STAINLESS STEEL: An introduction to a

versatile, aesthetically pleasing and "full

life cycle" material.
What is STAINLESS STEEL?
Stainless steel is a family of iron based alloys that must contain at least 10.5%
CHROMIUM (Cr). The presence of chromium creates an invisible surface film that
resists oxidation and makes the material "passive" or corrosion resistant (i.e.
"stainless"). This family can be simply and logically grouped into five (5) branches.
Each of these branches has specific properties and a basic grade or "type." In
addition, further alloy modifications can be made to "tailored" the chemical
composition to meet the needs of different corrosion conditions, temperature ranges,
strength requirements, or to improve weld ability, mach inability, work hardening
and formability.

Basic Branches:
The Family Tree of Stainless Steel

 
Chromium Contains:
 As we mentioned, to be a stainless, the iron base must contain at least 10.5%
Cr. and the carbon content is less that 1%. These two things made stainless
"Steel" totally different from mild "Steel."

The basic stainless with 12 to 18% chromium are called "Martensitic" (based on
the structure) and have the following characteristics:

 Are magnetic
 Can be hardened by "heat treatment"
 Have "poor" welding characteristics

Common Uses:

 Knife blades
 Surgical instruments
 Fasteners
 Shafts
 Springs

Common Grades:

Stainless is designated by three different systems

1. Metallurgical structure - Martensitic

2. Grade: 410 (most used), 420 (cutlery), 440C (for very high hardness)
3. Unified Numbering System UNS: S41000, S42000, S44004

(Note chemistry and properties given for 410)

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Second Branch:

CHROMIUM CONTAINING
The second branch also contain 12 to 18% chromium BUT has a LOWER carbon level
(less than 0.2%). Since the carbon is low, these grades have a different metallurgical
structure and are called "Ferritic" stainless steels. They have the following
characteristics:

 Are magnetic
 CANNOT be hardened by "heat treatment" (always used in the annealed or
softened condition)
 Weldability is still poor

Common Uses:

 Automotive exhaust and fuel lines

 Architectural trim
 Cooking utensils
  Bank vaults

Common grades:
Stainless is designated by three different systems

1. Metallurgical structure - Ferritic

2. Grade: 409 (high temperature), 430 (most used)
3. Unified Numbering System UNS: S40900, S43000

(Note chemistry and properties given for 430)

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Chemical Composition

Forging:
Stainless steel forging are also available in several shapes. For information, contact
the "Forging Industry Association" (216-781-0102).

Rolled Products:
Angles are available as a hot rolled product. Contact "Slater Steel Corporation (219-
432-2561).

Hot rolled and cold rolled shapes, as well as cold-drawn "shapes" can also be made
from stainless steel as detailed in the Designer Handbook "The Selection and Use of
Stainless Steel."

Tubular Products:
Tubular products are commonly used for structural applications either in round or
square sections. Further information is available for the "Specialty Tubular Group"
(202-342-8450).

Bar and Rod:

Bar is defined as hot finished or cold finished rounds, square, octagons and hexagons
and flats (Table 1).

Chemical Composition %
(Max unless noted)
Stainless C Mn P S Si Cr Ni Mo N
410 0.15 1.00 0.040 0.030 0.500 11.50-13.00      
430 0.12 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.000 16.00-18.00 0.75    
304 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.000 18.00-20.00 8.00-10.50    
316 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.000 16.00-18.00 10.00-14.00 2.00-3.00  
2205 0.02 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.000 22.00-23.00 5.50-6.00 3.00-3.50 0.17
NICKEL CONTAINING:
When nickel is added and the chromium level is increased, the structure changes
again and it is called "Austenitic" and they have the following characteristics:

 Are NOT magnetic

 CANNOT be hardened by "heat treatment" BUT CAN be hardened by cold
working
 Have the "BEST" corrosion resistance
 Can be easily welded
 Have excellent cleanability and hygiene characteristics
 Have exceptional resistance to both high and low temperature

Common Uses:

 Kitchen sinks
 Architectural applications such as roofs and gutters, doors and windows,
tubular frames
 Food processing equipment
 Restaurant food preparation areas
 Chemical vessels
 Ovens
 Heat exchangers

Common Grades:
Stainless is designated by three different systems

1. Metallurgical structure - Austenitic

2. Grade: 304 (most used), 310 (for high temperature), 316 (for better
corrosion resistance), 317 (for best corrosion resistance)
3. Unified Numbering System UNS: S30400, S31000, S31600, S31700 (Note
chemistry and properties given for 304 and 316)

Some Limitations:
Austenitic stainless steels have some limitations:

 The maximum temperature under oxidizing conditions is 925ºC (see heat

resisting stainless steels)
 They are suitable only for low concentrations of reducing acid (Super
Austenitics are available for higher acid levels)
 In cervices and shielded areas, there might not be enough oxygen to maintain
the passive oxide film and crevice corrosion might occur (Super Austenitics,
Duplex and Super Ferritic are available in these situations)
 Very high levels of halide ions, especially the chloride ion can also breakdown
the passive surface film

(Super Austenitics and Duplex are available to withstand these conditions)

Information on Super Ferritic and Super Austenitic material is available from the list
of Stainless Producers.
DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS
When the chromium content is high (18 to 26%) and the nickel content is low (4 to
7%), the resulting structure is called Duplex. In addition most grades contain 2 to
3% molybdenum. This results in a structure that is a combination of both Ferritic and
Austenitic (hence the name Duplex), and have the following characteristics:

 High resistance to stress corrosion cracking

 Increased resistance to chloride ion attack
 Very weldable
 Have higher tensile and yield strengths than Ausenitic or Ferritic stainless
steels

Common Uses:

 Sea water applications

 Heat exchangers
 Desalination plants
 Food pickling plants

Common Grades:

1. Metallurgical structure - Duplex

2. Grade: 2205
3. Unified Numbering System UNS: S31803

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How Is It Made?

Stainless steel is produced in an electric arc furnace where carbon electrodes

contact recycled stainless scrap and various alloys of chromium (and nickel,
molybdenum etc. depending on the stainless type). A current is passed through
the electrode and the temperature increases to a point where the scrap and
alloys melt. The molten material from the electric furnace is then transferred
into an AOD (Argon Oxygen Decarbonization) vessel, where the carbon levels
are reduced (remember stainless has a much lower carbon level than mild steel)
and the final alloy additions are made to make the exact chemistry. Exhibit 1
shows the process from melting and casting either into ingots or continually cast
into a slab or billet form. Then the material is hot rolled or forged into its final
form. Some material receives cold rolling to further reduce the thickness as in
sheets or drawn into smaller diameters as in rods and wire.

Most stainless steels receive a final annealing (a heat treatment that softens the
structure) and pickling (an acid wash that removes furnace scale from annealing
and helps promote the passive surface film that naturally occurs).
 LIFE CYCLE
The fact that stainless steel has a great resistance to corrosion means that using
stainless will result in a very long life compared to mild steel. Structures made
from stainless steel will last many times the normal life (well over 100 years in
most cases). So, while stainless steel is probably more expensive to buy in the
beginning -- because it lasts a long time, it is usually cheaper in the long run
because there is little or no maintenance and repair costs. AND, once the useful
life is over, stainless steel is 100% RECYCLABLE. Scrap stainless steel is
recharged into the electric furnaces for re-melting back into stainless steel.
Stainless steel is a true "full life cycle" material.

Mechanical Properties
(Annealed condition)
  Tensile Strength Yield Strength Elongation
Stainless ksi MPa ksi MPa  

410 70 483 45 310 25

430 75 517 50 345 25
304 84 579 42 290 55
316 84 579 42 290 50
Elongation in 2" (50.80 mm)
Hardness in Rockwell B

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Benefits

Corrosion resistance
--lower alloyed grades resist corrosion in atmospheric and pure water environments,
while high-alloyed grades can resist corrosion in most acids, alkaline solutions, and
chlorine bearing environments, properties which are utilized in process plants.
Fire & heat resistance
--special high chromium and nickel-alloyed grades resist scaling and retain strength
at high temperatures.

Hygiene
--the easy cleaning ability of stainless makes it the first choice for strict hygiene
conditions, such as hospitals, kitchens, abattoirs and other food processing plants.

Aesthetic appearance
--the bright, easily maintained surface of stainless steel provides a modern and
attractive appearance.

Strength-to-weight advantage
--the work-hardening property of austenitic grades, that results in a significant
strengthening of the material from cold-working alone, and the high strength duplex
grades, allow reduced material thickness over conventional grades, therefore cost
savings.

Ease of fabrication
--modern steel-making techniques mean that stainless can be cut, welded, formed,
machined, and fabricated as readily as traditional steels.

Impact resistance
--the austenitic microstructure of the 300 series provides high toughness, from
elevated temperatures to far below freezing, making these steels particularly suited
to cryogenic applications.

Long term value

--when the total life cycle costs are considered, stainless is often the least expensive
material option.

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STAINLESS STEEL
What is it?

Originally developed for cutlery applications STAINLESS has now been adopted as a
generic name for a wide range of steels with corrosion or oxidation resistant applications.

Stainless Steels are typically iron alloys with a minimum chromium content of 10.5%,
other alloying metals are also used to improve the structure and properties of these steels,
such as Nickel, Molybdenum, Titanium and Copper. Non metal additions are also made,
typically Carbon & Nitrogen.

The main requirement for stainless steels is that they should be corrosion resistant for
their selected application and environment.

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Benefits

 Corrosion Resistance
All stainless steels display a high resistance to corrosion compared to mild steels,
with the level of resistance being dependent on their chrome, nickel and
molybdenum content.
 Temperature Resistance
Grades of stainless steel are available which show incredible strength and
resistance at very high and cryogenic temperatures

 Ease of Fabrication
Stainless steel tubes can be bent, formed, shaped, cut and welded.

 Strength
Cold worked stainless steel becomes harder and its strength is increased, meaning
that it can be used in designs to reduce thickness and therefore reduce weight and
cut costs

 Aesthetic Appeal
Stainless steel tubes are available in a variety of surface finishes, from dull to
shiny, including a brush finish and mirror polish, designed to effectively
complement and enhance the appearance of many applications.

 Hygienic
The easy clean characteristics of stainless steel make it particularly suitable for
use in the Dairy, Brewery & Sugar manufacturing sectors, as well as Hospitals,
Catering & Pharmaceuticals.

 Low Life Cycle Cost

Stainless steel can provide the least expensive long-term solution within an
engineering project compared with other materials when maintenance costs over
the lifetime of a project are taken into account. With its built in corrosion
resistance, stainless is usually the least expensive option in a life cycle cost
comparison

 Recyclable
From scrap to stainless and back again, stainless steel production uses scrap steel
as its raw material. Stainless is 100% recyclable and therefore less harmful to the
environment.
New stainless steel comprises of at least 50% recycled material
The Care and Feeding of Stainless Steel
By Micah Millspaw
Republished from BrewingTechniques' July/August 1994.

The unique properties of stainless steel make it a material of choice among

knowledgeable brewers. This primer on stainless steel reviews its composition and
properties, discusses methods of cleaning and sanitization, and provides important tips
for anyone fabricating or modifying stainless steel equipment.

As the art of home brewing advances, so does the technology of home brewing. Home
brewers often borrow a page or two from commercial brewers' standard practice to
enhance their own breweries. Many home brewers now use discarded stainless steel beer
and soda kegs, which are fairly easy to come by and are readily adaptable to many
creative brewing systems.

Stainless steel is perceived as the ultimate in bulletproof, easy-to-sanitize equipment, and

many home brewers aspire to the goal of an all stainless steel home brewery. Although
stainless is very durable, it is possible to abuse and damage it beyond reasonable repair.
As for sanitization, properly maintained stainless surfaces are easily sanitized, although
getting those same surfaces clean can be quite a chore. This article presents the basics of
proper care and feeding of stainless steel equipment.

My personal venture into stainless steel brewing equipment began many years ago with
the desire for a large brew kettle. At the time, I had no exposure to other home brewers'
techniques or to any literature about home brewing, so I was on my own. Fortunately, I
worked for a company that did stainless steel fabrication work, and they allowed
employees to use their facilities after hours.

A few well-placed bribes of homebrew and the application of elbow grease netted me an
excellent brew kettle. Later came the stainless fermentors and peripheral equipment. And
about six months after that came the problems.

The main problem was that surface residues would not wash or scrub away. These
residues began to affect heat transfer in the kettle and introduced undesirable flavors in
the fermentors. I spoke with a local microbrewery about this, only to find that they were
encountering similar problems themselves.

One day, while looking for some stainless steel ball valves, I stopped by a dairy
equipment supplier and not only found the items I was looking for but also discovered that
dairies have equipment and cleaning problems similar to those of breweries. In fact, the
cleaning and sanitization procedures used in the milk industry are much more stringent
than those used in the commercial brewing industry and are certainly more stringent than
those used in the world of home brewing. Dairy suppliers, as it turns out, are a good and
inexpensive source of information and chemicals for cleaning and sanitization.

TYPES OF STAINLESS STEEL

Stainless steel is an alloy steel with a bright, long-lasting, silvery finish. The alloy has a
11-26% chromium base, with various percentages of nickel added to increase toughness
and titanium added to increase weldability.

Many types of stainless steel exist. Most are magnetic tools steels known as 400-series
stainless steels, which are unsuitable for use in brewing. The type of stainless steel used in
brewing and fermentation equipment is the nonmagnetic 300-series.

Several varieties of the 300-series exist. Those most common to brewing are 304 and 316
stainless steel. Kegs are usually made from these materials. Both 304 and 316 have very
good corrosion-resistance properties and are easily welded. Other 300-series metals are to
be avoided for brewery use, especially 303. The 303 variety has much less corrosion
resistance and is much more difficult to weld.

Beware of imposters: If you are going to use recycled beer kegs, be certain that the kegs
you use are actually stainless steel and not aluminum. Although the majority of American
kegs are stainless (usually 304), many kegs from Europe and those made in the United
States during the late 1950s and 1960s are aluminum. The cleaning procedures discussed
in this article will severely damage aluminum. Also be aware that many valves and
fittings that appear to be nice shiny stainless steel are actually nickel or chrome-plated
brass.

The importance of proper care and feeding: Corrosion and stainless steel? It's stainless, so
it should be free from the risk of rust, pitting, and wear, right? Wrong. Although the 300-
series stainless steels used in brewing equipment are normally highly resistant to
corrosion, their resitance can be compromised in several ways. For example, some of the
cleaning and sanitization techniques commonly used with glass and plastic are hazardous
to stainless steel, and you can wreck your stainless equipment if you use them.

CLEANING AND SANITIZATION

Chemical agents: Bleach. Although bleach (potassium hypochlorite) may be the trusted
sanitizing standby for home brewers with plastic and glass fermentors, it is a poor choice
for sanitizing stainless steel. Prolonged contact with bleach solutions, especially heated
ones, can pit the surfaces of stainless steel containers. Caustic. Caustic (sodium
hydroxide), an alkaline cleaning agent commonly used in the clean-in-place (CIP) systems
of commercial breweries, is quite effective for removing organics from stainless surfaces,
but it is a poor choice for home use. Sodium hydroxide is very dangerous. It is available in
liquid and dry form, and both can cause severe skin burns. The proper storage and use of
caustic in a home setting is difficult and risky. The use of caustic in cleaning solutions has
another downside: Although it is effective for dissolving organic carbon-based
compounds, it tends to increase the occurrence of calcium-based deposits on stainless
steel. Also, caustic solutions must be used carefully because in high concentrations and
with lengthy contact, caustic (like acids) can damage the surface of the stainless steel.

Acids. Some acids can be used for a variety of stainless steel cleaning chores. Phosphoric
acid and muriatic acid are very effective in removing beer stone (see below). They are
often used to neutralize the effects of caustic cleaning solutions. An added benefit of using
acids to clean stainless fermentation equipment is that the pH of any residue on the
vessel's surface can be more closely matched to that of the incoming beer, thus reducing
shock to the beer and to the yeast in it. Food-grade acids are usually available in liquid
form and should be stored and used with caution. Excessive concentrations and contact
times can also damage a stainless steel surface finish.

Nitric acid is often used to passivate the surface of stainless equipment (see below) to
improve its sanitary surface finish. The acid mildly etches the surface. It is important not
to damage passivated surfaces (see the section on passivation, below).

Iodaphors. Iodaphors, which have recently become quite popular with home brewers, are
excellent sanitizing solutions. Iodaphors are made up largely of iodine, phosphoric acid,
and alcohol. Iodaphor is also available without phosphoric acid for use with acid-sensitive
materials. A concentration as low as 12.5 ppm with a 2-min contact time is adequate for
most home brewing needs. Iodaphors can also be used to sanitize a plethora of items
either by soaking or recirculating the solution. Store your iodaphor solutions in a dark
place because sunlight will break them down and greatly lessen their effectiveness.

Most of these chemicals are available from various industrial and agricultural suppliers.
When purchasing any of these chemicals (or similar ones), ask for a material safety data
sheet (MSDS). OSHA requires that suppliers provide you an MSDS, but you nevertheless
will often have to ask for one. When you get the MSDS, read it and make sure you
understand it. Most of these compounds, if mishandled or abused, can be hazardous to you
and the environment.

The beer stone problem: The most common surface deposit on stainless steel brewing
equipment is beer stone, or calcium oxylate. Beer stone usually appears as a dull brownish
to brownish-white film on the metal's surface. It is most likely to occur in stainless steel
brew kettles, hop jacks, counterflow heat exchangers, and primary fermentors. Prolonged
contact with hot wort will result in the greatest amount of beer stone buildup. It is
necessary to remove the beer stone before it affects the flavor, or, worse, becomes a
sanitization problem.

The reason this calcium-based buildup occurs is that stainless steel, unlike copper, is not
wetted by hot wort; a thin layer of air remains between the steel and the hot wort,
allowing precipitate to literally bake onto the stainless surface. Perhaps this is an
additional reason why many breweries continue to use copper brewhouses or even install
new ones. It should be noted that the problem of nonwetting occurs with aluminum, which
is even more difficult to clean.
Plastic abrasives: The best way to clean stainless steel equipment in a home brewery is
by hand, with a plastic abrasive. Scrubbing pads such as Scotch Bright are inexpensive
and perfectly suited for removing brewing residues from stainless surfaces. The grades of
plastic abrasives range from coarse to very fine. A good scrubber, some elbow grease, and
hot water should effectively clean most of your stainless steel hardware. Never use steel
wool, which can induce rust, or abrasive pads that contain soaps inside of them. A dairy
brush, which can be found at janitorial supply houses and dairy suppliers, can also be
quite useful.

Cleaning soda kegs: Many home brewers store their beer in soda kegs. These containers
come in sizes ranging from 3 to 10 gal, and they are ideal for fermenting, dispensing,
bottling, and filtering beer. They are also easy to come by and inexpensive. Although
several articles describing the use of these containers have appeared in the home brewing
literature, to date none has covered the long-term care of soda kegs.

As mentioned above, bleach should not be used for cleaning soda kegs, because it will
eventually pit the interior of the keg. Heated bleach solutions will hasten the pitting.
Trisodium phosphate (TSP), however, can effectively clean soda kegs, especially when
used the keg is soaked in it, because it will not harm the stainless steel or rubber
components. Plastic abrasives and some elbow grease also work well.

Eventually, beer stone will begin to build up in the keg. The beer stone can be loosened by
soaking the keg for 2-6 h in a 1.7-2.0 pH solution of phosphoric acid at a temperature of
120-130°F 49-54 °C). After the acid soak, the beer stone should be easy to remove using
plastic abrasives.

FABRICATION
Rust prevention: Although stainless steel is a nickel alloy and does not ordinarily rust,
iron-based rust can occur if stainless steel comes into contact with steel containing a high
level of iron. The rust often appears as a reddish-brown stain, which seldom is very
penetrating and can often be removed by polishing. The longer the stainless steel has been
in contact with steel with a high iron content, however, the greater the damage. Deep
pitting can occur; in fermentation equipment, these pitted areas can prove difficult to keep
clean.

Welding: Don't weld your own stainless steel. The rust-resistant properties of stainless
steel can be compromised also by excessive heat from welding and grinding during the
fabrication process. Although much home brewing equipment can be built by the amateur
craftsperson and the free labor of helpful friends, several things merit attention if you
build your own stainless steel brewery.

Many of the attributes of stainless steel that brewers prize are the result of the crystalline
structure of the metal itself. This structure is not a naturally occurring one for steel.
Excessive heating can alter the crystalline structure of the stainless steel, causing it to lose
its corrosion resistance.

Welding stainless steel should be done only by skilled persons with the proper equipment.
Otherwise, the welding can turn into a hideous nightmare. The 300-series stainless steels
have a low critical temperature compared with conventional steels. During welding and
grinding, care must be taken not to overheat these metals. Damage from overheating is
often localized but can nonetheless cause considerable trouble. In some cases, overheated
spots that were previously nonreactive to magnetic material will become responsive to
magnetic forces. Heavy machining of stainless steel can also cause this effect.

Use the right tools: Other sources of rust induction that often can be traced to fabrication
are wire brushes and grinding equipment that has been previously used on conventional
steels. After the weld is made, it is usually necessary to use a wire brush on the welds to
remove surface impurities. Use only brushes made of stainless steel or brass wire.

Grinding wheels or disks that have been used to grind conventional steels should also be
avoided. Grinding with a used wheel can introduce rust into deeper scratches, which can
easily result in sanitization problems. Using the right tools when building your stainless
steel home brewery will prevent long-term problems and will reduce the number of
unsightly blemishes on the outside of your shiny vessels.

PASSIVATION
The resistance of stainless steel to corrosion and discoloration is, in part, due to the
existence of a film of surface oxidation that protects the metal. Improper or excessive use
of chlorine-based sanitizers or contact with steel wool, steel tools, or steel parts can
damage this film.

A technique known as passivation can be used to provide a chemically clean surface that
will aid in the re-formation of the surface oxide layer. The oxide film forms naturally on
clean surfaces exposed to the atmosphere, but contact with acid mixtures containing
oxidizing agents can enhance its formation. An acid wash also serves the important
function of dissolving any free-iron contamination on the surface of the stainless steel.
Passivation is therefore recommended as a cleaning procedure to remove rust spots and
free-iron deposits (the accompanying box outlines the basic procedure). It should be used
on sanitary surfaces of stainless equipment after any fabrication work.

FIRST STEPS, BUT SURE STEPS

This information should help home brewers overcome some of the problems encountered
when using stainless steel equipment. Although much more can be learned about stainless
steel, the detail provided in this article will take most brewers a long way toward
successful brewing.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Passivation (National Association of Dairy Equipment Manufacturers, now the Dairy and
Food Industry Supply Association, Rockville, Maryland).

"The Crystalline Structure of Metals," M. Millspaw, research paper, 1991.

Metalwork Technology and Practice, 7th ed., (Repp/McCarthy/Ludwig, Bloomington, Il,

1982).
Brazing and Welding of 304L Stainless Steel

There are many materials and joining processes currently avalailable

that can
be used in constructing both home and micro breweries. Each material or
process has its own limitations and these usually become obvious when
the
economics of a situation are examined. One of the best beers in the
world,
Pilsener Urquell, is brewed and lagered in pitch-lined oak barrels.
While
these materials may be readily available, the care and maintenance of
this
brewing system is extensive. Because of its relatively low maintenance,
stainless steel has become widely used in North America and throughout
the
world.

The stainless steel of choice in the food services industry is the

austenitic
300 series. The stainless used for good pots (like Vollrath) is usually
304.
Less expensive pots are often made of 303 alloy stainless which is less
weldable and is quickly attacked by chlorinated cleaners. Other
stainless
kitchen equipment, like utensils, are typically Ferritic stainless,
which has
less Chromium and Nickel and is less acid-neutral. The 300 series of
stainless steels was originally developed for use in cryogenics. These
steels
also perform well at elevated temperatures and are used extensively for
steam
pipes and exhaust systems. It is the resistance to elevated temperature
oxidation and corrosion that makes alloys 304 and 316 the choice for
food
preparation equipment, including steam-heated boilers and storage tanks.
But
there is always a cloud for every silver lining and when it comes time
to join
stainless steel, that cloud is heat. The metallurgy that makes these
alloys
corrosion resistant and strong also makes welding more difficult than
for
ordinary steel.
What Makes A Steel Stainless? (bold)
The alloying addition of Chromium and Nickel to the iron creates a
significant
percentage of those atoms at the surface, which form tenacious oxides
that
seal the surface and prevent oxidation of the iron. The process known
as
"Passivation" for stainless steel, as discussed in the article "Care and
Feeding of Stainless Steel" by Micah Millspaw in the July/August issue
of
Brewing Techniques, is a common means of improving this protective oxide
layer
through the use of oxidizing acids. Anodizing aluminum alloys is
similar in
that a solid aluminum oxide barrier is created to prevent further
corrosion.
Anodized (black) aluminum cookware (Magnalite, Calphalon) is acid
neutral /
acidic food resistant like stainless steel because of this heavy oxide
layer.
Plain (bright) aluminum cookware does not have the degree of surface
oxides
necessary to prevent reaction with corrosive media.

Joining of Steel and Brass/Copper (bold)

Stainless steel is routinely welded, but it must be done under an inert
gas
atmosphere. The most reliable method for welding stainless is the
Tungsten
Inert Gas (TIG) process, aka. GTAW and Helio-Arc. TIG welding has the
advantage of a small weld head, lower heat input is required and filler
metal
is optional. The other common welding methods for stainless steel,
Metal
Inert Gas (MIG) and Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), are not as well
suited
for welding thin sections like beer keg walls. MIG is commonly used for
all
types of stainless welding but the weld gun must be held close to the
work and
this decreases its effectiveness in tight areas. MIG equipment will be
more
available to a do-it-yourselfer and should provide a satisfactory joint.
SMAW
is commonly used for welding thicker pipe and tanks. It has the
disadvantage
of obscuring of the weld joint during the pass and the slag must be
removed
between passes. Equipment and electrode filler rods are readily
available,
however this welding process is not recommended for this application.
The
welder does not have the control necessary to insure a good weld.

Because 300 series stainless steels are prone to High Temperature

Embrittlement and Sensitization, the welder must be careful not to apply
too
much heat for too long during welding. Welding of thin gauge stainless
steel
requires a definite skill. Producing defect-free welds without
overheating
the steel takes years of practice, no matter which welding process is
used.
This is not to say that a serviceable weld cannot be done by a novice.
But in
my experience, it is better to take stainless steel weld jobs to an
experienced welder, rather than attempting it yourself. Bad welds are
difficult to correct in stainless steel. It is more economical to get
things
done right the first time. The scale of welding that a homebrewer would
require would most likely not exceed a welder's one hour minimum charge.
In
fact, to weld 3 pipe nipples into 3 kegs, I was quoted 25 dollars. Not
much
to pay for a quality job. See Figure 1. In addition an experienced
welder
will know how to produce a good weld without overheating it.
Overheating
causes precipitation of the chromium atoms away from the grain
boundaries to
form chromium carbides, depleting the steel of its corrosion resistance.

I should explain some background metallurgy here. All metals are

crystalline
materials having specific crystal structures which are dependent on
temperature. These structures are referred to as "Phases" and are given
names
such as "Austenite" and "Ferrite". A block of metal is very similar to a
block
of salt. A block of salt is really a bunch of grains of salt all fused
together. These grains are oriented every which-way and the interface
to the
next grain of salt is called the grain boundary. As you would expect,
the
grain boundary is weaker than the grain itself. The crystalline
structure of
metals is exactly the same in this respect. (By the way, if you would
like to
see a metallic grain structure, go look at an aluminum street-light
pole. That
mosaic you see is the grain structure.) Because the grain boundaries
within a
metal are the weakest sites, heat and corrosion usually affect these
areas
first.

The corrosion resistance of stainless steel depends on the chromium.

Austenitic stainless is a super-saturated solution of chromium and
nickel in
iron. It is actually a very high temperature phase that has been
quenched to
preserve the distribution of elements. Austenitic stainless does not
like
middling-high heat. It performs well up to 600F (315C), but higher
temperatures in the range of 800-1600F (425-870C) cause atom diffusion
which
causes the properties to change. Temperatures in this range allow the
chromium
to diffuse away from the grain boundaries to form chromium carbides, the
preferred crystalline structure in that temperature range. Exposure to
the
temperatures that cause diffusion is referred to as being "Sensitized".
The
diffusion of chromium away from the grain boundaries results in un-
stainless
grain boundaries surrounded by stainless steel. This situation soon
leads to
localized corrosion and rapid cracking of the grain boundaries. To
correct
this, the metal must be heated to at least 1900F (1040C) for a period of
time
in an inert gas atmosphere and then quenched to retain the austenite
crystal
structure. Unfortunately, doing this heat treatment to a welded keg
would
result in a lot of warping and distortion. It is better to get another
keg
and start over.

Welding is a local melting/freezing process that creates high

temperature
gradients in the metal around the weld. This Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is
the
region where unwanted atom diffusion can take place if it is hot enough,
long
enough. There are time/temperature curves that describe this, and the
curve
for alloy 304 is shown in Figure 2. This chart shows that for type 304
stainless (nominal carbon content of 0.08%), five minutes at 600C
(1110F) or
above will cause chromium diffusion that will later cause cracking in
service.
Type 304L stainless, "L" denoting less carbon (nominal 0.03%), is more
weldable and can spend about 6 hours at 600C before becoming Sensitized.
Most
kegs (in North America) are made from 304L to facilitate the welded
construction. Caution must still be taken in service though. I know of
one
case of a homebrewer that experienced cracking on the bottom of a cut-
off keg
boiler. The cracks appeared at the flame-line where the flame of the
Cajun-
Cooker-type propane heater met the keg. This shows that he was running
the
flame too hot and that, over time, chromium atom diffusion was taking
place.
Diffusion is cumulative. Once this type of cracking occurs, there is no
economical way to correct it. In addition, because modern beer and soda
kegs
are designed thin to save on material, a modified keg should never again
be
pressurized. Serious injury could result from a rupture at the weld.
Welds
are always weaker than the base metal.

If you wish to do the welding yourself and have access to the necessary
equipment, suggested weld schedules for manual TIG and MIG welding of
304L
steel are shown in Table 1. The MIG weld setup uses a 97.5%/2.5% mix of
Argon
and CO2 and 0.030 electrode wire. The TIG welding uses a sharpened
(~30¡),
Thoriated (2%), 3/32 inch dia. electrode, and 1/16 inch dia. Filler
Rod. The
shielding gas for TIG welding is 100% Argon. Note that the same Filler
metal
is used for both processes. As noted in Jeff Donaghue's article, "A
Primer on
Welding Stainless Steel" in the September issue of BT, vocational
welding
classes are usually available through Adult Education or Community
Colleges.
These classes can provide the necessary instruction, equipment and
practice
material you will want to have before working on your brewing equipment.

Table 1 - Manual Welding Parameters for 304L Stainless Steel

Welding Type Thickness Current Voltage Filler Rod
(inches) (Amps) (Volts) (AWS)
MIG 0.063 85 DCEP 21 ER316L
TIG 0.045, 0.090 37/70 DCEN 12-14 ER316L

Table 1 con't
Weld Type Argon Flow Weld Speed Wire Feed
(ft^3/hr) in./min. in/min
MIG 15 19 184
TIG 12 2-4 As Req'd

(Shadow Box)
A Few Words About Brass (bold)
Brass is an alloy of Copper and Zinc with some lead thrown in for
machinability. The lead percentage varies, but for the common brass
alloys
used in plumbing fittings it is 7% or less. Lead is entirely soluble in
copper, but the presence of zinc changes this. In Brass, the lead exists
as
minute globules. These globules act as an intrinsic lubricant during
machining. The result is a micro-thin film of lead being smeared over
the
machined surface. It is this lead (a very small amount) that can be
dissolved
off by the wort. While this small amount of lead should probably not be
a
cause of concern, most people would be happier if if wasn't there at
all.

Well, never let it be said that the Space Program never yields
technology
applicable to the home. Some chemists working on the International Space
Station Alpha program were consulted for an etchant that could safely
remove
the lead from the surface of brass parts. The chemists determined that a
1-to-
1 volume ratio of Glacial Acetic Acid (98% by vol.) to Hydrogen Peroxide
(30%
by vol.) would accomplish this without pitting the brass. This procedure
was
performed in the lab using the standard laboratory concentrations of
these
chemicals. The process consisted of a 30 second dunk, swirl and rinse at
room
temperature, and was successful in removing the lead, as determined by a
Lead
Home Test Kit (swabs). In addition, the procedure had the added benefit
of
turning the brass into Pure Gold. (Okay, the color of, anyway.)

Because 98% Acetic Acid and 30% Hydrogen Peroxide are not available to
the
average brewer, the experiment was repeated using the concentrations
available
in the supermarket. These are 5% Acetic Acid (White Distilled Vinegar)
and 3%
Hydrogen Peroxide. Due to the difference in concentration, the relative
concentration ratio is changed. For the household variety
concentrations, a 2-
to-1 volume ratio of Acetic Acid to H2O2 is needed.

The process was expected to take longer with the more dilute solution,
so the
brass part was immersed for 10 minutes. The results showed the same gold
color
and the Lead Test swab indicated the lead had been removed. The buttery
yellow
gold color can be used as an indicator that the process has completed.
Home
Lead Test kits should be available at most hardware stores.

This procedure for removing surface lead from brass can easily be
conducted at
home. A 10-15 minute dunk, swirl, and rinse in a 2/1 volume ratio of 5%
Acetic
Acid and 3% Hydrogen Peroxide has been shown to be effective. By the
way, the
solution can be irritating to the skin so either wear gloves or use
tongs.
(End Shadow Box)
Soldering (bold)
Soldering and Brazing of stainless steel to itself or to brass or copper
works
well also. These processes are good alternatives to the welding of
stainless
steel fittings. They allow the attachment of copper tubing and brass
fittings
directly onto the stainless steel. There is some potential for galvanic
corrosion of the copper or brass in preference to the silver. (In terms
of
electro-chemical activity: stainless steel is more passive than silver
solder,
which is more passive than brass/copper.) Available industry service
data
indicates that the corrosion rate should be quite small. Many people
have
used silver alloys with these metals and have not experienced any
galvanic
corrosion problems at all.

The difference between soldering and brazing is temperature. The

American
Welding Society defines Soldering as metal coalescence below 800F.
(Brazing
being above 800F.) Both processes bond adjoining metal surfaces by
completely
wetting the surfaces with molten filler metal and maintaining that bond
upon
solidification. The bond is only as strong as the filler metal, but
some
braze metals can be very strong indeed.

Stainless steel is difficult for solders and braze filler metals to wet.
The
surface oxides that protect it from corrosion also prevent the filler
metals
from wetting the surface. Special fluxes are needed to eat through
these
stainless oxides. The silver solder commonly sold for home plumbing
with
copper pipe will work on stainless but a different flux is needed. Look
for a
flux containing hydrochloric acid or one that says it is for fluxing
nickel
alloys or stainless. The specifics for two common silver solders are
listed
in Table 2.

Table 2 - Common Silver Solders

Composition (%) Melting Temperature
Silver Tin F C
3 97 430 220
2 98 450 230
In my experience, getting the steel hot is the big problem. A propane
torch
can be used, but the flame needs to be slightly reducing in nature to
prevent
the re-formation of surface oxides. The best method for soldering a
copper or
brass fitting onto a stainless steel pipe is to "tin" the fitting first
with
the solder. Flux is then applied to the stainless pipe and the two
pieces are
fitted together. Then the heat is applied to the joint, and more solder
is
fed into the joint once its hot. This way the steel surface is
protected from
the air until it is hot enough to be wetted by the solder.

Brazing (bold)
Silver-based brazing alloys have lower melting temperatures than
Copper/Zinc
brazing alloys, so the silver-based alloys are the more practical choice
for
Do-it-yourselfers. But there are two issues to keep in mind with
brazing.
The first is that most brazing temperatures are right in the temperature
range
that causes sensitization of the steel. The braze must be conducted
efficiently to ensure that the time limit for the onset of diffusion is
not
exceeded. Acetylene and propane are two of the most common gases used
for
Torch Brazing. Use a slightly reducing flame and AWS type 3A flux.
This flux
has the higher useful temperature range needed for brazing (1050-1600F).
Both
surfaces to be joined must be cleaned and fluxed for best results. As
in
soldering, it is a good idea to pre-braze the fitting, since it has the
higher
thermal mass in the localized area. Pre-heating the fitting will help
decrease the amount of time that heat is applied to the joint.

A friend of mine recently brazed a stainless steel pipe nipple directly

onto
the side of a stainless steel milk can. See Figure 3. The wall of the
can
was flattened with a hammer to allow a good flat fit-up with the nipple.
The
pipe was 1/2 inch NPT with a wall thickness of 1/4 inch. The pipe was
heated
up first since it had a much higher thermal mass than the milk can wall.
It
was brazed using flux coated rod and an acetylene torch. The braze was
quite
strong, allowing him to torque up a connecting threaded fitting such
that he
later had trouble taking it apart!
Silver brazing rod does not contain lead, but some of the alloys
contain Cadmium, which is worse. It will cause severe heavy metal
poisoning.
The American Welding Society alloy designations are listed in Table 3;
don't
use the alloys containing Cadmium. The best bet is to look for rod that
is
made for food industry applications. The AWS BAg-5 is recommended for
this
purpose and is readily available from weld supply shops at about $15.00
an
ounce (1/16 inch dia., spooled).

Table 3 - Standard AWS Silver-based Brazing Alloys

AWS Composition(a), %
spec. Ag Cu Zn Others
BAg-l 44.0-46.0 14.0-16.0 14.0-18.0 23.0-25.0 Cd
BAg-la 49.0-51.0 14.5-16.5 14.5-18.5 17.0-19.0 Cd
BAg-2 34.0-36.0 25.0-27.0 19.0-23.0 17.0-19.0 Cd
BAg-2a 29.0-31.0 26.0-28.0 21.0-25.0 19.0-21.0 Cd
BAg-3 49.0-51.0 14.5-16.5 13.5-17.5 16 Cd, 3 Ni
BAg-4 39.0-41.0 29.0-31.0 26.0-30.0 1.5-2.5 Ni
BAg-5 44.0-46.0 29.0-31.0 23.0-27.0 ...
BAg-6 49.0-51.0 33.0-35.0 14.0-18.0 ...
BAg-7 55.0-57.0 21.0-23.0 15.0-19.0 4.5-5.5 Sn
BAg-8 71.0-73.0 Rem ... ...
BAg-8a 71.0-73.0 Rem ... 0.25-0.50 Li
BAg-13 53.0-55.0 Rem 4.0-6.0 0.5-1.5 Ni
BAg-13a 55.0-57.0 Rem ... 1.5-2.5 Ni
BAg-18 59.0-61.0 Rem ... 10 Sn, .025 max P
BAg-l9 92.0-93.0 Rem ... 0.15-0.30 Li
BAg-20 29.0-31.0 37.0-39.0 30.0-34.0 ...
BAg-21 62.0-64.0 27.5-29.5 ... 6 Sn, 2.5 Ni

Notes: (a) Total maximum allowable impurities in each alloy is

0.15%.
Ag is Silver, Cu is Copper, Zn is Zinc, Cd is Cadmium, Ni is
Nickel, Sn is Tin, Li is Lithium, and P is Phosphorus.

Table 4 - Standard AWS Brazing Alloy Usage Temperatures

AWS Brazing
spec. temp.
F C
BAg-l 1145-1400 618-760
BAg-la 1175-1400 635-760
BAg-2 1295-1550 702-843
BAg-2a 1310-1550 710-843
BAg-3 1270-1500 688-816
BAg-4 1435-1650 779-899
BAg-5 1370-1550 743-843
BAg-6 1425-1600 774-871
BAg-7 1205-1400 652-760
BAg-8 1435-1650 779-899
BAg-8a 1410-1600 766-871
BAg-13 1575-1775 857-968
BAg-13a 1600-1800 871-982
BAg-18 1325-1550 718-843
BAg-l9 1610-1800 877-982
BAg-20 1410-1600 766-871
BAg-21 1475-1650 802-899

Soldering, brazing and welding are all useful methods for joining
stainless
steel. Consider the joint design when choosing the process. Each
process has
its own limitations, but the most important is the nature of alloy 304L
itself. Soldering is most useful for joining pipes and small fittings.
Brazing is useful for making high strength bonds between dissimilar
metals.
These two methods may be accomplished fairly easily at home. But if the
goal
is to seal a stainless pipe through the wall of a keg, then welding is
the
best way to go. If you want to do the welding yourself, ask yourself
the
following questions:
1. Can I produce a quality weld (no defects or overheating)?
2. What resources do I have available?
Weigh the economics of your decision. Time, effort, and equipment
investment
are some factors to be considered. If you have the interest and knack
for
learning new skills, then give it a try. Check out vocational welding
classes
in your area. With some instruction and practice, a serviceable weld is
not
difficult. If you want to get right to the brewing, then you may want
to hit
the Yellow Pages.

References:
M. Jackson, The New World Guide to Beer (Running Press, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, 1987).
ASM Metals Handbook, 9th Ed., Vol. 3, Properties and Selection:
Stainless
Steels, Tool Materials and Special-Purpose Metals; Fabrication of
Wrought
Stainless Steels, (American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio,
1980).
ASM Metals Handbook, 9th Ed., Vol. 6, Welding, Brazing, and Soldering;
Arc
Welding of Stainless Steels, (American Society for Metals, Metals Park,
Ohio,
1983).
ASM Metals Handbook, 9th Ed., Vol. 6, Welding, Brazing, and Soldering;
Torch
Brazing of Steels, (American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio,
1983).
 ASM Metals Handbook, 9th Ed., Vol. 6, Welding, Brazing, and Soldering;
Brazing
of Stainless Steels, (American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio,
1983).
ASM Metals Handbook, 9th Ed., Vol. 6, Welding, Brazing, and Soldering;
Soldering, (American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1983).
ASM Metals Handbook, 9th Ed., Vol. 13, Corrosion; Environmentally
Induced
Cracking, (American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1987).
ASM Metals Handbook, 9th Ed., Vol. 13, Corrosion; Corrosion of Stainless
Steel, (American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1987).
ASM Metals Handbook, 9th Ed., Vol. 13, Corrosion; Corrosion in the
Brewery
Industry, (American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1987).

John Palmer is a metallurgical and welding engineer for McDonnell

Douglas
Aerospace in Huntington Beach, California. He is a frequent contributor
to
the Home Brew Digest on the Internet and the author of "How to Brew Your
First
Beer", available at several BBSs and FTP computer sites around the
world. He
is an enthusiastic member of the Crown of the Valley Brewing Club in
Pasadena,
CA.

Brazing and Welding 304L Stainless Steel

By John Palmer
Republished from BrewingTechniques' November/December 1994.

Last issue, one brewer presented a brief overview of options for welding stainless steels. This issue
follows up with some nitty-gritty details about welding and brazing options for breweries large and
small.

Many materials and joining processes are currently avalailable for use in constructing both home and
microbreweries. Each material or process has its own limitations, and these usually become obvious
when the economics of a situation are examined. One of the best beers in the world, Pilsener Urquell,
is brewed and lagered in pitch-lined oak barrels. Although wood and pitch are readily available, the
care and maintenance of such brewing systems can be extensive. Because of its relatively low
maintenance requirements, stainless steel has become widely used in North America and throughout
the world.

STAINLESS STEELS FOR FOOD-GRADE APPLICATIONS

The stainless steel of choice in the food services industry is the austenitic 300 series. The stainless used
for good pots (like Vollrath) is usually 304. Less expensive pots are often made of 303 alloy stainless,
which is less weldable and is quickly attacked by chlorinated cleaners. Other stainless kitchen
equipment, like utensils, are typically ferritic stainless, which has less chromium and nickel and is less
acid-neutral.

The 300 series of stainless steels was originally developed for use in cryogenics. These steels also
perform well at elevated temperatures and are used extensively for steam pipes and exhaust systems. It
is their resistance to elevated temperature, oxidation, and corrosion that makes alloys 304 and 316 the
choice for food preparation equipment, including steam-heated boilers and storage tanks. But every
silver lining has its cloud, and when it comes to joining stainless steel, that cloud is heat. The
metallurgy that makes these alloys corrosion resistant and strong also makes welding more difficult
than is the case with ordinary steel.

METALLURGY BASICS
What makes a steel stainless? The addition of chromium and nickel to the iron creates a significant
percentage of chromium and nickel atoms at the surface. These atoms form tenacious oxides that seal
the surface and prevent oxidation of the iron. The process known as passivation for stainless steel (see
the article by Micah Millspaw in a previous issue of BrewingTechniques [1]), is a common means of
improving this protective oxide layer through the use of oxidizing acids. Anodizing aluminum alloys is
a similar method in that a solid aluminum oxide barrier is created to prevent further corrosion. Like
stainless steel, anodized (black) aluminum cookware (Magnalite, Calphalon) is acid neutral and
resistant to acidic food because of this heavy oxide layer. Plain (bright) aluminum cookware lacks the
degree of surface oxides necessary to prevent reaction with corrosive media.

Stainless steel's Achilles heel: All metals are crystalline materials that have specific crystal structures
that are dependent on temperature. These structures are referred to as phases and are given names such
as austenite and ferrite. A block of metal is very similar to a block of salt. A block of salt is really a
bunch of grains of salt all fused together. These grains are oriented every which way, and the interface
to the next grain of salt is called the grain boundary. As you would expect, the grain boundary is
weaker than the grain itself. The crystalline structure of metals is exactly the same in this respect. (By
the way, if you would like to see a metallic grain structure, go look at an aluminum street-light pole.
That mosaic you see is the grain structure.) Because the grain boundaries within a metal are the
weakest sites, heat and corrosion usually affect these areas first.

The corrosion resistance of stainless steel depends on the chromium. Austenitic stainless is a
supersaturated solution of chromium and nickel in iron. It is actually a very high temperature phase
that has been quenched (quick-cooled) to preserve the distribution of elements.
Austenitic stainless does not like middling-high heat. It performs well up to 600 °F (315 °C), but
higher temperatures in the range of 800-1600 °F (425-870 °C) cause atom diffusion and change the
metal's properties. Such high temperatures allow the chromium to diffuse away from the grain
boundaries to form chromium carbides, its preferred crystalline structure at that temperature range. If
exposed to these high temperatures and chromium diffusion occurs, the metal becomes sensitized and
prone to cracking. The diffusion of chromium away from the grain boundaries results in non-stainless
grain boundaries surrounded by stainless steel. This situation soon leads to localized corrosion and
rapid cracking of the grain boundaries. To correct this, the metal must be heated to at least 1900 °F
(1040 °C) for a period of time in an inert gas atmosphere and then quenched to retain the austenite
crystal structure. Unfortunately, doing this heat treatment to a welded keg would result in considerable
warping and distortion. It is better to get another keg and start over.

Welding is a local melting-freezing process that creates high temperature gradients in the metal around
the weld. This heat affected zone (HAZ) is the region where unwanted atom diffusion can take place if
it is hot enough, long enough. Time/temperature curves describe this phenomenon, and the curve for
alloy 304 is shown in Figure 1. The figure shows that for type 304 stainless (nominal carbon content of
0.08%), 5 min at 600 °C (1110 °F) or higher will cause chromium diffusion that will later cause
cracking in service. Type 304L stainless - "L" denoting less carbon (nominal 0.03%) - is more
weldable and can spend about 6 hours at 600 °C before becoming sensitized. Most kegs (in North
America) are made from 304L to facilitate welded construction.

Caution must be taken when heating stainless steel equipment. I know of one home brewer whose cut-
off keg boiler began cracking at the bottom. The cracks appeared at the flame line where the flame of
the cajun cooker-style propane heater met the keg. This shows that he was running the flame too hot
and that, over time, chromium atom diffusion was taking place.

Diffusion is cumulative.
Once this type of cracking occurs, there is no economical way to correct it.

Table I   Manual Welding Parameters for 304L Stainless Steel

Argon Flo
Welding Thickness Current Voltage Filler Rod Weld Speed Wire Feed
w
Method (in.) (amps) (volts) (AWS) (in./min) (in./min)
(ft3/h)

85
MIG 0.063 21 ER316L 15 19 184
DCEP

0.045, 30/70 As
TIG 12-14 ER316L 12 2-4
0.090 DCEN Required

JOINING OF STEEL AND BRASS OR COPPER

Stainless steel is routinely welded, but it must be welded under an inert gas atmosphere. The most
reliable method for welding stainless is the tungsten inert gas (TIG) process, also known as GTAW or
helio-arc. TIG welding has the advantage of a small weld head, it requires lower heat input, and filler
metal is optional.

The other common welding methods for stainless steel, metal inert gas (MIG) and shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW), are not as well suited for welding thin sections like beer keg walls. (Note: Never
weld on vessels that you intend to use under pressure [i.e., kegs that will be used as kegs]. Because
modern beer and soda kegs are designed thin to save on material, a modified keg should never again be
pressurized. Welds are always weaker than the base metal, and at least one death has been attributed to
a keg exploding after modification.) MIG is commonly used for all types of stainless welding, but the
weld gun must be held close to the work, which decreases its effectiveness in tight areas. MIG
equipment will be more available to a do-it-yourselfer and should provide a satisfactory joint.

SMAW is commonly used for welding thicker pipe and tanks. It has the disadvantage of obscuring the
weld joint during the pass, and the slag must be removed between passes. Equipment and electrode
filler rods are readily available; however, this welding process is not recommended for brewing
equipment. The welder lacks the control necessary to ensure a good weld.

Because 300 series stainless steels are prone to high-temperature embrittlement and sensitization, the
welder must be careful not to apply too much heat for too long during welding. An experienced welder
will know how to produce a good weld without overheating it.

Welding of thin-gauge stainless steel requires a definite skill. Producing defect-free welds without
overheating the steel takes years of practice, no matter which welding process is used. This is not to
say that a serviceable weld cannot be done by a novice. But in my experience, it is better to take
critical stainless steel weld jobs to an experienced welder rather than attempting it yourself. Bad welds
are difficult to correct in stainless steel. It is more economical to get things done right the first time.
The scale of welding that a home brewer would require would most likely not exceed a welder's 1-h
minimum charge. In fact, I was quoted $25 to weld three pipe nipples into three kegs - not much to pay
for a quality job.

If you wish to do the welding yourself and have access to the necessary equipment, refer to the
suggested weld schedules for manual TIG and MIG welding of 304L steel shown in Table I. The MIG
weld setup uses a 97.5%/2.5% mix of argon and carbon dioxide and 0.030 electrode wire. The TIG
welding uses a sharpened (~30#161#), thoriated (2%), 3/32-in. diameter electrode, and 1/16-in.
diameter filler rod. The shielding gas for TIG welding is 100% argon. Note that the same filler metal is
used for both processes. As Jeff Donaghue noted in his article, "A Primer on Welding Stainless Steel"
in the September issue of BrewingTechniques (2), vocational welding classes are usually available
through adult education programs and community colleges. These classes can provide the necessary
instruction, equipment, and practice material needed to get you working on your brewing equipment.

SOLDERING
Stainless steel can also be soldered or brazed to itself or to brass or copper, with good results. These
processes provide good alternatives to the welding of stainless steel fittings. They allow the copper
tubing and brass fittings to be attached directly onto the stainless steel. There is some potential for
galvanic corrosion of the copper or brass in preference to the silver. (In terms of electrochemical
activity, stainless steel is more passive than silver solder, which is more passive than brass or copper.)
Available industry service data indicate that the corrosion rate should be quite small. Many people
have used silver alloys with these metals and have experienced no galvanic corrosion problems.
Table II
Common Silver Solders The difference between soldering and brazing is temperature.
The American Welding Society defines soldering as metal
Composition (%)         Temperature coalescence below 800 °F and brazing as metal coalescence
Silver Tin °F °C above 800 °F. Both processes bond adjoining metal surfaces by
completely wetting the surfaces with molten filler metal and
3 97 430 220 maintaining that bond until solidified. The bond is only as
2 98 450 230 strong as the filler metal, but some braze metals can be very
strong indeed.

Stainless steel is difficult for solders and braze filler metals to wet. The surface oxides that protect it
from corrosion also prevent the filler metals from wetting the surface. Special fluxes are needed to eat
through these stainless oxides. The silver solder commonly sold for home plumbing with copper pipe
will work on stainless, but a different flux is needed. Look for a flux containing hydrochloric acid or
one that says it is for fluxing nickel alloys or stainless. The specifics for two common silver solders are
listed in Table II.

In my experience, getting the steel hot is the big problem. A propane torch can be used, but the flame
needs to be slightly reducing in nature to prevent the re-formation of surface oxides. The best method
for soldering a copper or brass fitting onto a stainless steel pipe is to "tin" the fitting first with solder.
Next, apply flux to the stainless pipe, and fit the two pieces together. Then heat the joint, and feed
more solder into the joint once it is hot. By using this method, the steel surface is protected from the air
until it is hot enough to be wetted by the solder.
 Table III
Standard AWS Silver-Based Brazing BRAZING
Alloys Silver-based brazing
Composition alloys have lower
melting temperatures
AWS         than copper or zinc
5.8
Spec's
Silver Copper Zinc Others brazing alloys, so the
silver-based alloys are
44.0- 14.0- 23.0-25.0 the more practical choice
BAg-1 14.0-16.0
for do-it-yourselfers. 46.0 18.0 Cd  ** Two issues must be kept
in mind when brazing. 14.5- 17.0-19.0
First, most brazing
49.0-
temperatures are right in BAg-1a
51.0
14.5-16.5
18.5 Cd the temperature range
that causes sensitization of the steel. The braze
must be done efficiently 34.0- 19.0- 17.0-19.0 to ensure that the time
BAg-2 25.0-27.0
limit for the onset of 36.0 23.0 Cd diffusion is not exceeded.
Acetylene and propane 29.0- 21.0- 19.0-21.0 are two of the most
common gases used for BAg-2a 26.0-28.0 torch brazing. Use a
31.0 25.0 Cd
slightly reduced flame and AWS-type 3A flux,
which has the higher 13.5-
16 Cd, 3N* useful temperature range
49.0-
BAg-3 14.5-16.5
needed for brazing 51.0 17.5 (1050-1600 °F). Both
surfaces to be joined 39.0- 26.0- must be cleaned and
fluxed for best results. As BAg-4 29.0-31.0 1.5-2.5 Ni in soldering, it is a good
41.0 30.0
idea to prebraze the fitting, because it has the
higher thermal mass in 44.0- 23.0- the localized area.
BAg-5 29.0-31.0   
Preheating the fitting will 46.0 27.0 help decrease the amount
of time that heat is 49.0- 14.0- applied to the joint.
BAg-6 33.0-35.0   
51.0 18.0
A friend of mine recently brazed a stainless steel
pipe nipple directly onto BAg-7 55.0- 15.0-
21.0-23.0 4.5-5.5 Sn the side of a stainless
steel milk can (Figure 2). 57.0 19.0 He flattened the wall of
the can with a hammer to 71.0- allow a good flat fit-up
with the nipple. The pipe BAg-8 73.0
Remainder     was 1/2-in. NPT with a
wall thickness of 1/4 in. The pipe was heated first
71.0-
because it had a much BAg-8a
73.0
Remainder     higher thermal mass than
the milk can wall. It was brazed using a flux-
coated rod and an BAg-13
53.0-
Remainder
4.0-
0.5-1.5 Ni
acetylene torch. The
braze was quite strong, 55.0 6.0 allowing him to torque
up a connecting threaded BAg- 55.0- fitting such that he later
had trouble taking it 13a 57.0
Remainder   1.5-2.5 Ni apart!

Silver brazing rod 10Sn. contains no lead, but

59.0-
BAg-18 Remainder   0.125 max.
some of the alloys 61.0
P# contain cadmium, which
is worse. Cadmium will cause severe heavy metal
poisoning. The American BAg-19 92.0- 0.15-0.30 Welding Society alloy
93.0
Remainder   Li
designations are listed in Table III. Do not use the
alloys containing 29.0- 30.0-
cadmium. Look for rods
that are made for food BAg-20
31.0
37.0-39.0
34.0
  industry applications.

BAg- 62.0- 6 Sn, 2.5

27.5-29.5  
21 64.0 Ni
*Total maximum allowable impurities in each allow is 0.15%.
Issue 2.6 Table Of Contents

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