Regulation 1).
Employers or supervisors are obligated to regularly inform their employees about all protective
measures and to also document this briefing. This applies in particular to work in the proximity of
active parts, like those listed in the DGUV Regulation 3 "Electrical Systems and Equipment".
Typical objects of personal protective equipment include, for example:
• Non-flammable or flame-resistant jacket and trousers

• Electrically insulating gloves
• Protective shoes
• Face shield
45
• Ear defenders
• Seat belt
• Suitable tool.
Personal protective equipment (example)
Identification for insulating protective devices up to 1000 V i.a.w. DIN VDE 0680
4.7.1. Checklist for work clothes and personal protective equipment
• Has a hazard assessment been carried out for the workbays?

• Was the resistance of the work clothes demonstrated using a special test procedure?
• Was the cold weather and weather-proof equipment also subjected to an arc test?
• Does the clothing have no larger, open metallic parts (risk of shorting)?
• Can the personal protective equipment be worn comfortably over the work clothes?
• Were you personally involved in the selection of the protective clothing?
46
• Do not wear any items of clothing made from flammable synthetic materials under your work
clothes.
• Never turn up your sleeves when working on live equipment.
• Do not store any tools in the pockets of your work clothes.
• Always close up your work clothes.
• Ensure regular cleaning.
• Observe the cleaning instructions specified by the manufacturer.
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5. MEASURING EQUIPMENT.
Measuring equipment includes a measuring device, a measuring system, a measurement standard,

an aid or reference material, which is necessary for the implementation of a task in the measuring
technique. Devices for counting, calibration, alignment, or testing are also measuring equipment.
Accompanying documents or programs are also aids.
The quality of the measuring equipment is guaranteed by regular monitoring of the measuring
equipment.
Measuring equipment for tests are also called testing equipment.
5.1. Measuring device
Digital multimeter
Hereinafter the term "measuring device" will be used as a collective term for a measuring device, a
measuring system, a measuring element, and a measurement standard. The following special features
should be noted:
1 Measuring range
2 Static behaviour: See characteristic curve, sensitivity
3 Dynamic behaviour in the event of an abrupt change of the value of the input variable
4 Adjusting time: The time which has lapsed after the change until the value of the output variable
remains permanently within specified limits
5 Response threshold
6 Resolution
7 Hysteresis: Feature of a measuring device, consisting of the fact that the value of the output
variable is not solely dependent on the independently varying input variable, but on the previous
status of the output variable
8 Reaction
9 Drift: Slow change of the value of a measurement feature of a measuring device
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10 Measuring device deviation

11 Tolerances.
5.1.1. CAT categories

The measurement category specifies the permissible application ranges of measuring and testing
devices for electrical equipment and systems (for e.g. voltage detector, multimeter, VDE testers) for
application in the area of low-voltage networks. The classification of the measurement category is
determined by IEC 61010-1 (Safety requirements for electrical equipment for measurement, control,
and laboratory use).
The measurement category is marked on the measuring devices and measuring cables in Roman
numerals. If the specification is missing, the device can only be used for measurements in Category 1
(CAT I).
The following categories and uses are defined in IEC 61010-1:
• CAT I: Measurements at circuits which do not have a direct connection to the power supply
(battery-operated), for e.g. devices of protection class 3 (operation with SELV), battery-
operated devices, vehicle electrical system (below 60 V).
• CAT II: Measurements at circuits which do have a direct connection to the low-voltage power
supply by means of a connector, for e.g. household devices, portable electrical devices.
• CAT III: Measurements within the building facility (stationary consumers with non-connectible
connection, distribution terminal, fixed devices in the connecting block), for e.g. sub-
distribution.
• CAT IV: Measurements at the source of the low-voltage installation (meter, main connection,
primary overcurrent protection), for e.g. meter, low-voltage transmission line, building junction
box.
49
Measurement categories
Index Explanation
1 CAT I
2 CAT II
3 CAT III
4 CAT IV
50
6. NETWORK CONFIGURATION.
For low voltage networks different network configurations are used for the electrical power supply in
electrical engineering, which can be distinguished by the following three-digit letter code.
1st letter: Earthing ratios of the current source (for e.g. in the transformer station):
• T: Direct earthing of a point, for e.g. star point via system earthing (T from "terre" (French) =
earth)
• I: Insulation of all active parts to earth or connection of the point to earth through an
impedance (I from "isolé" (French) = insulated).
2nd letter: Earthing conditions of the body within the electrical system:
• T: Direct earthing of the body of equipment (T from "terre" (French) = earth)

• N: Connection of the body to system earthing of voltage generator (N from neutre (French) =
neutral).
3rd letter: Arrangement of the neutral conductor N and the protective earth conductor PE in the TN
system:
• S: PE and N are laid separately (S from separé (French) = separated)

• C: PE and N are combined in one conductor, the PEN conductor (C from combiné (French) =
combined).
An explanation of the circuit symbols used in the connection can be found in the chapter electrical
laboratory – Circuit symbols.
6.1. TN-C system
TN-C system
Index Explanation
1 RB (system earthing)
2 External conductor L1
5 PEN (protective earth conductor and neutral conductor combined)
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In a TN-C system the star point is earthed on the low voltage side of the supplying transformer station,
and connected to the PEN conductor, i.e. there is only one conductor for PE and N.
6.2. TN-S system
TN-S system
Index Explanation
5 N (neutral conductor)
6 PE (protective earth conductor)
In a TN-S system the star point is earthed on the low voltage side of the supplying transformer station,
and connected to the PE and N conductors, i.e. there is a separate conductor for PE and N.
6.3. TN-C-S system
TN-C-S system
52
Index Explanation
In a TN-C-S system the star point is earthed on the low voltage side of the supplying transformer
station, and connected to the PEN conductor. If the PEN is divided into PE and N on the consumer
side, for e.g. at the entrance to the building, a TN-C-S network arises from the TN-C.
6.3.1. TN-C-S protection in the event of a fault

In the event of a fault to frame, the short circuit current is discharged via the separate PE conductor.
TN-C-S protection in the event of a fault
Index Explanation
1 TN-C system
2 TN-S system
3 Electricity meter
53
Index Explanation
9 Electrical consumer (for e.g. three-phase AC motor)
10 Fault to frame
11 Main earthing terminal
13 House connection box
6.4. IT system
In contrast to the various TN networks, with the IT network the source is not connected to earth, but
insulated from earth. On the consumer side, all conductive housings of the equipment are connected
to earth.
6.4.1. Structure of the IT system
Structure of the IT system
Index Explanation
1 RA (equipment earthing)
2 Insulation monitoring device
54
The IT system, also called IT network, is a type of low voltage network for the electrical power
supply in electrical engineering with increased fail-safe performance in the event of earth faults. The
designation "IT system" only applies to the general network structure of the low voltage network; the
designation "IT system" does not allow any conclusions to be made regarding the fault protection
used.
The IT network is a network which only has a small local scope. The small network size is necessary,
as locating a point of failure in an extensive network can be very complex. The network must be set up
via a power supply isolated from earth. The power supply can either be effected using a transformer,
an alternator, or batteries. IT networks with alternating current or with direct current can be realised.
With three-phase power systems, it is possible to use the neutral conductor as a fourth conductor.
In such four conductor networks, an overcurrent protection device may be required for the neutral
conductor due to voltage boosts in the event of a fault.
6.4.2. Fault tolerance of IT system

An initial isolation fault between the external conductor and earth represents earthing of this
conductor. There is still no potential difference between conductive housings and earth or a closed
circuit to the transformer above earth. As no potential differences occur, contact voltage between the
touchable housing sections and earth also does not occur. The IT network merges into a TN or TT
network in this operating condition. In the IT network a simple earth fault therefore does not result in
the immediate shutdown of the network. The IT network is 1-fault-tolerant, and thus has a significantly
higher fail-safe performance than other TN or TT networks.
6.4.3. Protective measures in the IT system

In the insulated network, the protective devices do not respond in the case of a simple earth fault.
As a result, an isolation fault at an active conductor may go unnoticed for a long time. Then in the
event of a double fault, this may cause a dangerously high fault voltage. This is why it is necessary that
the isolation resistance in the IT network is constantly monitored. The insulation monitoring is only
permitted in the IT network as a protective measure.
6.5. Potential compensation

Very small resistances (R << 1 Ω) must be measured to determine the potential compensation. Special
measuring procedures have to be used for a precise measurement.
55
6.5.1. 2-wire measurement
2-wire measurement
Index Explanation
1 Voltmeter
2 Current source
Rt Resistor to be measured
RLtg Resistance of measuring wire
With the 2-wire measuring method, a known current flows through the resistor to be measured Rt
by means of a current source via two wires. A voltmeter measures the voltage drop at the gage tips.
However, this voltage – as a result of the finite resistance RLtg of the two measuring wires – is not
directly the voltage at the resistor to be measured Rt, but the voltage drop at the sum of all resistors.
For large resistors Rt (R >> 1 Ω), the measuring error by the measuring wires carries no weight. For
small resistances, like those that occur during the measurement of potential compensation, Rt lies
in the range of RLtg. This measuring method therefore does not provide any useful results during the
measurement.
6.5.2. 4-wire measurement
4-wire measurement
56
Index Explanation
1 Voltmeter
2 Current source
Rt Resistor to be measured
RLtg Resistance of measuring wire
With the 4-wire measuring method, one uses two separate pairs of measuring wires for the supply of
a constant current of a known size and the measurement of the resulting voltage drop at the resistor
Rt. The current source (constant current) eliminates the influence of the measuring wires in the current
path (external path). The resistances of the measuring wires in the voltage path (internal path) can also
be ignored by the high input resistance of the voltmeter. The voltage drop caused by the introduction
of current I is therefore measured directly at the resistor Rt. The corresponding resistance can then be
calculated using Ohm's law.
6.6. Insulation measurement

An insulation measurement is a measurement of the isolation resistance of electrical equipment such
as cables for assessing their operability and safety.
6.6.1. Insulation measurement for an electric drive
Electric drive, consisting of combined direct current and alternating current busbars
If alternating current and direct current high-voltage busbars are connected galvanically, the isolation
resistance between the high-voltage busbar and electrical ground, with regard to the operating
voltage, must be at least 500 Ω/V.
The isolation resistance between the high-voltage busbar and electrical ground can be established by
calculation, measurement, or a combination of the two procedures.
The measurement must be carried out according to the DGUV Regulation 3 Appendix 4 for the
"Procedure for measuring isolation resistance".
6.6.2. Insulation measurement procedure
Measuring procedure using direct current from external current sources
Measuring device: A device must be used for testing the isolation resistance, to which direct current
voltage can be applied, which is higher than the operating voltage of the high-voltage busbar.
Measuring procedure: A device for testing the isolation resistance must be switched between the
active parts and electrical ground. Then the isolation resistance must be measured, by applying direct
current voltage which is at least half the operating voltage of the high-voltage busbar.
57
If the system is designed for several voltage ranges (for e.g. due to a boost converter) in galvanically
connected circuits and some components cannot withstand the operating voltage of the entire
circuit, the isolation resistance can be measured separately between these components and
electrical ground, by applying at least half of its own operating voltage, whereby the aforementioned
components are isolated from the circuit.
Measuring procedure using the vehicle's own rechargeable energy storage system as a direct
current source
Test conditions for the vehicle: The high-voltage busbar must be supplied with energy from
the vehicle's own rechargeable energy storage device and/or the energy conversion system, and
the voltage of the rechargeable energy storage device and/or the energy conversion system must
correspond to at least the nominal operating voltage specified by the vehicle manufacturer for the
duration of the test. DE 2.3.2011 Official Journal of the European Union L 57/69.
Measuring device: The voltmeter used during this test must measure direct current voltage and have
an internal resistance of at least 10 ΜΩ.
Measuring procedure – Level 1: The voltage is measured according to the schematic diagram in
graphic 1, and the voltage of the high-voltage busbar (Ub) is recorded. Ub must be the same or greater
than the nominal operating voltage of the rechargeable energy storage device and/or the energy
conversion system specified by the vehicle manufacturer.
Graphic 1: Measurement of Ub, U1, U2
Index Explanation
Ub Voltage of the high-voltage busbar
U1 Voltage between negative high-voltage busbar and electrical ground
U2 Voltage between positive high-voltage busbar and electrical ground
1 Bidirectional DC/AC converter
2 Electric motor
3 Electrical ground
4 High-voltage battery
58
Measuring procedure – Level 2: The voltage (U1) between the negative high-voltage busbar and
electrical ground is measured and recorded.
Measuring procedure – Level 3: The voltage (U2) between the positive high-voltage busbar and
electrical ground is measured and recorded.
Measuring procedure – Level 4: If V1 is greater than or the same as U2, a known comparator resistor
(R0) is switched between the negative high-voltage busbar and electrical ground. If R0 is switched,
the voltage (U1’) between the negative high-voltage busbar and electrical ground is measured (see
graphic 2).
The internal resistance (Ri) is calculated according to the following formula:
Ri = R0 · (Ub : U1’ – Ub : U1) or Ri = R0 · Ub · (1 : U1’ – 1 : U1)
Graphic 2: Measurement of U1’
Index Explanation
U1’ Voltage between negative high-voltage busbar and electrical ground with
comparator resistor
2 Electric motor
3 Electrical ground
5 Comparator resistor (R0)
If U2 is greater than U1, a known comparator resistor (R0) is switched between the positive high-
voltage busbar and electrical ground. If R0 is switched, the voltage (U2’) between the positive high-
voltage busbar and electrical ground is measured (see graphic 3). The internal resistance (Ri) is
calculated according to the specific formula. This value of the internal resistance (in Ω) is divided by
the nominal value of the operating voltage of the high-voltage busbar (in V).
59
The internal resistance (Ri) is calculated according to the following formula:
Ri = R0 · (Ub : U2’ – Ub : U2) or Ri = R0 · Ub · (1 : U2’ – 1 : U2)
Graphic 3: Measurement of V2’
Index Explanation
U2’ Voltage between positive high-voltage busbar and electrical ground with
comparator resistor
2 Electric motor
3 Electrical ground
5 Comparator resistor (R0)
Measuring procedure – Level 5: The internal resistance Ri (in Ω) divided by the operating voltage of
the high-voltage busbar (in V) gives the isolation resistance (in Ω/V).
Note: The known comparator resistor R0 (in Ω) should correspond to the specified minimum value of
the isolation resistance (in Ω/V) multiplied by the operating voltage of the vehicle (in V) ±20 %. R0 does
not need to correspond to this value precisely, as the equations apply to all R0 values; however, one R0
value in this range should provide a good solution for the voltage measurements.
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7. ELECTRICAL LABORATORY.
Using the electrical laboratory
• Circuit concepts, such as those typically used for the operation of an electric drive, can be
recreated
• The differences between the connection options of a three-phase AC motor can be explained
• The occurring voltages and currents can be defined
• The safe implementation of this work can be practised.
7.1. Function of the electrical laboratory

The electrical laboratory basically consists of the following three components:
Components of the electrical laboratory
Index Explanation
1 Module for the voltage supply with emergency-off switch, undervoltage
protection, and ON/OFF switch
2 Module with line protection, several switch contactors, motor protection
switch, various displays and buttons
3 Three-phase motor
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With these components one can "recreate" the function of an electric vehicle, whereby one uses
parts from the area of installation technology for the structure and sets up everything in alternating
current technology instead of direct current voltage. The function of the first module (voltage supply)
corresponds to the function of the "high-voltage battery", the second module (switch contactors,
displays and buttons) can be viewed as the "power electronics". The function of the three-phase AC
motor of the electrical laboratory can be compared to the function of the electric drive of the vehicle.
The voltages of the superstructures in the electrical laboratory roughly correspond to the voltages of a
real electric vehicle.
7.2. Disconnecting the electrical laboratory from the power supply

The procedure for disconnecting the superstructures in the electrical laboratory from the power
supply is similar to the procedure for disconnecting the electric vehicle from the power supply.
First of all, all safety functions of the first module ("high-voltage battery") are checked:
• Voltage supply of the building supply network present and can be switched off, incl. central
emergency-off switch (3x 230 V against N, 3x 400 V against each other, N and PE), check with
ten respective measurements
• Check undervoltage switch with emergency-off switch, check with ten respective
measurements
• Check function of the internal ON/OFF switch (corresponds to the "high-voltage safety
connector" (Service Disconnect)) in the vehicle, check with 10 respective measurements.
The first module which has been checked with regard to safety can be disconnected from the power
supply (first safety rule), by operating the internal ON/OFF switch. The second safety rule is observed
by the direct attempts carried out at the laboratory bench. If the workbay is vacated, the workbay
must be switched to a de-energised state via the protective device (lockable ON/OFF switch) of the
respective laboratory bench. The third safety rule is observed by determining the de-energised state at
the input of the second module ("power electronics") with ten measurements (all poles).
The three safety rules must always be implemented in the event of a change to the wiring (for e.g.
reconnecting a cable).
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7.3. Residual Current protective Device
Residual Current protective Device in a single-phase circuit
Index Explanation
L Conductor
N Neutral conductor
1 Latching mechanism
2 Trip coil
3 Summation current transformer
4 Test button
The Residual Current protective Device (RCD) isolates the monitored circuit from the rest of the
network at all poles if a certain differential current is exceeded (in residential systems and public
buildings generally 30 mA), i.e. all conductors except the protective earth conductor.
All live lines (for e.g. L or general L1, L2 and L3) and the N conductor are guided through a toroidal
core. The toroidal core also has a coil, which can activate a latching mechanism.
If there are no faults, then the magnetic fields of the line are cancelled in the toroidal core. The latching
mechanism is not activated. If, in the event of a fault, a current flows, for example from conductor
L through the human body (and thus behind the toroidal core back to the N conductor), then this
current is missing in the toroidal core. The sum of the magnetic fields is thus equal to zero. A voltage
is induced in the trip coil, which then activates the latching mechanism and leads to the shutdown at
all poles. This fault scenario can be simulated using the installed resistor and the Test button and the
activation/shutdown checked. RCD, which activate at a nominal current of I = 30 mA, serve for personal
protection.
A Residual Current protective Device does not offer any protection against electric shock, if a person
standing on an insulated surface touches both supply voltage lines (L and N), as no residual current
occurs here. Protection is also not provided if an undesired current flows between several external
conductors (L1, L2 or L3) to a three-phase AC network.
63
7.4. Circuit symbols

General circuit symbols are used in electrical engineering for drawing clear and unambiguous wiring
diagrams. The most important circuit symbols are summarised in the following table.
Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning

Conductor, general Protection earth PE
Neutral conductor (N) PEN conductor
Conductor branch, single Conductor branch, double
Conductor junction Boundary line, dividing line
Mechanical connections Resistor, general
Fuse, general Permanent magnet
Manual drive Normally open contact, manually

operated
Normally closed contact, Coil, inductance

manually operated
Transformer Light, bulb, general shape
Glow lamp Outlet for light
Capacitor Electrolyte capacitor
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Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning

Electrolytic element, for e.g. Sign
battery, long dash +, short dash – Proximity operation
Sign Can, general

Contact operation
1 Connection, general 1 Measuring instrument

2 Connection, general 2 Measuring mechanism
3 Sign for gas fill 3 Rotating machine
4 Rotor of rotating machine
Ammeter Voltmeter
Motor, general Motor for single-phase

alternating current, general
Three-phase AC motor, general Device, general
Latching mechanism
Buttons are used to activate the circuitry of the electrical laboratory, which return to their neutral
position again following operation. The buttons in the normally closed and normally open contacts are
distinguished by a separate switch symbol. Please note that in the wiring diagrams the symbols are
always marked in a de-energised state (i.e. not active).
The function of the button can be read from the encoding used. The contacts of each button are on
the right-hand side for the functions with two digits, and on the left-hand side mostly for counting
the contacts with two other digits specified by the manufacturer. The normally open contact function
always has the digits 3 and 4 on the right, the normally closed contact function always has the digits 1
and 2.
The normally closed contact and normally open contact function of a button can also occur in a
component jointly or several times. The individual contacts are then counted via the left digits.
For the switching function it is important that the normally closed contact always opens before the
normally open contact closes.
Buttons can also be equipped with a "locking mechanism". An activated button remains in the
engaged active state, until this state is deactivated again (for e.g. emergency-off switch).
65
7.5. Switch contactor circuitry

An important application of electromagnetism is the electromagnetic relay and its big "brother" the
"switch contactor". Relays are also called electromechanical switch contactors from a power of approx.
500 W. The function is the same in principle. As the voltages are also as high in the high-voltage
electrical system of the vehicle, these components here are also called switch contactors.
Switch contactors are switching devices for switching circuits using a low amount of power. A
distinction is made between an auxiliary contactor and a load contactor.
Auxiliary contactors are switching devices for control and auxiliary circuits, and are used for the control,
signalling, and locking of switching devices and systems.
Load contactors are switch contactors which can switch at high powers. They are used, for example,
for the switching on/off of engines, whereby auxiliary contactors are used for the activation.
Load contactor
For each switch contactor, the individual contacts are arranged via a corresponding encoding:
• The actuating contacts are described with A1 and A2.

• The contacts of a load contactor have one-digit numbers (in the top graphic these are 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6).
• A load contactor generally also contains some auxiliary contactors, which use the typical
encoding for the normally closed contact and normally open contact, i.e. right digits for
normally closed contact: 1 and 2, right digits for the normally open contact: 3 and 4.
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8. ELECTRICAL MACHINE.
Electrical machines are a form of energy converter. A distinction is made between:
• Rotating electrical machines

- Electric motors
- Electrical alternators
• Stationary electrical machines

- Transformers.
The electric motor describes an electromechanical converter (electrical machine), which converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy. In electric motors the force, which is exerted by a magnetic
field on the conductor of a coil carrying a current, is converted into movement. The electric motor is
therefore the counterpart to the alternator, which converts the kinetic energy into electrical energy.
Electric motors generate mostly rotating movements; however, they can also make translational
movements (linear drive). Electric motors are used for the drive of various work machines and vehicles
(primarily rail vehicles).
8.1. Types of electrical machines
Rotor with Rotor with Rotor with Rotor with

squirrel cage three-phase single poles commutator
winding with (also permanent coil
slip rings magnets)
Asynchronous Inner pole Three-phase

Asynchronous
squirrel synchronous AC commutator
slip ring motor
cage motor machine machine
Stator with
three-phase
current winding
Outer pole
Direct current
Split pole motor synchronous Stepper motor
machine
machine
Stator with
single poles
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8.2. Pairs of poles

As magnetic poles only come in pairs, the smallest number of pole pairs is p = 1 (1 north pole +
1 south pole). The pole number is appropriately called 2 · p. A four-pole machine thus has two pairs
of poles. This can be understood as follows: In the simplest case, like with a direct current machine,
the number of pole pairs relates to its main pole field, i.e. the magnetic field, which is generated in the
stator by coils carrying direct current. This constant magnetic field has a north pole and a south pole.
The machine thus has 1 pair of poles.
For rotating field machines, an analogy to the direct current machine was sought for the definition of
the number of pole pairs. A rotating field is generated with an arrangement of three coils, which are
evenly displaced by 120° and housed in the stator, and carry corresponding three-phase AC current.
Alternatively, a rod magnet can also be allowed rotate on an axle at corresponding speed. In both cases
the same magnetic field is generated. Such a magnetic field has a rotary pair of poles, i.e. a north pole
and a south pole facing each other. A rotating field machine, which has a stator constructed in this
way (for outer pole machines of the rotor), has 1 pair of poles. If one now arranges another coil triplet
between the other three coils in the same way as the example above (the angle between two adjacent
coils is also just 60°), then there would be two pairs of poles.
Asynchronous machine with the number of pole pairs p = 1 and three strands
The distance between two adjacent poles is called pole pitch. The distance between the center of two
adjacent poles is measured. The higher the number of pole pairs, the closer the coils are located to
each other. Besides the power factor and the level of the terminal voltage, for asynchronous machines
the pole pitch is decisive for the number of grooves per pole. This has a significant influence on the
behaviour of the air gap field. Machines always receive a corresponding quantity of coils relevant to
their number of pole pairs.
Example: A four-pole three-phase AC asynchronous motor thus has two pole pairs (four poles), each
with three coils, i.e. a total of six individual coils.
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8.2.1. Number of pole pairs and speed

In motors operated directly at the network, the network frequency (f) and the number of pole pairs (p)
determine the rotating field speed of a rotating field machine. Synchronous machines rotate exactly
at the rotating field speed, asynchronous machines rotate at a slightly different speed which is load-
dependent. The rotating field speed (ns) can be calculated as follows:
ns = f : p
Relating the speed to a minute generates the following formula:
ns = 60 · f : p
As the maximum rotating field speed is exactly 3,000 rpm at a network frequency of 50 Hz, the number
of poles a machine has can be determined from the speed specified on the rating plate.
Example: A two-pole synchronous machine rotates at 3,000 rpm at 50 Hz, as two poles form one pair
of poles.
Explanation: A notional point on the wave rotates to the next pole in the course of a half-wave. If there
is only one pair of poles, i.e. two poles, it rotates once per period (one sine period consists of two half-
waves). For a motor with two pole pairs, it only rotates within the four half-waves, i.e. two periods of
360°, as there are four poles. The speed is thus halved.
8.2.2. Number of pole pairs and torque

The mechanical power (Pmech) is calculated from the product of torque (M) and speed (n):
Pmech = 2 · π · n · M
For mains-operated motors with the same specified nominal capacity, the nominal torque is
therefore proportional to the number of pole pairs. The motors with the same power and with the
greater number of pole pairs are, however, larger than those with the smaller number of pole pairs.
If one compares motors with the same basic principle and same size, then the attainable nominal
torque is generally not proportional to the number of pole pairs. Depending on the technology, the
torque increases to a greater or lesser extent with an increasing number of pole pairs, but always
disproportionately, and even decreases again if a higher number of pole pairs is exceeded.
The torque (M) can be calculated from:
M = Pmech : (2 · π · n)
Whereby:
• 2
M in Nm (= kg · m : s )
2
• 2 3
PMechin kW (= 1000 W = 1000 kg · m : s )
• n in 1 : min (= 1 : 60 s)
Resulting in:
M = 1000 · Pmech : (2 · π · n : 60)
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M ≈ 9550 · Pmech : n
8.3. Structure of a synchronous machine

A three-phase AC current synchronous machine is a three-phase machine, in which the rotor always
runs in sync with the stator rotating field. In principle, every three-phase AC current synchronous
machine can be operated as a motor and alternator. In the energy industry, three-phase AC current
synchronous generators are used in a wide power range for the provision of electrical energy, and are
therefore indispensable. Three-phase AC current synchronous motors are used as prime movers in
industry, for example as drives for vehicles, ships and trains.
The synchronous machine is so-called because of the operational characteristic that its rotor runs
precisely in sync with the rotating field specified by the network frequency. This clearly distinguishes
synchronous machines from asynchronous machines, whose rotors lag behind the rotating field in
engine operation and run at a higher speed in alternator mode. Another distinguishing feature is that,
in contrast to asynchronous machines, an excitation field is required for the operation of synchronous
machines. Before a synchronous machine is switched at the network, it must be synchronised with the
network.
In alternator mode, the machine generally runs at a relatively constant speed. In contrast, synchronous
motors often have to be variable in their speed. In order to be able to infinitely adjust the speed of
a synchronous motor, power electronics, such as a frequency converter, is used. A rotary encoder
(line sensor, tilt sensor) constantly records the change in the rotor position during operation. Based
on this data, the control electronics calculates the actual speed. In the event of a load, the rotor of
the synchronous motor lags behind the rotating field at an angle, angular displacement. In alternator
mode, the angular displacement is positively in the direction of rotation, i.e. is ahead. Synchronous
machines can absorb or emit reactive power. The machine can also be used for reactive power
compensation. The reactive power performance can be influenced by the excitation.
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8.3.1. Permanently excited synchronous machine
F10H Permanently excited synchronous machine
Index Explanation
1 Coolant connection
2 Electrical connection for the sensor system
3 High-voltage connection
The rotor or stator field is constructed with permanent magnets. No additional energy is thus
required for the magnetic field in the rotor, which means a high level of efficiency of the machine and
consequently no wear by carbon brushes.
71
8.3.2. Separately excited synchronous machine
F10H starter motor generator
Index Explanation
1 Belt pulley
2 Housing of the starter motor generator with stator windings and rotor
3 Connection of one of seven stator windings
4 Slip rings
5 Carbon brushes for excitation current
6 Heat sink for power electronics
7 Control module with Local Interconnect Network connection to the DME
8 One of seven modules of the power electronics
9 Protective cap with air openings
The rotor with coil is carrying direct current and as a result is magnetised. A wide range of the
maximum power can be achieved by varying the rotor field (excitation current).
72
8.3.3. External rotor synchronous machine
F04 External rotor synchronous machine
Index Explanation
1 Rotor
2 Stator
3 Windings in the stator
4 Permanent magnets in the rotor
5 High-voltage connection
73
Index Explanation
6 Rotor position sensor
7 Rotor (inner part connected to the crankshaft)
8 Crankshaft sensor
9 Temperature sensor
With the external rotor the stationary part (stator) of the motor is located in the inside and is enclosed
by the moving part (rotor). Example: Axial fan, ceiling fans, centrifugal motors, as well as other
applications where the rotational moment of inertia of the rotor does not play a role or is desired.
8.3.4. Internal rotor synchronous machine
F18PHEV Internal rotor synchronous machine
Index Explanation
1 Stator
2 Permanent magnets
3 Rotor
4 Hollow shaft with outer basket of separation clutch
74
The stationary part is outside (stator), the rotating part is inside (rotor).
8.4. Structure of the asynchronous machine
Structure of the asynchronous machine
Index Explanation
1 Fan
2 Stator core
3 Terminal board (mains connection)
4 Rotor core with rotor bars
5 Stator winding
6 Short-circuit ring
7 Roller bearing
8 Shaft
8.4.1. Operating principle of the asynchronous machine

A three-phase current asynchronous machine (three-phase current induction machine) is a three-
phase machine, in which the rotor lags behind the stator rotating field as a alternator or runs at a
higher speed as an electric motor. It has a passive rotor, which is either constantly (squirrel cage rotor,
cage rotor) or occasionally (slip ring rotor) short-circuited. When used as an alternator, the rotor of
this asynchronous machine can also be excited at a differing frequency (double-fed asynchronous
75
machine). Single-phase asynchronous motors include capacitor motors, AC motors and split pole
motors. The three-phase asynchronous machine was developed in 1889 by Michail Ossipowitsch
Doliwo-Dobrowolski at AEG, and is popular in electrical drive engineering.
The operating principle of the three-phase asynchronous motor is based on the rotating field, which is
pointed radially in the air gap between stator and rotor.
If the rotor moves in sync with the rotating field, then the magnetic flow through the meshing of the
cage is constant and no voltage is induced. The torque is or will be zero.
If the rotor rotates slower than the rotating field, then the flow changes, which induces voltages, which
in turn creates a current. As long as the slip is small, the current is proportional to the rate of change
of the flow, i.e. to the slip. The field along with the cage current is still small in comparison to the stator
field, and is phase-shifted by 90°. The resulting torque is proportional to the slip.
If the opposing field of the cage becomes perceptible, the cage current increases and is no longer
proportional to the slip, and the phase shift decreases. The speed reaches a maximum. The operating
point is between this maximum speed and the synchronous speed.
At the other extreme of the blocked rotor, the cage corresponds to the secondary coil of a (short-
circuited) transformer. The power consumption is restricted by the leakage flux and ohmic losses.
In the startup range, the motor has a poor degree of efficiency and becomes very warm. The high
starting current can be reduced by an upstream starting resistor. In addition to the effort for additional
components, a longer startup time must be taken into account.
During the startup, excessive noises may occur (magnetic Barkhausen effect). Sticking may occur at
speeds below the nominal speed with excessive noise generation, often at 1/7 of the synchronous
speed. Harmonics are generated in the power supply system by the grooves in the stator and rotor
lamination stacks (network impurities).
• Reason 1: When the rotor slots turn along the stator slots, magnetic flux pulsations occur in
the non-grooved areas of the stator lamination. If the rotor and stator have the same number of
grooves, then the pulses work together and the motor may "stick".
• Reason 2: If harmonics find resonance with the natural oscillation of a machine part (rotor with
bearing play), the rotor may stick. The rotor starts up briefly and has a humming noise or it
slips above this point.
The problem is addressed when the grooves of the rotor are arranged askew to the shaft axis. This
increases the price of manufacture of the motors, phase-shifted magnetic fields can, however, no
longer find resonance.
8.4.2. Motor/Alternator effect of asynchronous machine

In alternator mode, the rotor rotates quicker than the magnetic field, thus supplying energy to the
network.
There are three different asynchronous machines, which are used as alternators.
• Asynchronous machine with squirrel cage rotor: Asynchronous alternator

• Asynchronous machine with slip ring rotor: Double-fed asynchronous machine
• Asynchronous machine with two stators: Cascade machine.
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All three types of alternator are used in decentralised power plants.
8.5. Comparison of synchronous and asynchronous machine

Asynchronous machine Synchronous machine
Asynchronous machines run slower than the Synchronous machines run in sync with the
stator rotating field. rotating field in terms of speed.
The rotor constantly has a lower speed than The synchronisation only deviates a few angular
the rotating field. This effect, called slip, is more degrees during a mechanical revolution. The
pronounced the greater the load of the machine greater the load of the machine, the greater this
is. so-called angular displacement, from almost 0°
at idle to a maximum of 90° at full load.
The field at the rotor is generated by a second The field at the rotor is either generated by
three-phase winding at the rotor, i.e. there permanent magnets, or a coil at the rotor is
is also a rotating field at the rotor of the supplied with direct current via slip rings. There
asynchronous machine, the rotational speed of is a DC field at the rotor of the synchronous
this field at the rotor is the slip. machine. It runs in sync with the stator rotating
field.
This second rotor rotating field is either
generated by a coil at the rotor, which is
supplied with three-phase current via slip rings
(slip ring rotor machine), or is fed contactlessly
by the stator rotating field (squirrel cage rotor
machine).
8.6. Connection of the electrical machine

Three-phase electrical machines are connected in star or delta depending on the power required. The
six lines required are guided to the outside via a terminal board with defined terminals.
8.6.1. Terminal board
Connection of the electrical machine
77
Index Explanation
A Visible from the outside
B Internal wiring
The three external conductors of the three-phase system are always connected at U1, V1 and W1.
The terminals U2, V2 and W2 are interconnected differently depending on the connection type (star or
delta) of the electrical machine.
8.6.2. Star connection
Star connection
Index Explanation
A Star connection
B Switching at the terminals
If the electrical machine is connected in star, the terminals U2, V2 and W2 are bridged, thus forming
the star point of the connection.
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8.6.3. Delta connection
Delta connection
Index Explanation
A Delta connection
B Switching at the terminals
With the delta connection the 3 coils are interconnected as a triangle. For this purpose, at the terminal
board connections must be interconnected between U1 and W2, V1 and U2, as well as W1 and V2.
8.6.4. Phase current/Phase voltage
Phase current/Phase voltage
Index Explanation
A Star connection
B Delta connection
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For a three-phase system, the feed lines L1, L2, and L3, are described as phases. The phase currents
I1, I2, and I3, flow via these feed lines. The phase voltages U12, U23, and U31, are between the individual
feed lines. The voltages U1N, U2N, and U3N, are called line voltages. They are between the respective
external conductors and the N conductor. In a three-phase system the line voltages are lower by a
factor of √3 than the phase voltages. This factor √3 is also called a chaining factor of the three-phase
system.
8.6.5. Line current

The current which flows through the coils of the electrical machine is called line current. A distinction
must be made here between star and delta connection. With the star connection, the line current
through the respective coil (for e.g. coil between the terminals U1 and U2) is identical to the
corresponding phase current I1. In contrast, for the delta connection the phase current (for e.g. I1) is
divided into the two line currents I12 and I31. These two line currents are the same size, but have a
temporal phase shift.
In the case of a symmetrical load of the three-phase system (i.e. all motor coils are the same), the line
current (for e.g. I12) for the delta connection is smaller by the factor √3 than the phase current I1.
8.6.6. Line voltage

The voltage, which can be measured at the respective coil of the electrical machine, is called line
voltage. A distinction must be made here between star and delta connection. With the star connection,
the voltage between the supplying external conductor and the star point (N conductor) is at each coil
(for e.g. coil between the terminals U1 and U2). This line voltage is smaller by the factor √3 than the
phase voltage between two external conductors. In contrast, with the delta connection, the phase
voltage, i.e. the voltage between two external conductors, is at each coil of the electrical machine.
With the delta connection, the line voltage is therefore greater by the factor √3 than with the star
connection.
8.6.7. Chaining factor
Circuit Voltage Current

Star connection Y U = ULine · √3 I = ILine
Delta connection Δ U = ULine I = ILine · √3
The ratio between the phase voltage (voltage between two external conductors) and the line voltage
(between an external conductor and the star point N) is called a chaining factor. In the building supply
system the phase voltage is 400 V and the line voltage is 230 V. For determining the chaining factor,
one must bear in mind that the respective three voltages have a 120° phase shift. In the graphic below,
the three voltages UL1, UL2, and UL3 (each for the L conductor, star point) are shown as a pointer on the
complex level in phase. Between the voltage UL3 and UL1 is the voltage UL3L1 (phase voltage).
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External conductor voltage
Based on the graphic:
½ · UL3L1 : UL1 = cos 30° = √3 : 2
By converting one obtains:
UL3L1 = √3 · UL1
The phase voltage UL3L1 is linked to the voltage UL1 by the factor √3.
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8.7. Power at the electrical machine
Apparent, active and reactive power
Index Explanation
1 Reactive power
2 Active power
3 Apparent power
8.7.1. Apparent power

The apparent power, also connected value or connected load, identifies the electrical power fed or to
be fed to an electrical consumer. This does not necessarily correspond to the power forwarded by the
consumer in the form of thermal, mechanical or other energy. The apparent power S is calculated from
the actual values of electrical current level I and electrical voltage U, and is made up of the actual active
power P and an additional reactive power Qtot.
2 2
S = U · I = √(P + Qtot )
8.7.2. Active power

The active power P is the electrical power, which is available for conversion into other powers (for e.g.
mechanical, thermal or chemical). It must be distinguished from the reactive power, which cannot be
used for this conversion.
The active power P is specified in Watt (W). At a constant voltage and constant current, the active
power is the product of voltage U and current I:
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P = U · I · cos φ
8.7.3. Reactive power

Reactive power is an electrical engineering term. In the electrical energy supply network, energy
should be transferred from the producer to the consumer. In networks operated with single phase or
three-phase AC current (three-phase current), more energy often flows between the producer (power
plant) and an electrical consumer (for e.g. electrical machine), than is realised in the same number
of periods in the consumer. This additional energy per time, which does not contribute to the active
power ("actual power"), is generally undesired and is called reactive power.
Q = U · I · sin φ
8.8. Type plate designation
Type plate of electrical machine (example)
A type plate, also called rating plate or sometimes name plate, is a marking of an object attached by
the manufacturer (or the responsible importer) which contains identifying, descriptive and classifying
information, often corresponding to the legal regulations, the regulations of supervisory bodies, or
according to the regulations of an industry.
The directive 2006/42/EU (Machinery Directive) dated 29 June 2006 regulates the placing on the
market of machines in the European Union. The application of the directive has been mandatory
since 29 December 2009. According to Appendix I 1.7.3 of the directive, the following details must be
recognisable, legible, and permanently attached on machines:
• Company name and full address of the manufacturer and, if nec. its authorised representatives
• Designation of the machine
• CE mark
• Series or type designation and serial number if nec
• Model year or year in which the manufacturing process was completed.
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8.8.1. Types of protection

With regard to its suitability for different ambient conditions, the protected systems are divided into
corresponding protection classes, so-called IP codes. The abbreviation IP stands for International
Protection. In the English-speaking world, the abbreviation is also sometimes translated as Ingress
Protection.
The IP protection class must be distinguished from the electrical protection class. While the IP
protection classes define the degree of protection of the housing against contact, foreign particles and
water, the electrical protection classes specify measures against dangerous contact voltages at non-
live parts of equipment in operation.
Nomenclature
Two digits (generally without a space) are added to the existing letters in the protection class
designation. These indicate the scope of protection a housing offers with regard to contact or foreign
particles (first code digit) and moisture or water (second code digit).
If one of the two code digits does not have to be or is not specified, this is added by the letters for a
more precise description of the type of protection. For instance, DIN 40 050 Part 9 includes the letter
K for the identification of equipment of road vehicles with individual code digits.
8.8.2. Insulating material class

An insulating material class characterises or specifies insulating materials (for e.g. insulating varnishes
of enamelled copper wire, slot insulation of electric motors, or the layer insulation of transformers)
with regard to their maximum application temperature. High temperatures can occur in electrical
components, which affect or destroy the insulation. The insulating materials are divided into thermal
classes with different temperature limits according to the heat resistance. These cannot be exceeded
permanently during operation. The values must be below the melt or decomposition temperature,
and also be low enough to rule out malfunction due to thermal ageing during the service life of the
component.
The classes refer to individual electrical insulating materials (EIM) and electrical insulating systems
(EIS), which are made up of several materials. An insulating system and its materials do not necessarily
have to have the same insulating material class. For example, a material may have a higher class thanks
to the protective effect of an encasing material such as cast resin than a material without encasement.
The insulating material classes cannot be viewed as typical material properties, but as comparative
values. The properties of an insulating material generally deteriorate with an increasing temperature,
for example because the softening temperature is exceeded. The material also ages due to
temperature influence, i.e. the properties decline over time. The ageing speed is determined according
to the Arrhenius equation for the temperature dependence of reaction rates. For this reason, the
classification of a material or system always depends on
1 the requirements of the insulating material, i.e. how much dielectric strength, bending strength,
etc., can reduce, until a failure of the insulating material or component is anticipated,
2 the expected service life of the product.
The same material or system can therefore satisfy different insulating material classes for various
application purposes. The classification must be effected using tried-and-tested insulating materials
based on operational experience and comparative tests. The precise requirements and operating
temperatures are clarified in the individual product standards. For example, during nominal operation
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an average winding temperature of 120 °C is permitted for a dry transformer of insulating material
class F. The temperature at the hottest point of the winding can be a maximum of 145 °C during
nominal operation, up to 180 °C for a short period of time.
The classes F and H are common for electric motors for industrial use.
Temperature switches, temperature fuses, and motor protection switches of a motor or transformer,
ensure that the temperature limits are not exceeded.
Insulating material Max. motor temperature Max. ambient temperature

class
Y 90 °C 40 °C
A 105 °C 40 °C
E 120 °C 40 °C
B 130 °C 40 °C
V 155 °C 40 °C
H 180 °C 60 °C
C >180 °C 60 °C
8.8.3. Operating modes

A nominal operating mode is a basic description of the load of an electrical machine. The nominal
operating modes are defined in the international standard IEC 60034-1, which corresponds to the
European standard EN 60034-1 and various national standards.
Because it would not be economical to design all machines for every conceivable difficult task,
nominal operating modes were defined, to be able to clearly designate a suitability for difficult
conditions, and a restriction for particularly easy tasks. For example, requirements of motors of
elevators and escalators differ fundamentally. Whereas the former always have to start up under a high
load, the latter are usually started up without a significant load. The requirements may even be lower, if
machines are regularly switched off and can be cooled down.
If a nominal operating mode is not specified on the type plate of a machine, it is designed for
continuous operation with a constant load. In addition to every other nominal operating mode,
additional information such as the number of operating cycles per hour and the switched-on period
are required, in order to be able to assess the suitability of a machine for an application. If, besides the
nominal operating mode, the switched-on period is only specified, the cycle time is ten minutes.
Operating mode Additional designation

S1 Continuous operation (DB) None (if not specified on the type plate, the operating
mode S1 applies)
S2 Short-term operation Operating period (0.5 to 90 min)
S3 Intermittent operation, Switched-on period (15; 25; 40; 60 %), cycle time
no startup, no braking (10 min)
S4 Intermittent operation, Operating cycles (60 to 600/h), switched-on period,
with startup, no braking factor of inertia
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Operating mode Additional designation

S5 Intermittent operation, Operating cycles (60 to 600/h), switched-on period,
with startup, with braking factor of inertia
S6 Continuous operation Switched-on period (15; 25; 40; 60 %), cycle time
with intermittent loading (10 min)
S7 Reversing Operating cycles (60 to 600/h), factor of inertia
S8 Continuous operation Operating cycles (60 to 600/h), switched-on period,
at varying speed factor of inertia
8.8.4. Power input/output

Nominal capacity is described as the power of a device, system, thus an electrical consumer or
another energy converter (alternator, hydraulic motor, thermal engine) specified by the manufacturer,
which they can implement (absorb) or generate (emit).
In general, the maximum power which can be achieved in continuous operation is specified as the
nominal capacity. However, the instantaneous power or maximum power is often specified for devices,
which are only suitable or designed for short-term operation (for e.g. soldering guns, hand drills, hand
blenders). These can only be delivered over the short-term operation time (KB time) specified on the
type plate in the form of "KB xx min".
It has not been uniformly established whether the nominal capacity is the input or output power.
However, device and system types can be distinguished, for which the input or output power is usually
specified as nominal capacity, whereby in the first case the term "power consumption" has been
established for the identification of the device.
• The nominal capacity information usually specifies the input power:

The power emitted by the device is lower (efficiency).
Examples include vacuum cleaners, electrical handheld and kitchen appliances, etc. For hand
drills, the maximum input electrical power is often specified when the chuck is at a standstill.
For loudspeakers the designation nominal capacity for the maximum permissible continuous
input power for supply is enforced with a pink noise i.a.w. DIN 45324.
• The nominal capacity information usually specifies the output power:
The electrical or mechanical power emitted is specified as nominal capacity for motors,
transmissions, power plants, transformers, alternators (also car generators and bicycle
dynamos) and inverters.
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9.1. History of alternative drives

Everyone is talking about electric mobility. This was already the case 130 years ago. Electric vehicles
experienced their initial heyday around the turn of the 19th/20th century. At that time, much more
electrically operated vehicles were on European and American roads than vehicles with combustion
engines. Even though in the following period the combustion engine increasingly became the
more dominant drive type through conveyor belt production, higher ranges and, not least with the
introduction of the electrical starter motor, there were more and more new models, prototypes or low
volume productions with a fully electric or semi-electric drive train.
Up until 1900 electric vehicles were frequently represented as combustion engine vehicles. A
diverse mix of drive concepts could be found. In 1886 Carl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler independently
developed the first vehicles driven with gas. At this time electric and steam cars were already being
driven on the roads. A few thousand vehicles were built in the USA alone. However, they were not very
successful in the transport sector.
In 1834 the American Thomas Davenport built the first electric vehicle – however, the battery could
not be charged.
In 1881 the first electric vehicle with rechargeable lead batteries celebrated its première, five years
before fossil-fuelled vehicles became conceivable. This was exhibited for the first time at the Parisian
"International Electricity Exhibition". At the time speeds of up to 12 km/h could be reached.
In 1882 two English professors, William Edward Ayrton and John Perry, built the next electric vehicle.
This three-wheeled vehicle had a range of up to 40 km and achieved a maximum speed of roughly
14 km/h.
In 1889 Thomas Edison presented his "Electric Runabout" to the public. However, he only built two to
four copies for his friends.
In 1890 William Morrison from Iowa built the first really successfully electric vehicle. Thanks to the use
of larger wheels with spokes, it was somewhat more comfortable to drive on the roads of the time. The
support received from Harold Sturges, the former secretary of the American Battery Company, had a
substantial part to play in the success. Morrison was a chemist and primarily interested in electricity.
He mainly built electric vehicles to be able to demonstrate the performance of his batteries. In summer
1890 he used these carriage-like vehicles with very large wheels for the first time. His model had a
canopy with fringe detail as a roof and three rows of cushioned seats for twelve passengers. Eight
batteries were stored under the seats and provided roughly 1.8 kW (2.5 HP) and a travel speed of up
to 12 km/h. William Morrison's 6-seater "Electric Wagon" was showcased as the first US vehicle at the
world exhibition in 1892 in Chicago.
In 1893 Adolph Müller, founder of the battery company Varta, took his electrical "Baker Runabout"
home from the USA to Germany. Presumably a sensation.
In 1899, or more precisely on 29.4.1899, the racing driver Camille Jenatzy from Brussels set a speed
record with his electric vehicle "Le Jemais Contente" (the never satisfied). It reached 105.8 km/h
and was the very first vehicle to exceed the 100 km/h mark. And it was not a gas-fuelled vehicle, but
an electric vehicle that broke the 100 km/h limit. The self-constructed vehicle was driven by electric
motors and weighed 1450 kg. Apart from that, the vehicle did not have any brakes.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
Le Jemais Contente by Camille Jenatzy
From 1900:
1900: The "Lohner-Porsche" electric car, constructed by Porsche for the Viennese luxury coach-
building firm Ludwig Lohner & Co which received the distinction k.u.k., was displayed for the first
time at the world exhibition in Paris. The hybrid car, which, in addition to the electric motor also has a
combustion engine as a power source for the electricity-generating alternator, was built especially for
this exhibition by the 24-year-old Ferdinand Porsche.
The inner pole electric motors installed in the wheel hubs of the two front wheels deliver power of 1.8
to 2.6 kW (2.5 HP to 3.5 HP) (even up to 5 kW (7 HP) per motor for a short period of time), and provide
a maximum speed up to 58 km/h, while the 44-cell lead battery with 80 V voltage permits electrical
operation for up to roughly 3 hours or a distance of 50 km. The vehicle with a wooden chassis and
body has a total weight of 980 kg (other sources: 1,205 kg), and can be viewed today in the Technical
Museum in Vienna.
Although many companies further developed and produced the electric vehicle, the vehicle with
the combustion engine enjoyed significant advantages at the start of the 20th century, because the
people had decided in favour of the technology at that time for the future. After the development of the
starter motor in 1911, more and more filling stations were constructed, and as a result the technical
disadvantages of the combustion machine no longer existed, quickly outweighing the technical
disadvantages of electric cars. The differences in the range were not big at that time; gas-fuelled
cars could, however, be refuelled, it was not possible to charge electric vehicles everywhere. Various
manufacturers concentrated on different technologies. For example, Edison preferred direct current,
whereas Tesla preferred alternating current. There were almost no private electrical charging sockets.
These aspects complicated the establishment of the electric car. However, electric cars were still built
up until the start of the 1940s, mainly in the USA.
In the second half of this century more and more diverse concepts for electric cars were presented
by various manufacturers, some were also realised. But for a long time there was not much talk about
this topic. Low-volume productions with short ranges, low speed or small spatial offering, were mainly
developed.
1982: Mercedes presents the first electrically operated short-distance urban traffic vehicle, NAFA for
short, with a length of 2.50 m and a width and height of 1.50 m. The electric car has all-wheel steering,
and a turning circle of only 5.70 m. The ideas for the SMART car came from this concept, which was
launched on the market at the beginning of the 21st century.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
1991: BMW presents a newly developed electric car at the IAA in Frankfurt with the E1. With a length
of 3.40 m, 33 kW (45 HP) and a maximum driving speed of 120 km/h, this electric vehicle still managed
a range of up to 260 km.
E1 from BMW
1996: The US Group General Motors introduces its first production vehicle with an electric drive
on the market. The quantity is fixed at 1,100. The Coupé EV 1 with 102 kW (139 HP) achieved a
maximum driving speed of 160 km/h, and drove 240 km with one battery charge. But even the high-
profile enthusiasm of prominent EV 1 drivers and Hollywood actors Tom Hanks or Mel Gibson did
not benefit the electrical masterpiece. After three years in the leasing business, all 1,100 units were
carefully collected and scrapped.
From 2000: In the second decade of the 21st century, the signs for a renaissance of electric mobility
are looking good again for the first time. Fleet managers are identifying the potential of electric-based
mobility alternatives, initial company and taxi fleets are being equipped with electric cars, and thus
the visibility of electric mobility in society is increasing significantly, like 130 years ago. Here are some
examples:
2007: The 3.68 m long Microvan space up! blue from Volkswagen offers space for four passengers,
and also has a variable luggage compartment capacity of up to 1005 litres. The space up! blue has
solar cells on the roof which generate electricity - a clear indicator of its environment-friendly drive
technology. The drive is purely electric. A 45 kW (61 HP) electric motor can accelerate the almost 1.1
ton car to a speed of 100 km/h in 13.7 seconds, and drive at a maximum of 120 km/h. The VW study is
thus sufficiently motorised for almost all traffic situations. The space up! blue obtains the current for
the drive motor from two sources. Firstly, a network of twelve lithium-ion batteries provide sufficient
energy for 100 km. When the batteries are empty, they have to be charged at the charging socket, or
alternatively you can continue the journey with the current from a new type of high-temperature fuel
cell.
2008: The Norwegian manufacturer TH!NK has been offering the City since spring 2008 in various
European cities. The three-door City uses a three-phase asynchronous motor with a maximum power
of 30 kW as a drive unit. Depending on customer requirements, there are currently three different
battery types available. The range of the vehicle is between 170 and 200 km depending on the drive
cycle (without electrical heating and with summer tires). The electric vehicle reaches a maximum
speed of 100 km/h. The vehicle kerb weight is approx. 1400 kg, whereby another 284 kg can be
loaded. The so-called Mind-Box communicates the current state of charge to the driver as required, as
well as other vehicle-relevant data to the cell phone.
2008: The heart of Tesla Roadster is the electric motor in the form of an asynchronous machine
with a maximum power of 185 kW (248 HP). The electrical machine weighs approx. 35 kg. A two-
stage transmission ensures dynamic traction force, and, on the one hand, results in a maximum
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speed of 210 km/h, and, on the other hand, a large torque at low speeds. The electrical energy of the
Tesla Roadster is provided by a lithium-ion battery located behind the seats. The electrical energy
storage device weighs approx. 500 kg, with a total vehicle weight of approx. 1250 kg. With the nominal
voltage of 378 V and the capacity of approx. 50 Ah, a range of approx. 400 km can be achieved. The
subsequent loading can be completed in 3.5 h.
2009: The MINI E is a test vehicle from BMW on electric mobility. It is driven by a 150 kW (204 HP)
electric motor, which obtains its energy from a powerful lithium-ion battery, and transmits its force
to the front wheels via a single-stage spur gear unit virtually without any noises and emissions-free.
The battery technology developed especially for use in cars makes possible a range of over 240 km.
The electric drive activates a torque of 220 Nm, and makes possible interruption-free acceleration in
8.5 seconds to 100 km/h. The maximum speed of the MINI E is restricted electronically to 152 km/h. A
chassis and suspension setup specially oriented to the weight distribution of the vehicle also gives it
the typical MINI agility and excellent handling.
MINI E from BMW
2009:Mercedes presents the "Concept BlueZERO" study at the North American International
Auto Show in Detroit. With the new vehicle platform, Mercedes shows the diversity offered by the
sandwich floor. The platform can be equipped with a pure electric drive (only battery), an additional
fuel cell or a range extender. The electric motor has continuous power of 70 kW and maximum power
of 100 kW. All models are front-wheel drives, which is typical of the class. The flexibly combined drive
components are combined in a modular system. These include state-of-the-art liquid-cooled lithium-
ion batteries with up to 35 kWh storage capacity, as well as the compact maximum 100 kW electric
motor (continuous power: 70 kW), which develops a torque of 320 Nm. All three versions accelerate in
less than 11 seconds from 0 to 100 km/h. The maximum speed is restricted electronically to 150 km/h
in terms of an optimal range and energy efficiency.
2011: The BMW ActiveE is based on the BMW 1-Series Coupé. With a maximum power of
125 kW/170 H and a torque of 250 Nm, the vehicle accelerates in 9 seconds from zero to 100 km/
h. The newly designed lithium-ion battery makes possible a range of approx. 160 km in day-to-day
operation. The BMW ActiveE is the first electric vehicle from the BMW Group, which offers four first-
class seats and a luggage compartment with capacity for 200 litres.
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BMW ActiveE
2011: The Opel Ampera is a four-seater electric-hybrid car from Opel, which is based on the Voltec
drive. With a full high-voltage battery, the Ampera travels 40 km to 80 km by pure electrical means. The
installed combustion engine with the 54 kW alternator unit automatically starts as soon as the state of
charge of the high-voltage battery has dropped below 26 % (4.1 kWh), and then supplies the electrical
traction current; this vehicle type is therefore also called an "Extended-Range Electric Vehicle" (EREV).
The electric motor of the Opel Ampera has a maximum power of 111 kW (150 HP) and a torque of
370 Nm, which is available in a larger engine speed range than for combustion engines. The maximum
acceleration from 0 to 100 km/h is effected in 9 seconds, the limited maximum speed is 161 km/h.
2013: In the BMW i3m an electric motor works at 125 kW (170 HP) and a torque of 250 Nm, which is
fully available from the first centimetre. The i3 obtains the current from lithium-ion storage cells. The
driver of the electric vehicle has the option to choose between the driving modes "Comfort", "Eco
Pro", and "Eco Pro+" via the center console. The range is roughly 130 to 160 km.
BMW i3
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Electric mobility is the future. But only if we learn from the developments and obstacles of the past.
Which events supported the first boom phase of electric mobility? Which developments and external
circumstances ultimately led to ensuring the successful uptake of fossil-fuelled drives? Which
technical developments can still be implemented or further developed today in a meaningful manner?
And from what past experiences can we still learn?
9.2. Hybrid technology
9.2.1. Definition
The term "hybrid" means "something is combined or mixed". It comes from the Latin word "hybrida".
In Ancient Greek,"hybrid" means arrogant, proud, pretentious – to that effect, "hybris" means
overconfidence, pride, sin and defiance. This negative meaning has been lost in all modern languages,
and the term now only describes a mix or combination. The preceding designation "hybrid-" highlights
an ensemble composed of various types or processes. The special feature lies in the fact that the
combined elements already represent solutions, but new desired properties are also created by the
combination.
Use of the term:
• In golf a "hybrid" (or "rescue") is a club, which seeks to combine the club length of a wood
with the playability of an iron.
• In tennis a "hybrid" is a string combination, with which a different type of stringing is used for
the main strings than for the cross strings.
• Generally, in technology a "hybrid" is understood as a system in which two technologies are
combined.
The definition of a hybrid system was specified by the UNO in 2003 as follows:
A hybrid car contains...
• at least two energy converters for generating mechanical energy

• at least two energy storage devices for the primary energy supply and for short-term storage.
9.2.2. Classification according to the arrangement of the drives

A distinction can be made between two basic structures for hybrid drives with different potential and
problems: parallel and serial concepts. Basic structures include:
• Serial hybrid drive

• Parallel hybrid drive.
Hybrid forms between the two are possible, in order to optimally combine the advantages of the two
drives. The characteristics of the respective advantages depend on the desired hybrid concept and its
design for the purpose of the vehicle. They look different for a sports car than for a transporter or truck.
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9.2.3. Serial hybrid drive
Components of a serial hybrid drive
Index Explanation
2 Power electronics
3 Alternator
4 Combustion engine
5 Electric motor
6 Fuel tank
In a serial hybrid drive the combustion engine and the electric motor are installed one after the other.
The axle drive is effected by purely electrical means. The combustion engine provides the electrical
energy using an alternator. The combustion engine thus complements the pure electric vehicle as a
so-called range extender for use in a serial hybrid drive.
The combustion engine today is proving beneficial in the use in the serial hybrid drive compared to the
other options for supplying electrical energy, such as a battery and fuel cell. By way of comparison, the
battery is heavy, large and expensive. The fuel cell is also expensive and very complex from a technical
point of view.
The use in a serial hybrid drive allows it to operate the combustion engine in the optimal speed and
torque range. Working in the optimal range also leads to reductions in emissions and fuel, in addition to
downsizing. In addition, it is conceivable to replace the four-stroke engine with a two-stroke engine or
a gas turbine. The two-cycle engines are 40 to 60 percent more efficient due to the displacement. The
poor reliability and lower service life compared to four-stroke engines can be resolved through further
developments. Compared to reciprocating engines, the gas turbines have a design advantage with the
pure rotary motion, they are also smaller and lighter.
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9.2.4. Parallel hybrid drive
Components of a parallel hybrid drive
Index Explanation
2 Power electronics
3 Electric motor
4 Clutch
5 Combustion engine
6 Transmission
7 Fuel tank
In contrast to the serial hybrid drive, the parallel hybrid drive does not function in a "series connection",
but parallel. That means: Instead of the electric motor functioning as the sole drive and the combustion
engine only working as an alternator, the two drive concepts cooperate in the parallel hybrid drive.
In simple terms, this means that with the parallel hybrid drive both the combustion engine and the
electrical machine are connected directly to the drive axle and can thus work together. As both drives
are available together both the electrical machine and the combustion engine can be smaller in size.
9.2.5. Plugin hybrid

The plugin hybrids are an extension of the hybrid technology. With plugin hybrids, the electrical energy
storage device is not only charged by the combustion engine or through energy recovery, but can also
be charged at the power supply system.
With sufficient capacity of the electrical energy storage device, short distances can be made
emissions-free and quietly in pure electric mode, while the combustion engine is only required for
longer distances or if the electrical energy storage device is empty. The electrical energy storage
device for plugin hybrids is larger, in order to be able to store more electrical energy from the power
supply system, and thus make possible a greater share of the driving in pure electric mode.
The plugin hybrid is often called a PHEV (Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle).
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Connector of the charging cable for connection to the vehicle (standardised i.a.w. IEC 62196-2:Type 2)
Index Explanation
1 Mechanical guide/connector housing
2 Handle/Connector housing
3 Electrical line
4 Connection for neutral conductor N
5 Connection for phase L3
6 Connection for protective earth
9 Connection for proximity line
10 Connection for pilot line
9.2.6. Operating modes concepts
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Start-stop function
When the vehicle with a combustion engine at operating temperature is stationary, for e.g. before
a red light, the combustion engine is switched off. As a result, there are fewer CO2 emissions and
the fuel consumption is reduced. The electrical energy storage device also supplies the energy for
the climate control, vehicle lights, etc., when the vehicle is at a standstill. If the state of charge of the
electrical energy storage device is insufficient, the combustion engine is started, in order to charge the
electrical energy storage device via the electrical machine and provide enough electrical energy for
the consumers. If the vehicle is approaching a traffic light, the combustion engine is already stopped
during the stopping process before the vehicle comes to a standstill (at a certain speed).
Driving off
When driving off the high torque of the electric motors is used at low speeds. From standstill only the
electric motors drive the vehicle, and with the energy from the electrical energy storage device. The
combustion engine remains switched off (with engine at operating temperature).
Boost function (acceleration)
Upon strong acceleration at the traffic lights, on inclines or when overtaking, additional energy
may be used with a sufficient state of charge of the electrical energy storage device, and made
available as driving power via the electrical machine. This is known as the boost function. Through the
combination of the power of the combustion engine and the electric motors, driving dynamics and
powerful acceleration are achieved similar to a vehicle with a more powerful engine.
Steady driving
During the journey the combustion engine and the electrical machine can be used to different extents
depending on the speed and the state of charge of the electrical energy storage device.
Combustion engines do not operate at maximum efficiency when required to propel the vehicle at
low to medium speeds. The electric motor, in contrast, is capable of delivering full torque at very low
rpm. With a sufficient state of charge of the electrical energy storage device, the electrical energy is
taken from the electrical energy storage device, in order to drive the vehicle using the electric motor.
The combustion engine is only switched on more frequently in the case of a low state of charge of the
electrical energy storage device, in order to recharge the electrical energy storage device.
During a journey at a constantly high speed, the combustion engine works with optimal efficiency.
The electrical machine would require too much energy from the electrical energy storage device in
this power range. Consequently, the combustion engine is the primary mover for driving under these
conditions. With a low state of charge of the electrical energy storage device, some of the power of the
combustion engine is used for the charging via the electrical machine.
Brakes
A significant advantage of hybrid drives is the use of kinetic energy released during a descent or
braking. This is called energy recovery or recuperative braking. Instead of converting the excess
energy at the wheel brakes into heat energy, it is converted into electrical energy by the electrical
machine, which works as an alternator, and stored in the electrical energy storage device.
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9.2.7. Classification of the hybrid vehicles according to power

A distinction is made between three stages depending on the proportion of power of the electrical
drive of the overall power of the hybrid vehicle, as well as the possible operating conditions.
Micro hybrid
The micro-hybrid occupies a special position among the hybrid drives, because strictly speaking it is
not a real hybrid. A hybrid drive generally consists of at least two different types of drive, and this is not
the case with the micro-hybrid.
The micro-hybrid is a type of "hybrid light", and can be identified by some special fuel-saving
technologies. In general, a feature of the micro-hybrid is, for example, an automatic Start-Stop function
and a system for the brake energy regeneration.
An example from real life is the BMW 1-Series from the model year 2007, which offers the said "fuel-
saving technology" as standard.
BMW 1-Series, model year 2007
BMW 1-Series, model year 2007

Max. power of electrical machine 2 – 3 kW
Voltage level 12 V
Consumption savings 5 – 10 %
Functionality Start/Stop
Alternator operation
Mild hybrid
Classic mild hybrid systems work at voltages over 42 V. Today the voltages for these systems
sometimes extend beyond 160 V. The power of the electrical machine lies in the range of 10 to 15 kW.
For these mild hybrid systems generally electrical machines are used which convert part of the kinetic
energy to electrical energy upon deceleration/braking. Mild hybrid systems generally have a Start-Stop
function, whereby the electrical machine is used after the combustion engine is switched off to start it
again. In the case of mild hybrid systems the electrical machine is sometimes also used to support the
combustion engine for starting-up or acceleration. With some mild hybrid systems, the fuel supply of
the combustion engine is switched off with a sufficient state of charge of the electrical energy storage
device and a consistent journey up to approx. 50 km/h. The vehicle is then only driven by the electrical
machine and as a result fuel economy is possible.
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It is interesting that many parallel hybrid drives are based on the mild hybrid, which is why some
models still exist in which both hybrid variants are installed. For example, Honda, where both the
Honda Civic Hybrid and the new second generation of the Honda Insight (since 2009) have been
equipped with these hybrid drives; but also, for example, the BMW ActiveHybrid 7 from 2010
(development code F04).
BMW ActiveHybrid 7
BMW ActiveHybrid 7
Max. power of electrical machine 15 kW, 210 Nm
Voltage level 120 V, li-ion battery
Max. currents 100 – 200 A
Booster (performance support)
Braking energy recycling
Full hybrid
The full hybrid is, as the name suggests, a "full" hybrid drive. Here two drive types are available –
generally a gas-fuelled engine as a conventional combustion engine and an electrical machine.
The full hybrid systems are characterised by the fact that it is possible to drive off and drive completely
without a running combustion engine. In full hybrid systems electrical energy storage devices with
voltages of sometimes well over 200 V are used. With these systems it is therefore possible to drive
vehicles, e.g. for start-up, by purely electric means and in the case of strong acceleration use the
torque of the combustion engine and the electric motor at the same time. This process is also called
"boost".
Examples of a full hybrid include:
• BMW ActiveHybrid 3
• BMW ActiveHybrid X6
• Lexus HS 250h
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
• Lexus RX 450h
• Lexus LS 600h
• Lexus GS 450h
• Mercedes-Benz ML 450 Hybrid
• Peugeot 3008 Hybrid4
• Porsche Cayenne S Hybrid
• Toyota Auris HSD
• Toyota Prius.
BMW Concept X6 ActiveHybrid
BMW ActiveHybrid X6
Max. power of electrical machine. 62 kW
Voltage level 320 V
Max. currents 200 – 300 A
Booster (performance support)
Braking energy recycling
Electric driving
9.3. Energy sources
9.3.1. High-voltage battery
Nickel metal hydride battery (NiMH battery)
In the search for a replacement for the nickel-cadmium battery, the cadmium (Cd) was replaced with a
metal alloy, which is perfect for environmental compatibility. The nickel metal hydride battery is often
viewed as a direct successor to the nickel-cadmium battery. The alloy is able to absorb hydrogen. This
system has a higher energy density than nickel-cadmium. As a result of the similar cell voltage, nickel-
cadmium batteries can often be replaced with nickel metal hydride batteries.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
Structure: A perforated film serves as a support for the metal hydride powder, which forms the
negative electrode. The separator accommodates the electrolytes and prevents direct contact with the
positive electrode. This consists of a panel of black nickel oxide hydrate.
The films are wound with an external negative electrode and encased by a metal cylinder. This metal
cylinder serves as the housing, and is connected to the negative electrode and forms the negative
terminal of the cell. An electrical feed line from the nickel oxide panel leads to the head of the cell and
forms the positive terminal.
Characteristics: The energy density of a nickel metal hydride cell is roughly 80 Wh/kg, and is thus
almost as big as that of an alkali-manganese battery and more than double that of a battery with a
NiCd base. For AA batteries, capacities of 1300 to 2850 mAh are available, for replacement purposes
for the exchange of nickel cadmium cells there are also special versions with only 600 to 900 mAh.
These should be more compatible with old charging connections. For AAA batteries there are
batteries with up to 1450 mAh (As at 2012).
Nickel metal hydrid battery in the ActiveHybrid X6
Nickel metal hydride batteries are unsuitable for operation at temperatures below 0 °C. Already on
approaching freezing point, they show a significant loss in capacity, they are completely unusable at
approx. −20 °C.
Nickel metal hydride batteries are sensitive to overloading, overheating, incorrect polarity and total
discharge with polarity reversal (already possible for cells connected in series ≥ 2). As a result, they
age exceptionally fast. This does not have anything to do with the memory effect, and also cannot be
cancelled through special measures. A full discharge (measured up to 1 V under load) or even repeat
charging and discharging only reduces the life cycle due to the limited number of possible charging
cycles. The life cycle can be increased, where the limits of the chemical reaction are not reached
during charging or discharging.
Use:
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
• Everywhere where there is a high energy requirement and high battery costs should be
avoided
• Miniature lights, LED lights
• Toys
• Remote controls
• Audio, photography and video equipment
• Electric toothbrushes and shavers
• Cordless DECT telephones
• GPS devices
• Electric tools
• Hybrid and electric vehicles.
Lithium-ion battery
The lithium-ion batteries are characterised by a high energy density and a large number of cycles.
In addition, they are only subject to a very low memory effect. Depending on the structure or the
electrode materials used, lithium-ion batteries are divided into:
• Lithium-polymer battery
• Lithium cobalt dioxide battery (LiCoO2)
• Lithium titanate battery
• Lithium air battery
• Lithium manganese battery
• Lithium iron phosphate battery (LiFePO4)
• Tin sulphur lithium-ion battery.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
I01 High-voltage battery unit with lithium-ion batteries
Characteristic data, such as cell voltage, temperature sensitivity, or the maximum permissible charge
or discharge current, vary significantly depending on the design, and are dependent to a large extent
on the electrode material and electrolyte used. The specification of the sub-type (for e.g. "lithium iron
phosphate battery") is therefore more informative than the specification of the generic term "lithium-
ion battery".
During the charging of a lithium-ion battery, it is essential that metallic lithium does not form at the
anode, as both the surface and the electrolyte would suffer irreversible damage as a result. In this case
there is a risk of an explosion (by the gaseous products of decomposition of the electrolyte, thermal by
short circuit or electrochemical). Therefore, every cell is individually protected against overvoltage, at
least with lithium-ion batteries of a higher capacity.
Structure: A lithium-ion battery consists of a graphite electrode (negative) and a lithium metal oxide
electrode (positive). The lithium metal oxide can be manganese, nickel or cobalt. The composition has
an influence on the properties of the lithium-ion battery, and varies according to the manufacturer and
quality class. The nominal voltage of li-ion cells is dependent on the electrode material, and is between
3.3. or 3.8 V.
Lithium is the lightest metal and reacts violently with water. An anhydrous, but combustible solvent
is therefore used as an electrolyte. The solvent is the reason why there are occasional reports of
exploding or scorching notebook batteries. Here the electrolyte has ignited. The precise reasons are
diverse. There are generally battery recalls, if faulty li-ion batteries are identified.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
The electrodes are separated by a separator, in order to prevent a short circuit between the electrodes.
The separator is permeable for the lithium ions. The cathode acts like a sponge. It can hold a large
number of ions, giving an energy density of 180 Wh/kg.
Structure of a li-ion cell
Index Explanation
1 Positive electrode
2 Housing with electrolyte
3 Lithium metal oxide
4 Separator
5 Graphite layer
6 Negative electrode
7 Lithium-ion
Characteristics: As lithium-ion battery is the generic term for a variety of possible combinations
of materials for anode, cathode and separator, it is difficult to make universally valid statements.
Sometimes the properties differ significantly depending on the material combination. There is also
the continuous improvement by the battery manufacturers, who in recent years have been able to
make considerable advances, particularly in relation to the known problem areas such as durability and
visibility, whereas the energy density was only able to be increased slightly in comparison.
Use: Li-ion batteries supply portable devices with a high energy requirement, where traditional nickel
cadmium or nickel metal hydride batteries would be too heavy or too big. Examples:
• Mobile phones
• Digital cameras
• Camcorders
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
• Notebooks
• Handheld consoles
• Torches.
In electric mobility, they are used as energy storage devices, for e.g. for:
• Pedelecs
• Passenger cars
• Modern electric wheelchairs
• Hybrid and electric cars.
They have also established themselves in RC model-making (construction of radio remote controlled,
functional models). Thanks to their low weight, they form a drive unit used in aeroplane model
construction in conjunction with brushless direct current motors and the corresponding controllers.
Lithium-ion batteries are also used for electric tools such as cordless screwdrivers and for garden
tools.
I01 High-voltage battery unit
Index Explanation
1 Frame
2 High-voltage battery unit
The graphic shows the high-voltage battery with lithium ions, which is positioned centrally in the
Drive module of the BMW i3, and is thus optimally protected against external influences. A specially
developed heating and cooling system ensures the lowest possible temperature fluctuations, which
extends the life cycle of the high-voltage battery considerably.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
9.3.2. Cells
An individual rechargeable storage element is called a secondary element or secondary cell, in
contrast to the non-rechargeable (or rechargeable to a very limited extent) primary cell. Secondary
cells can be interconnected – like primary cells and all current sources –, either in a series connection
(for increasing the usable electrical voltage), or in a parallel circuit (for increasing the usable capacity or
due to the suitability for higher current levels).
As with every type of battery the voltage of the battery cell is defined by the materials used, the series
connection is often used to increase the voltage. In contrast, the capacity and the possible current
level depend on the size. A parallel circuit of several cells is therefore generally not required; instead
one uses an adequately dimensioned battery.
9.3.3. module
F10H Structure of a cell module with lithium iron phosphate cells
Many individual battery cells are installed in so-called cell modules for the charge storage in electric
vehicles. The cell modules connected in series form the high-voltage battery for the vehicle.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
9.3.4. Capacitor
Supercapacitors
In contrast to batteries, which chemically store energy, charges are electrostatically bound in double-
layer capacitors. This gives these storage devices, also called supercapacitors, the ability to provide
currents of a few hundred ampere at lightening speed. However, the specific energy (energy density)
of supercapacitors is only roughly 5 to 10 Wh/kg, and is thus significantly lower than for example that
of lithium-ion batteries.
With double-layer capacitors, the ability to store electricity efficiently and provide it again quickly
is required, for example, when it comes to recovering brake energy from electric vehicles (energy
recovery). The self-discharging rate also plays a huge role for storage components in vehicles. In tests,
for example, commercially available double layer capacitors from Maxwell were still able to provide
roughly 70 percent of their original charge after four months. In contrast to batteries, supercapacitors
still guarantee a secure power supply also in extreme weather conditions, i.e. at temperatures of up
to –40 °C. At the same time, they work for many years maintenance-free, and withstand more than
500,000 charge and discharge cycles. Supercapacitors can therefore be used to boost performance,
particularly in hybrid cars and in the commercial vehicle area.
Structure: The electrodes consist of activated carbon, pure carbon with a particularly large surface.
An organic-chemical electrolyte is located between two electrodes. A cathode and anode are
separated by a separator. It is permeable for the hydrated electrolyte ions, and makes possible the
charge transport during the charge and discharge of the capacitor.
The charge of the electrically conductive electrode is shielded at the boundary surface between
the electrode and electrolytes – similar to electron conductor and ion conductor – by an excess
of corresponding counterions of the electrolyte. This double layer forms a capacitor with a typical
2
capacity of 10 μF/cm .
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
Structure of supercapacitors
Index Explanation
1 Positive electrode
2 Separator
3 Negative electrode
4 Separator
5 Electrolyte
Characteristics: Supercapacitors cannot be overcharged. Their charge and discharge curve do not
proceed according to the exponential functions of other capacitors. During charging some of the
energy supplied in the capacitor is converted to non-electrical energy and cannot be recovered during
discharging. A permanent discharge by a temporary external short circuit is not possible. The dipole
orientations of the hydrated electrolyte ions allow the terminal voltage to increase again to some
100 mV.
Use: Thanks to their excellent properties with regard to the high power density, double-layer
capacitors are suitable for applications where a charge has to be quickly stored and discharged.
"Quickly" here means a time frame of a few seconds up to one minute. Even modern lithium-ion
batteries have to be neglected here, as they operate in a range of a quite a number of minutes to a few
seconds.
Double-layer capacitors are used in wind power stations, where they are installed in their hundreds in
the rotors, in order to rotate the blades in the wind as quickly as possible in the event of an emergency.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
Double-layer capacitors are also used in mobile systems, for example in the S-Bahn (urban rail
network) in Heidelberg, Germany: The overall energy requirement is reduced by up to 30 percent
through energy recovery during braking. With a charging time of 20 – 25 seconds, up to 500 meters
per double-layer capacitor module can be driven electrically.
In the automotive area, double-layer capacitors are used in hybrid cars to cover temporary power
peaks. Particularly in combination with a high-voltage battery, fuel cell or a small combustion engine,
which provide continuous (low) power, double-layer capacitors are ideally suited to cover the power
requirement for acceleration and the energy recovery of the brake energy. In contrast, batteries have
a high internal resistance, which increases with progressive discharge, and have high energy losses
during charging. A large part of the energy recovered during braking is lost and the charging process
takes longer. In contrast, the internal resistance of double-layer capacitors is very small and almost
independent of the state of charge. This means that the cycle of charging and discharging can be any
number of times and can be repeated in the shortest possible time. The double-layer capacitors offer
optimal conditions for use in stop-and-go traffic.
An example for the use of double-layer capacitors is the BMW Concept X3 EfficientDynamics. The
double-layer capacitors used in the BMW X3 demonstration vehicle have an overall capacity of
190 kW, with an efficiency level of 98 %.
Due to their specific properties, double-layer capacitors in vehicles are widely used mainly as support
for "base-loadable" energy suppliers such as fuel cells or small combustion engines (range extenders),
where they can make the most of their advantage of the high power density.
9.4. Service Disconnect (High-Voltage safety connector)

The Service Disconnect (High-Voltage safety connector) enables the separation of the high-voltage
battery unit from the rest of the components in the High-Voltage system. This separation can be
carried out in various ways.
9.4.1. "Physical" separation
E72 high-voltage safety connector
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
Index Explanation
1 Fuse in the high-voltage safety connector
2 Bridge for high-voltage interlock loop
3 Fuse (Littelfuse HEV135A) removed from the High-Voltage safety connector
Through the removal of a fuse (the High-Voltage interlock loop is generally separated beforehand), the
circuit in the High-Voltage battery unit is physically separated.
9.4.2. "Logical" separation
F10H high-voltage safety connector
By opening a switch or the high-voltage safety connector, the circuit for the high-voltage interlock
loop is interrupted and a logical signal for opening the High-Voltage switch contactor is generated in
the High-Voltage battery unit. At the same time, the battery power supply for the High-Voltage switch
contactors is interrupted. The High-Voltage battery is then physically separated again from the other
components of the High-Voltage system via the switch contactors. However, it must be ensured that
the switch contactors are not welded and actually open.
9.5. Precharging
In the case of a deactivated High-Voltage system (High-Voltage switch contactors are open), the
link capacitor is fully discharged via the active and passive discharge. If the high-voltage system is
activated now, the link capacitor would short-circuit the High-Voltage battery for a moment when
the two High-Voltage switch contactors are closed, i.e. a very high current (currents of 1000 A)
would flow via the contacts of the High-Voltage switch contactors. This could lead to the welding
of the High-Voltage switch contactor contacts. In order to avoid this happening, the link capacitor
is precharged via a precharging resistor with a small current (for e.g. over a time t = 5 · τ). For this
purpose, corresponding electronics must activate the two High-Voltage switch contactors and the
precharge relay in the correct sequence:
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
• Close High-Voltage switch contactor in minus branch

• Close precharge relay for the activation of the precharge circuit
• Charge link capacitors at a defined current
• Upon attainment of a defined precharge current: Close High-Voltage switch contactor in plus
branch
• Open precharge relay.
Link capacitor / precharging current flow and charge target
Index Explanation
A Precharge current
B Ubat
C Charge target 95 % of Ubat (reached after 180 ms)
1 Energy source (battery, fuel cell, alternator, etc.)
2 Precharge relay
3 Precharging resistor
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
Index Explanation
4 Link capacitor
5 for load
6 Main contactor 2
7 Main contactor 1
9.6. Switch contactors

The High-Voltage system can be disconnected from the High-Voltage battery via switch contactors,
and thus switched to a de-energised state for performing work. Two switch contactors are installed for
safety reasons, whereby one switch contactor is generally installed in the High-Voltage positive wire
and one switch contactor in the High-Voltage negative wire.
Additional information on the switch contactor circuits can be found in the chapter "electrical
laboratory".
9.7. High-Voltage components
9.7.1. Electric A/C compressor
I01 Mounting of the electric A/C compressor at the electrical machine
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
Index Explanation
1 Screws
2 Electric A/C compressor
3 Housing of the electrical machine
The electric A/C compressor is a High-Voltage component. It generally consists of a control unit (EKK),
power electronics, electrical machine, and a mechanical compressor unit.
The power electronics generate a 3-phase AC voltage via an integrated DC/AC converter from the
high-voltage direct current voltage supplied (HV+, HV–), with which the following electrical machine
is operated. It should be noted that the power electronics contain a link capacitor, which must be
discharged upon deactivation of the High-Voltage system.
9.7.2. Electrical heating
I01 Connections of the electrical heating
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
Index Explanation
1 Connection for coolant return
2 Sensor for temperature of the coolant at the output of the electrical heating
3 Connection for potential compensation line
4 Signal connector (low-voltage connector)
5 Connection for sensor
6 Connection for High-Voltage connector
7 Housing of the electrical heating
8 Connection for coolant return
The electric heating is a High-Voltage component. It generally consists of an ohmic resistor, which
transforms the High-Voltage energy supplied into heat.
9.7.3. DC/DC converter
E72 Operating modes of the hybrid DC/DC converter
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
Index Explanation
1 Voltage level at 300 V
2 Down conversion
3 APM (hybrid DC/DC converter)
4 Up conversion
5 Voltage level at 14 V
In the High-Voltage component DC/DC converter the High-Voltage applied is converted to charging
voltage for the 12 V vehicle electrical system. It is important to note that DC/DC converters sometimes
also work bidirectionally, i.e. one can charge the High-Voltage battery via the 12 V vehicle electrical
system. For safety reasons, the 12 V vehicle electrical system also has to be disconnected from the
power supply, in addition to the disconnection of the High-voltage.
9.7.4. Power electronics
F10H Electrical machine electronics
The power electronics is the link between the High-Voltage battery (DC) and the electrical machine
(3x AC). During a journey the power electronics converts the direct current voltage of the High-Voltage
battery via an inverter into a 3-phase alternating current system. Vice versa, the power electronics
converts the kinetic energy back into electrical energy during braking, and charges the High-Voltage
battery. The power electronics must rectify the AC voltage generated by the electrical machine
(operating as an alternator).
Control electronics – IGBT
An insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a component that is used increasingly in the power
electronics. It combines the advantages of a bipolar transistor (low on state resistance, high inverse
voltage) with the advantages of the field-effect transistor (almost powerless activation). A certain
robustness against short circuits by the restriction of the load current is also beneficial.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
3-phase alternating current system
Index Explanation
1 3-phase electrical machine
9.8. Rectifier
9.8.1. Half-wave rectifier
Half-wave rectifier
The simplest rectifier only consists of one diode.
The diode in the graphic is polarised so that only the positive half-waves of the AC voltage can pass
the diode. For the negative half-waves the diode is in the reverse direction. A direct current voltage
with positive sinusoidal pulses is created behind the rectifier. Without a smoothing capacitor as an
output of the circuit, the output voltage breaks down through the resistor in the intervals to the value
0 V. With a smoothing capacitor, the transformer must recharge the capacitor during the positive half-
waves, which leads to a pulsating load.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
9.8.2. Full-wave rectifier
Full-wave rectifier with four diodes
The disadvantage of pulsed output voltage with the half-wave rectifier can be avoided, if one tops up
the "missing" pulses with negative half-waves by corresponding electrical connections with additional
diodes.
With the full-wave rectifier one uses two different paths for the positive and negative half-wave of the
AC voltage. Each path is enabled for the corresponding half-wave via two diodes. The positive half-
wave runs via the diodes at the top right and bottom left, the negative half-wave runs via the diodes
at the bottom right and top left. At the load resistor R a succession of sinusoidal half-waves occurs,
which are all in the positive range.
Full-wave rectifier with two diodes and center tapping of secondary coil of transformer
With the rectifier with transformer center tap, the positive half-wave runs via the upper diode and the
negative half-wave via the lower diode.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
9.8.3. B6 Bridge rectifier
B6 Bridge rectifier
For the rectification of the three phases of a three-phase system a bridge circuit of six diodes is
required. Direct current voltage occurs,
• which is significantly higher than the amplitude of an alternating phase

• which does not drop to the value 0 V at any time, but only has a very small residual ripple.
To understand the function, the B6 bridge is divided into two half bridges. The diodes D1, D3 and D5
form the half bridge for the positive half-waves, and the diodes D2, D4 and D6 form the half bridge for
the negative half-waves.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
B6 Bridge rectifier divided into two half bridges
Index Explanation
A Half bridge for the positive half-waves
B Half bridge for the negative half-waves
Positive half-waves: The cathode side of the diodes D1, D3 and D5 are connected. At the anode side
are the voltages of L1, L2 and L3. Each of the diodes, at which the highest positive voltage is applied,
interconnects. The remaining diodes are polarised in a reverse direction. The positive envelope curve
marked in green occurs then at the load resistor RL.
Negative half-waves: The anode side of the diodes D2, D4 and D6 are connected. At the cathode side
are the voltages of L1, L2 and L3. Each of the diodes, at which the highest negative voltage is applied,
interconnects. The remaining diodes are polarised in a reverse direction. The negative envelope curve
marked in green occurs then at the load resistor RL.
If the two "half-circuits" are combined again, then this gives rise to the voltage at RL as the difference
between the negative and positive envelope curve of the two partial circuits at the top.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
9.9. Conductors
An electrical conductor is an object or system for the transport of electrical energy, as well as the
signal transmission in grid-bound telecommunications and grid-bound high-frequency engineering.
It is part of an electrical circuit or power supply system and thus combines a current source and
consumer. Electrons flow as conductor current for the transport. For minimal transport losses the
conducting material should have a high electrical conductivity, for which some metals are particularly
suitable.
Electrical lines consist of electrical conductors, generally in the form of wires or strands, but also
strips or rails made from copper or aluminum, as well as their mostly insulating encasement. If several
insulated conductors are combined, they are called a line.
A cable is generally understood as an insulated electrical conductor or lines with additional protective
covers, which are permanently laid and can also be laid in soil and water. The cable sheath (cover)
protects the inside of the cable, i.e. the individual wires, against the surrounding medium such as soil,
saltwater or air. A single conductor in a cable covered with insulating material is called a wire.
Lines, for which the ambient air acts as an insulator, are called overhead lines. They are secured at
support points of insulators.
The term electrical line also stands in general for a low resistance ohmic contact between electrical
components, whereby the design is not important. The size, material and design are determined by
the requirements to be satisfied in terms of voltage, current level and frequency, as well as the ambient
conditions, to which the line is exposed, and the technology.
The electrical properties of an electrical line are described by the line surface/covering, the wave
impedance, as well as the dielectric strength. The cross-sectional area influences the line resistance
and the heating according to current density. Other important properties of an electrical line include
the permissible values for the bending radius, the maximum tensile strength, and the temperature
resistance of the insulating materials.
9.9.1. High-Voltage cables

High-Voltage cables are subject to high requirements and conditions. It is not vital whether these are
subject to direct current or alternating current.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
Shielded High-Voltage cable
Index Explanation
1 External protective sleeve (orange insulation layer made from elastomer)
2 Wire mesh (tinned copper braid as shielding)
3 Insulation of the electrical conductor (insulation layer made from elastomer)
4 Electrical conductor
It can already be seen from the structure that High-Voltage cables are much more complex than
"normal" 12 V lines.
• The wires of the line are flexible and are made from pure, nickel-plated, silver-plated or tinned
copper.
• Then there is the actual insulation layer made from elastomer.
• A tinned copper braid is wrapped around this insulation layer, which serves as shielding
against electromagnetic faults. It is also a form of mechanical protection for the high-voltage
cable.
Furthermore, certain monitoring devices can detect damage in the isolation.
• Another insulation layer made from elastomer is wound around this braid. This layer is always
orange in colour.
A High-Voltage cable is characterised by the following points:
• Adherence to the stipulated dimensions (line diameter, outer diameter, insulation thickness)
• Adherence to the electrical properties (line resistance, isolation resistance, dielectric strength)
• Mechanical properties (resistance against pressure and tension)
• Properties at low temperatures (bendability, resistance against pressure)
• Abrasion resistance (cables against each other, cables against metal)
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
• Resistance against ageing (influence of heat and cold)

• Resistance against chemicals (gas, diesel fuel, oil)
• Resistance against inflammation.
9.9.2. Laying High-Voltage cables

One can generally assume the following requirements for laying the High-Voltage cable:
• Protect entire length of cable

• Identification of the High-Voltage cable across the entire length in orange
• Prevent the High-Voltage cable vibrating by mounting with clamps, eyes, etc.
• Line ducts with rubber grommets
• Do not lay in the vicinity of hot components
• Do not lay the High-Voltage cable in the underbody area
• No kinks (observe bending radii).
Lines are often not insulated within the components, as a High-Voltage component cannot be opened
and there is thus no risk of an electric shock.
In the BMW Group standard the rules for laying lines are recorded as follows:
High-Voltage cables in the vehicle are marked in orange. The following points must be observed when
handling High-Voltage cables:
1 High-Voltage cables (orange coating), as well as their connectors and brackets, cannot be
repaired. In the event of damage, the entire line generally has to be replaced.
2 High-Voltage cables in the vehicle as well as in High-Voltage components must be secured with
a repair concept (for e.g. High-Voltage battery), so that safe removal and refitting is guaranteed
(cable straps; "safe" includes: for e.g. no use of tools with sharp edges, blades, etc.).
3 The High-Voltage cable sets in development must be laid in such a way that they can be replaced
in full (line incl. connector) in the event of damage.
4 For High-Voltage connections there must be an obvious response from the latch mechanism, for
e.g. clicking noise or haptic tactility.
5 The lines can only be bent during transportation, manufacture, and assembly at a bending radius
of max. 15 · D (Example: D = 21 mm; bending radius = 315 mm). After a bending process, the
bend can only be reversed in the same way. Repeat bending at the same spot is not allowed.
The minimum bending radius can only be adopted when the line is laid. During assembly and
transport the bending radius cannot fall below the minimum level.
Motivation: The shielding braid is stressed upon bending and the geometry is deformed with an
irreversible effect.
6 The line can be rotated during transport, manufacture, and assembly over a length of (10 · D not
more than ±15°). During assembly and laying the shape must be restored by bending and not
turning. In the area of plug-in contacts and brackets, the line must be protected against twisting.
Dynamic twisting can only be (10 · D not more than ±15°).
7 The line cannot be crushed during transport, manufacture, and assembly.
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9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
8 The line cannot have any indentations or selective pinches.

9 Tools or other objects with pointed or sharp blades/edges cannot be used at High-Voltage
components or High-Voltage cables or in their immediate vicinity. For example, diagonal cutting
pliers, knives, etc. are prohibited. Opening cable straps with diagonal cutting pliers is allowed at
the 12 V wiring harness.
10 Cable straps at High-Voltage cables or 12 V lines cannot be cut. Damaged clips remain on the
High-Voltage cable or 12 V line. The remaining damaged clip must be moved to a spot on the
High-Voltage cable where the clip cannot rub against it. A new clip must be attached.
11 Ensure kink-free laying without abrasions.
9.9.3. Electromagnetic compatibility for High-Voltage cable

High-Voltage cables are wound around a wire mesh, which should dissipate electromagnetic
interferences. Shielded lines are already known in the vehicle for the inductive sensors and aerial
lines. The AC voltages generate electromagnetic alternating fields and emit these as electromagnetic
interferences. These are discharged through the ground with help of the wire mesh. If these
alternating fields are not discharged, it could lead to faults in the radio reception and even to the
malfunction of individual control units. This interference suppression is therefore also regulated by law.
The vehicle must observe the limit values for electromagnetic compatibility (EMC).
This interference suppression is also required for the direct current lines. As the direct current does
not flow "evenly" in these lines as a result of the switching of the transistors in the inverter (for the
artificial generation of the three-phase AC current), but is very high-frequency and pulsating, this
would cause the same high emitted interferences affecting the entire vehicle electronics.
Apart from the wire mesh around the High-Voltage cable, other measures are adopted to reach the
limit values of the electromagnetic compatibility. For instance, interference filters (consisting of a coil
and a capacitor) are installed in the individual High-Voltage components.
9.9.4. Connection systems for High-Voltage cables

The High-Voltage cables are connected to the High-Voltage components in various ways. At BMW,
plug and screw connections are used.
122
9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
F10H High-Voltage connector at electrical machine electronics and electric A/C compressor
F10H High-Voltage connection at High-Voltage battery unit
123
9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
F10H High-Voltage connection, electrical machine
The following points are important for the connections:
• Lines must be securely connected to the High-Voltage components with reliable contact
without contact resistances.
• They must be easy to identify without any confusion and protected against access.
• There must be no contact corrosion. The connections must be moisture-proof and sometimes
oil-proof.
• Before the connection can be disconnected, safety contacts or the high-voltage interlock loop
must be disconnected in order to eliminate any hazards.
• The materials must be ageing temperature-, and chemical-resistant.
• The connections must be secured against unintentional release.
• The connections must be recognisable immediately as a danger area (orange colour).
• Damaged High-Voltage cables and connections cannot be repaired and must be replaced
immediately.
124
9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
9.10. Charging
In order to be able to easily charge the High-Voltage battery, the vehicle must be equipped with a High-
Voltage charger. The vehicle can be charged at a household socket or at special charging stations.
After the connection at an external current source, the mains voltage is stepped up to the required
charging voltage and rectified in the High-Voltage charger. The charging process is permanently
monitored via the High-Voltage power management system. Data such as voltage, current, and
temperature ensure that when the limit values are reached the charging process is reduced or
switched off. Overloading is thus avoided.
9.10.1. Charging modes

The different strategies of the control of current and voltage when charging batteries are called
charging modes. Charging processes aim to fully charge the battery within its operating limits. In
addition, there are various types of battery care and ways for preserving the state of charge depending
on the type of battery and charging technology.
The charging process and its implementation have a significant influence on the performance and
service life of a battery.
The subassemblies used for controlling the charge, often integrated circuits, are called charge
controllers. They exist as independent devices (so-called chargers) or are permanently installed in
the battery-operated device. In cars they are found at the generator. In complex systems the charge
controller is part of the battery management system.
AC charging
During AC charging the vehicle must step up the AC voltage to the charging voltage and rectify it.
DC charging
During DC charging the vehicle does not have to step up the voltage and also does not have to rectify
it. The battery can be charged directly.
125
9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
Constant current charging
Constant current charging
The batteries are charged at a constant current over the entire charge time IK. In order to avoid
overloading, a suitable procedure for switching off when fully charged must be applied.
In the simplest case, it is switched off after the lapse of a fixed time or switched to trickle charging.
Pulse charging
Pulse charging
Pulse charging is a special form of constant current charging. During pulse charging the voltage is
applied again and again and switched off after a defined time. This results in pulsed charging.
Advantages of pulsed charging:
• The charging voltage can be measured exactly in the phases.

• The various phases of charging can be realised by pulse width modulation.
• The risk of dendrite growth is reduced.
126
9. HIGH VOLTAGE.
Constant voltage charging
Constant voltage charging
The voltage is maintained at a constant level over the entire charging process. In the case of
progressive charging, the charge current drops due to the ever smaller voltage difference between
the battery and the charger. Ideally, the charge current would drop to zero. In real life a residual current
flows depending on the battery capacity to compensate the self-discharging.
I-U charging
I-U charging
I-U charging is a combination of constant current and constant voltage charging. In the first phase
of the charging process, the battery is charged with a constant current restricted by the charger. As
opposed to the purely constant voltage charging, there is a restriction of the otherwise high initial
charge current. When the charging end voltage is reached on the battery, there is a switch from current
to voltage control, and in the second phase of the charging process the charging is continued at
constant voltage. The charge current decreases automatically with an increasing state of charge of the
battery. As a criterion for the end of the charging process, the dropping below of a selected minimum
charge current is used for lead and lithium-ion batteries.
127
10. SAFE WORKING/FIRST AID.
10.1. General information
Stimuli originating from the brain
In the human body, stimuli originating from the brain are sent along the nerve pathways by means of
electrical signals. This applies both for conscious functions, for example muscle movement, as well
as unconscious functions, for example heartbeat or breathing. These impulses move in the range of
roughly 50 mV, i.e. very small.
Our nerve pathways can be compared to a visualisation with power cables, telephone lines, or Internet
connections. Modern society communicates with these "connections". Our body communicates
with the nerve pathways. The communication channels, via which the body exchanges signals, are
nerve cells, also called neurons. They enable the perception of sensory stimuli, the initiation of body
reactions, for example muscle movements or primarily thinking processes.
The human nervous system is divided into the central part and the peripheral part. The brain and spinal
cord form the central nervous system. Nerve pathways run from the spine through the whole body –
they form the peripheral part.
The peripheral part can be divided further into the autonomic and the somatic nervous system. The
autonomic nervous system is not controlled consciously or deliberately. It regulates, for example, the
heartbeat, the digestive system, or the release of hormones. In contrast, the somatic system can be
consciously controlled, which is best shown with muscle movements.
10.2. Effect of electricity on people

An electrical current, which acts on a person from the outside, is in principle dangerous, because all
fluids in the body of a person conduct the current.
In medicine, however, very small currents in the range of a microampere to a milliampere are used, for
example for stimulation current diagnosis and therapy. Electrical currents in this range are not harmful.
128
There is a risk of accidents during all activities on electrical systems, which move in significantly higher
ranges. There are essentially two risks:
• Dangerous body currents (electric shock)

• Excessive temperatures, which can cause combustion, fires and other damage.
If the external current, for example in the event of an electric shock, is bigger than the body's own
current, different reactions occur to a varying degree. Depending on the various factors, such as the
voltage level, current path through the body, physique, duration of the impact, etc., the consequences
range from the current detected by the body to muscle cramps through to respiratory arrest.
The level of the voltage is defined by the electrical system, where work is being performed or an
accident has happened. When working on electric vehicles, this voltage is 400 V direct current voltage,
in households it is 230 V AC voltage.
The current path through the body influences two factors: firstly, the resistance in the body, and,
secondly, the amount of energy which flows through the body, i.e. through organs and muscles.
Factors which codetermine the resistance are the physique and the texture of the skin.
Current path Body resistance Current path Body resistance

Hand ↔ Hand Approx. 1000 Ω Hands ↔ Feet Approx. 500 Ω
Hand ↔ Foot Approx. 1000 Ω Hands ↔ Approx. 300 Ω
Buttocks
Hand ↔ Feet Approx. 750 Ω Hands ↔ Chest Approx. 230 Ω
Hand ↔ Chest Approx. 450 Ω
According to the formula I = U : R, the value for the electrical current level, which flows through the
body, is calculated from voltage and resistance.
Sample calculation:
Accident situation: Current flow through the body
129
The mechanic touches a live part of the high-voltage system with his hand. The current discharges via
the hip, on which the mechanic is leaning at the vehicle.
U = 400 V
R = 600 Ω
Resulting in: I = 400 V : 600 Ω = 0.67 A
The duration of the impact, i.e. the time in which the human body is exposed to the current, also has a
significant impact on the effects of an electrical accident.
The type of voltage also plays a role, whereby AC voltage is somewhat more dangerous than direct
current voltage for the person, with the same conditions otherwise.
In summary, current levels from 50 mA are extremely dangerous. The higher the current level and the
longer the duration of the impact, the greater the danger. AC voltages over 50 V and direct current
voltages over 120 V are extremely dangerous.
130
10.3. Hazardous situations
10.3.1. Important warnings, instructions and prohibition notices
Important warnings, instructions and prohibition notices
Index Explanation
1 Warning against electrical voltage
2 Warning against danger as a result of battery
3 Warning against harmful or irritant substances
4 Warning against caustic substances / materials
5 Warning against explosive substances / materials
6 Warning against toxic substances
7 Warning against combustible substances
131
Index Explanation
8 Warning against explosive atmosphere
9 Do not extinguish with water
10 Do not touch
11 Do not touch, live housing
12 No flames, naked light or smoking
13 Wear face shield
14 Wear gloves
15 Remove mains plug before opening
10.3.2. Hazardous substances

Substances which have a potential chemical risk are considered hazardous substances. The danger of
a substance or a preparation is specified by hazard symbols.
132
Hazardous substances
Index Explanation
1 Explosive
2 Oxidising
3 Highly flammable
4 Highly flammable
5 Very toxic
6 Toxic
7 Corrosive
8 Harmful
9 Irritating
10 Dangerous to the environment
133
Hazardous substances used indirectly:
• The nickel/metal hydride batteries used in hybrid cars as traction batteries contain alkaline
mixtures of substances in varying concentrations and proportions. These include, in particular:
- Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
- Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
- Lithium hydroxide (LiOH)
• These electrolytes are found in a viscous state (electrolyte gel).
10.3.3. Causes of accidents when working on electric vehicles

Causes of accidents among people with electrical current are:
• Effect of an electric shock (current flowing through the body)

• Effect of electric arc
• Secondary accidents.
Danger of electric arcs
Electric arcs are used in a controlled manner for different welding methods. If it comes to short circuits
in electrical systems, uncontrolled electric arcs occur, which are also called arc faults. The reasons
for these may be, for example, faulty insulation, insufficient distance, damage, or incorrect behaviour
when handling electrical systems or during repair. An undesired flashover occurs, in the course of
which an electric arc forms.
Arc faults generate very strong ultraviolet radiation as a result of the extremely high temperatures. The
top layers of the cornea and the conjunctiva are damaged, so-called "electro-ophthalmia". As a result,
pain, sensitivity to light, several tear productions, red eyes, and a feeling of foreign particles in the eyes,
may occur. The symptoms gradually recede, as the body forms new cells.
The high temperatures of the arc faults themselves may also cause damage. These are mostly burns,
whereby burnt substances may contaminate the burn.
134
Danger through secondary accidents
Secondary accidents
A secondary accident is understood as an accident which happens as an undesired reaction to

a preceding event. Mainly falls occurs here. For instance, the brief current flow triggers muscle
twitching. The associated shock causes a fall. Or the protective reaction against an electric arc leads to
a fall.
10.3.4. Effects of electrical currents on the human body

An electrocardiogram (ECG) displays heart frequency. The frequency is 60 to 80 beats per minute.
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
As listed in the chapter "Effect of electricity on people", there are two essential factors for the effect
of electrical currents on the human body: current level and duration of impact. The effects should be
clarified using the following diagram.
135
Alternating current
Effects of electrical current on people dependent on duration of impact and current level. Source: VDE 0100, Part 410
Index Explanation
A Non-perceptible effect
B Noticeable effect, as far as muscle cramps (at 3 to 5 mA the sensation of pain
sets in; usually there are no dangerous current flows through the body)
C Muscle cramps, difficulties breathing, cardiac arrhythmia (Normally no lasting
organ damage to be expected)
D Ventricular fibrillation, respiratory failure, heart failure
1 Perception threshold
2 Release limit
3 Fibrillation threshold
136
Direct current
Effects of electrical current on people dependent on duration of impact and current level
Index Explanation
A Slightly piercing sensation when switching on and off
B Spontaneous muscle reaction probable, usually no harmful effect
C Strong muscle reaction, reversible failure of nerves in heart, organ damage not
expected
D With increasing current level and perfusion duration, respiratory failure, burns,
or other cell damage, as well as ventricular fibrillations up to heart failure, are
possible.
1 Perception threshold
2 Release limit
3 Fibrillation threshold
There is an acute danger to life for our mechanic from the first sample calculation at the calculated
current flow of I = 0.67 A!
137
Other effects in the event of higher body currents
• Heating effect
- Burns
- Coagulating of protein (from 42 °C)
- Ruptured blood cells
• Chemical effect
- Destruction of cells.
Ventricular fibrillations as physiological effect
• If a current affects the heart, this can cause ventricular fibrillations or heart failure.
• The heart loses its natural rhythm.
• Show this scenario with help of an electrocardiogram (ECG).
• Following an accident involving voltage, it is imperative to visit a doctor in order to check all
body functions, as subsequent damage can occur up to several days after the accident.
Ventricular fibrillations as physiological effect
In general, all people who have suffered an electrical accident must be treated or monitored by a
doctor. Damage or injuries can often not be detected or assessed for lay people. Even hours after the
accident disturbances may occur, which need medical treatment.
10.3.5. Fixed limit values for contact voltages i.a.w. VDE 0100 and ECE R 100
Depending on which path the current takes through the body, the value of the body resistance is
230 -1000 ohm.
A risk for the person starts i.a.w. VDE 0100 Part 410 at
• 50 V AC voltage (AC)
• 120 V direct current voltage (DC).
In the automotive industry the regulations of ECE R 100 5.1.2.1.1 apply.
Here the following maximum contact voltages are defined:
138
• 30 V AC voltage (AC)
• 60 V direct current voltage (DC).
10.4. Proper conduct in the event of accidents, First Aid
10.4.1. Legal aspects – General information

Every person is generally obligated to provide assistance in the event of an emergency.
This is stipulated in § 323 c of the Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch StGB) which regulates the "Failure
to render assistance". This states: "Whoever does not render assistance during accidents or common
danger or need, although it is required and can be expected of him under the circumstances and,
especially, is possible without substantial danger to himself and without violation of other important
duties, shall be punished with imprisonment for not more than one year or a fine."
Other legal requirements for First Aid are provided in:
• German Occupational Safety and Health Act (ArbSchG) § 10

• German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 1 §§ 26, 27
• German Social Accident Insurance Information 201-006 (First Aid).
Placing an emergency call, protecting the scene of an accident, and looking after injured people, are
understood as First Aid measures.
Every second counts in the event of electrical accidents. However, many people shy away from helping
a person involved in an accident, because they do not know the correct measures or are afraid of
doing something wrong. For the accident victim "any help is better than no help at all!" Important
fundamentals in an emergency situation are the immediate measures at the scene of an accident and
the correct reporting to emergency services.
139
10.4.2. Rescue chain
Rescue chain
Index Explanation
1 Immediate measures (Interrupt the accident circuit)
2 Transmit emergency call
3 First-aid measures
4 Help by emergency service
5 Medical aftercare
The term "rescue chain" explains the importance of the lay helpers in First Aid. The First Aid helper is,
as the name suggests, the first link in the chain.
It is therefore important to implement initial measures immediately!
10.4.3. Own safety
Your own safety has top priority in the event of accidents with electrical current, as there is a danger to
life for the First Aid worker.
Therefore: Keep calm!
140
Interrupting the accident circuit
The first measure is ALWAYS to interrupt the circuit, for e.g. switch off, remove mains plug, remove
fuse. If this is not possible immediately, or if the electrical situation is not clear, the following applies:
• Insulate yourself (for e.g. dry board, dry clothing, thick dry newspaper, dry plastic bags, etc.),
and do not touch anything
• Separate the injured person using a non-conductive object (for e.g. insulating protective
gloves or dry wooden slats) from the live parts.
Insulating protective gloves
141
10.4.4. Correct reporting of emergency

The nearest emergency services can be reached from all telephones via the phone number 112.
Please inform yourself about the emergency number in your country of residence.
Content of the emergency message:
• WHERE did the accident happen?

Address, area of building, floor, etc.; have person available for instructing rescue service
personnel
• WHAT happened exactly?
Electrical accident, electric shock, fall from a ladder, etc.
• HOW MANY injured people are there?
This information is important so that several emergency vehicles are used if required.
• WHAT TYPE of injuries are there?
Unconsciousness, shortness of breath, cardiac arrest, bleeding wounds, etc.
• WAIT for further instructions
The call is always ended by the emergency services! Therefore, wait and see whether the
employee needs more information. He can also give you suggestions for First Aid measures.
10.4.5. Rescue measures
Only qualified personnel can disconnect systems from the power supply or facilitate rescue in the case
of live parts.
First Aid
First-aid measures
• Instruct injured persons to keep calm

• Check responsiveness
• Check breathing and pulse
• Initial care depending on injury
• Where possible, do not leave injured persons alone, if nec. call for help.
142
Further measures
• Instruct rescue workers (fire brigade, emergency doctor, ambulance vehicle)

• Dismiss any by-standers or curious onlookers.
Make entry in First Aid log
The First Aid measures performed and other injuries are documented in a First Aid log in companies
and other facilities. This is important in order to be able to demonstrate that damage occurred in the
event of an insured activity. This is based on the regulation of the German Social Accident Insurance 1
"Principles of prevention". For the entry, it is irrelevant how severe the injuries are.
The following details are recorded:
• Time and location of the accident

• Name of the injured person
• Type of injury
• Time of treatment
• The First Aid measures implemented
• Name of First Aid worker
• Name of witness.
The First Aid log must be kept for five years after the last entry and cannot be made accessible to
unauthorised individuals, as it contains personal data. First Aid logs are available in notebook format or
as a download from different providers.
143
10.4.6. Use of an automatic external defibrillator
Defibrillator
Index Explanation
1 Symbol, with which storage cabinets or transport bags for defibrillators are
marked
2 Automatic defibrillator
An "automatic external defibrillator" (AED) is also called a "public access defibrillator", particularly for
use by lay people. The device automatically creates an electrocardiogram (ECG) of a person involved
in an accident, evaluates it, and can perform a defibrillation if required. The First Aid worker receives
precise instructions from the device on what has to be done.
1 Activation
2 Attach electrodes
3 Defibrillate.
144
Defibrillate
Index Explanation
1 Ventricular fibrillations on the electrocardiogram (ECG)
2 Defibrillation
3 Normal heart rhythm on the electrocardiogram (ECG)
4 Time
Electrical accidents can interfere massively with cardiac activity, which can cause cardiac arrhythmia,
ventricular fibrillations, or even cardiac arrest. In the case of ventricular fibrillations, the heart beats
very fast, but in vain, because it can no longer pump blood around the body. It leads to life-threatening
cardiovascular arrest. The defibrillation is the only therapy option in the case of ventricular fibrillations.
In order to continue to supply the body with oxygen until the arrival of an emergency doctor, CPR
is performed: 2 ventilation and 30 chest compressions. Up to now, it was always reserved for the
emergency doctor to re-establish the normal heart function with a defibrillator. If, however, an AED is
used as early as possible, the chances of survival of a person, who has suffered cardiovascular arrest
after an electric shock, are improved.
Companies working with electric vehicles should therefore equip their working areas with a visible
AED.
Sign: AED location
145
11. LIVE WORKING.
In this chapter you learn all about live working. The content of the previous chapter also applies in this
chapter. Only the specific live working topics are addressed. The German legislation is the basis of the
information. Country-specific special features must be added and observed.
Live work is generally prohibited.
If live work cannot be avoided, certain conditions must be established.
These topics are governed in the regulations of the German Social Accident Insurance Rule (DGUV
Rule) 3.
Work on live parts can be performed if a hazard due to electric shock or electric arcing is ruled out by
the type of system.
This is the case if the following limit values or preconditions are observed:
• The nominal voltage can only be up to 30 V (AC) and up to 60 V (DC) (in the automotive area).
• The energy at the place of work cannot be greater than 350 mJ.
• For the testing equipment used, the values specified in the comparable electrical regulations
for the leakage current cannot be exceeded.
• The possibility of potential bypassing is prevented by insulating the location or the active
parts, or by potential compensation.
• The short circuit current can be maximum 3 mA (AC) or 12 mA (DC).
The minimum personnel criteria, minimum technical criteria and organisational requirements also have
to be observed.
11.1. Minimum personnel criteria
11.1.1. Pre-selection
• Persons performing work on live equipment must be at least 18 years old.

• Persons carrying out work must demonstrate they have an electrical engineering qualification
and training.
• Persons carrying out work must have practical experience in comparable systems in a de-
energised state.
• Persons carrying out work must have basic knowledge of electrical systems.
• The employer must ensure that the persons carrying out live work are physically and mentally
fit.
146
11. LIVE WORKING.
11.1.2. Training
• Persons carrying out work must have completed a theory and practical training in live working
technologies, and regularly take part in professional further training measures/refresher
courses with examinations.
• After successful completion of the training, the person performing live work should receive a
corresponding certificate of competency.
• Every person completing live work must carry out the respective work on live equipment in full
and safely.
11.1.3. approval
• A corresponding certificate of competency is required in order to receive a work pass.

• The physical and mental suitability must be checked at regular intervals.
• The employer must check the skills and qualifications of the person performing work on live
equipment at regular intervals.
• Employees under the influence of alcohol or drugs (incl. medication) cannot carry out work on
live equipment and must leave the working area.
11.2. Minimum technical criteria

• Devices and equipment used must satisfy valid standards, especially those for live working.
• The necessary personal protective equipment must be made available to the people carrying
out work on live equipment for protection against special risks associated with live work
(electric shock, electric arc, etc.).
• For devices and equipment without any reference to international or European standards, the
current state of the art in the area of live work must be used as a basis.
• Devices and equipment must be used by the persons completing live work according to the
general safety rules and instructions for use of the manufacturer.
• Devices and equipment must be stored, serviced, and regularly checked so that they can be
used safely. They must undergo a corresponding check before every use.
• Faulty devices and equipment must be discarded.
11.3. Organisational requirements

• The employer must seek professional advice.
• A hazard assessment must be carried out in advance.
• There are special reasons (imperative reason) (for e.g. sizeable economic damages by
switching off).
• Live work can only be performed in accordance with the specified procedure (work instruction)
with a written instruction.
147
11. LIVE WORKING.
• All live work must be carried out in accordance with the general safety and procedural rules.
• Persons carrying out live work must have a work pass (Live Work Pass) for the live work to be
performed.
• Every type of work on live equipment can only be completed with the permission of the
manager or supervisor.
• Live work assemblies should generally be carried out by two or more live work employees.
Following a hazard assessment for live work on low-voltage systems, it is possible that work
can only be performed by a live work employee. Work on high-voltage equipment can only be
carried out under the direct supervision of an appointed person.
• The live work team leader must ensure before the commencement of work that the complete
work instructions are provided with the relevant safety requirements.
• The live work team leader must ensure before the commencement of work that every person
completing live work has been instructed on the safety requirements and has understood the
requirements.
• Work procedures in unfavourable ergonomic postures should be either be avoided or
restricted (for e.g. by temporal restriction, change of staff/procedure).
• Contractors must be checked by the customer with regard to compliance with the safety
criteria (persons performing live work, equipment, safety rules).
• Contractors must have the option on site to not start or interrupt work if safety at the working
area is not guaranteed.
• Working areas must be restricted from access by third parties in order to avoid hazards.
Further information on the hazard assessment and work instruction can be found in the chapter
Specialist responsibility → Sources of danger.
11.4. Legal frameworks in Germany

Similar to the previous chapters German laws once again form the basis for the training and the
applicable safety measures.
• German Basic Law (Grundgesetz) Article 2, Clause 2

• Social Security Code (SGB) VII
• German Civil Code (BGB) § 823
• Criminal Code (StGB) § 13
• German Occupational Safety and Health Act (ArbSchG)
• Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health (BetrSichV)
• German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 1 and Regulation 3
• German Social Accident Insurance Rule 103-011 (previously BGR A3)
• Technical Regulations for Operational Safety (TRBS) TRBS 1111, TRBS 1203
• Association for Electrical, Electronic & Information Technologies (VDE 0100, VDE 0105).
11.4.1. Innovations
148
11. LIVE WORKING.
German Civil Code (BGB) § 823 – Liability in damages
(1) A person who, intentionally or negligently, unlawfully injures the life, body, health, freedom,
property, or another right of another person is liable to make compensation to the other party for the
damage arising from this.
(2) The same duty is held by a person who commits a breach of a statute that is intended to protect
another person. (…)
Criminal Code (StGB) § 13 – Commission by omission
(1) Whoever fails to avert a result, which is an element of a penal norm, shall only be punishable under
this law, if he is legally responsible for the fact that the result does not occur, and if the omission is
equivalent to the realisation of the statutory elements of the crime through action.
What does that mean?
⇒ If a person who holds a position of responsibility detects a risk and does not intervene, he is
responsible for the arising damage!
German Social Accident Insurance Regulation (DGUV Regulation) 3 § 6 – Working on active
parts
(1) Apart from the specifications in § 8, work cannot be performed on live active parts of electrical
systems and equipment.
(2) Before commencing work on active parts of electrical systems and equipment, the de-energised
state must be established and guaranteed for the duration of the work.
(3) Paragraph 2 also applies to neighbouring active parts of the electrical system or the electrical
equipment, if these
• are not protected against direct contact or

• have not been protected against direct contact for the duration of the work with covers or
barriers, taking into consideration the voltage, frequency, usage, and place of operation.
(4) Paragraph 2 also applies for the operation of electrical equipment neighbouring active live parts, if
this is not protected against direct contact.
German Social Accident Insurance Regulation (DGUV Regulation) 3 § 7 – Working in the
proximity of live parts
Apart from the specifications in § 8, work can only be performed in the proximity of active parts of
electrical systems and equipment, which are not protected against direct contact, if
• their de-energised state is established and guaranteed for the duration of the work, or
• the active parts have been protected with covers or barriers for the duration of the work,
particularly taking into consideration the voltage, place of operation, type of work, and the
work equipment used, or
• where the aforementioned measures are waived, the permissible approaches are not
exceeded.
149
11. LIVE WORKING.
German Social Accident Insurance Regulation (DGUV Regulation) 3 § 8 – Permissible

deviations
Deviations from the requirements of §§ 6 and 7 are allowed, if
1 a hazard as a result of electric shock or electric arcing can be ruled out by the type of system, or
2 for imperative reasons the de-energised state cannot be established, insofar as
- a hazard as a result of electric shock or electric arcing can be ruled out by the type of aids and
tools used for this work, and
- the employer only commissions people with this work who are technically qualified to work on
live active parts, and
- the employer specifies and implements further technical, organisational, and personal safety
precautions, which provide adequate protection against the hazard caused by electric shock
or electric arcing.
150
Bayerische Motorenwerke Aktiengesellschaft
Händlerqualifizierung und Training
Röntgenstraße 7
85716 Unterschleißheim, Germany

T Pi Hve 0650 0690 Eng

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TECHNICAL QUALIFICATION.

BMW GROUP HIGH-VOLTAGE EXPERT.

Information status and national-market versions

Additional sources of information

Further information on the individual topics can be found in the following:

©2019 BMW AG, Munich

Information status: April 2019

3.2.1. Liability in occupational safety....................................................................................................................30

6.4.1. Structure of the IT system................................................................................................................................ 54

8.7.1. Apparent power.................................................................................................................................................................. 82

9.9.2. Laying High-Voltage cables.........................................................................................................................121

10. Safe working/First Aid.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 128

11. Live working................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 146

The BMW Group High-Voltage Expert must also understand the electrical engineering principles of

2.1. German Basic Law (Deutsches Grundgesetz)

2.1.1. Fundamental rights

2.2. Social Security Code (Sozialgesetzbuch)

• SGB I – General

2.2.1. SGB VII – Statutory accident insurance

SGB VII – Statutory accident insurance

2.3. German Occupational Safety and Health Act

German Occupational Safety and Health Act (Arbeitsschutzgesetz ArbSchG)

2.4. German Social Accident Insurance (Deutsche Gesetzliche

These regulations are divided into four categories:

• Category A: General regulations and operational occupational safety organisation

2.4.1. German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 1

• Duties of the employer

• The administrative offences

2.4.2. German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 3

2.4.3. German Social Accident Insurance Information 200-005

2.5. Association for Electrical, Electronic & Information

• Group 100 – Field of application, General requirements

• Group 400 – Protective measures

• Group 500 – Selection and erection of electrical equipment

• Group 700 – Requirements for special installations or locations

2.6. Ordinance on Hazardous Substances (Gefahrstoffverordnung)

Effects of hazardous substances on organisms

• Death • Poisoning • Reciprocal effect with genetic

2.7. Ordinance on Industrial Safety and Health

The basic components of this protection concept are:

• A standard hazard assessment of work equipment

2.7.1. Technical Regulations for Operational Safety (Technische Regeln für

TRBS 1203 provides technical regulations on qualified individuals. For the BMW Group High-

State-of-the-art is a technology provision. The technical possibilities at a certain time, based on

2.8. Brief explanation of other laws, regulations and rules

2.8.1. Equipment and Product Safety Act

2.8.2. First regulation of the Equipment and Product Safety Act

2.8.3. Occupational Safety Act (Arbeitssicherheitsgesetz)

2.8.4. Occupational Safety Ordinance (Arbeitssicherheitsverordnung)

2.8.5. Accident prevention regulations

2.8.6. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 305

The International Electrotechnical Commission ( IEC) is an international standardisation organisation

2.9.3. ECE R 100

ECE R 100 (battery-operated vehicles)

Specialist responsibility includes the responsibility for the work results.

3.1. Organisation of occupational safety

3.1.1. The basic duties of the employer

1 ensure appropriate organisation and provide the appropriate means, as well as

German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 3 § 3 – Principles

3.1.2. Delegation responsibility of management.

German Social Accident Insurance Regulation 1 § 13 – Transfer of duties

3.1.3. Responsible of High-Voltage Expert

• German Occupational Safety and Health Act (ArbSchG)