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    21 views93 pages

    Short Notes

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    LAKHAN KHANDELWAL

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 93
    System Specified part of the universe which is under investigation “01 em: + can exchange matter : Peat josed” system: * no exchange of mower rater *noexhange of heat * carvexchange heat Thermodynamic Properties Intensive Extensive * Do not depend on * Depend on the the quantity or size quantity or size of of matter present matter present in in the system the system * Pressure, Temperature,| * Mass, volume, Specific heat, melting. Enthalpy,, internal and boiling point energy, Entropy * Not additive * Additive State functions * Value does not depend on the path taken to reach that specific function or value * Pressure Volume, Temperature, Entropy, Enthalpy, Internal Energy. Internal Energy(U) * It is the energy that a system stores within itself. This energy stands for the total energy of the system Heat(Q) Form of energy that can be transferred from one object to another or even created at the expense of the loss of other forms of energy. t I Surroundings Remaining part of the universe which can interact with the system Thermodynamic Processes Isobaric: Constant Pressure lsochoric: Constant Volume Isothermal: Constant Temperature Adiabatic: Totally isolated system Path functions * Depend on the path taken to reach that specific value * Heat and Work Done Work(W) Total quantity of energy that the system and its surroundings exchange within hi 5 ahantealies SURROUNDING tw), The change in internal energy of a system is equal to the heat added to the system minus the work done by the system AU=Q-W Change in internal energy the syst Heat addedto Work done by em the system Internal energy change of a reaction(AU):- Heat absorbed or evolved by the system at constant volume AU =a, =mc aT Enthalpy change of a reaction(AH):- Heat absorbed(+ve) or evolved (-ve) by the system at constant pressure aH = q, me, pat oH = (sum of enthalpies of products) —(sum of enthalpies of reactants) z 2H duets” z BH eee CH,(g) + 20, (g) > CO,(g) + 2H, 0(i) JH oH=2a r i i products -EbH i reactants ={H,,, (CO,,g) + 2H, (H0,0]-[H,, (CHy8) + 2H, (Oy8)] Enthalpy of Formation 4H, The quantity of heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of the compound forms from its elements. 1 H,{e)+-0,(8) > H,0() BH,= -68keal Enthalpy of Phase transformation * Conversion of one mole of substance from one state to another * Molar enthalpy of fusion 4, H®- solid to liquid * Molar enthalpy of vaporization A. H'- liquid to gas * Molar enthalpy of sublimation A,.H”- solid to gas Enthalpy of Combustion The quantity of heat evolved when one mole of the substance completely oxidises. CH,(g) + 20,(g) > CO,(g) + 2H,O(l) AH= -213kcall Cigraphite) + 0,{g) > CO,(g) AH= -94.0kcal Enthalpy of Hydration The quantity of heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of an anhydrous or a partially hydrated salt is combined with the required number of moles of water to form a specific hydrated substance CuSO {s) + 5H,0{!) > CuSO, 5H,O(s) OH= -18,7kcal Hess’s law of constant heat summation:- Heat change accompanying a reaction is always the same, whether the reaction takes place in one multi steps AS otal = aS. + AS, For irreversible process SS otal >0 For reversible process AS, ,,,, = 0 Gibbs energy(QG):- Net energy available to do useful work 4G. AH, — TAS, ‘sys System's entropy change Gibbs energy change of the system System’s Temperature ‘System's enthalpy change step or Spontaneity All processes which occur naturally usually proceed spontaneously in one direction only. Fi Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry SI system involves the use of prefixes Multiple Base Physical Symbol for Quantity Quantity t ; : Die scaly ' Electrons orbit the nucleus in their orbits at a high speed. Neutron«’ * Proton Comparison of Subatomic Particles Inside nucleus Rit ab a pd eye a line Pee | a Inside nucleus 0 1.68 x10™ pity ee a: Outside nucleus -1.602 x 10° ee ae mettle eee eee ee Isotopes ATO M S See er) same atomic number different Different atomic number same ist wale nals] ag mass number * *. a 5 Meee ale lahore) Mate) n) r or * is 10 and Sodium is 11. : Tee Se es Le : Isotones sodiaphers Different atomic numbers and mass numbers, ae deal a ¥ ui . > but the same difference between numbers of neutrons with different i ccaps acl eaH are Male lags] 1m la Le i atomic number nd a7 elec as Med mscel tema atis gta alle F eo ear Reta ened Te ees) Raye meaner) | |edit Unite lle. a : number is 146. eee (32-16=16), so isotonic, ---- Atomic Number (Z) Saree Mass Number ............ C| Mel eos col ole ol Mass Number of an atom = number : in nucleus of an atom of protons + number of neutrons | pee Quantum Number [eerie eee eee t-« Principle Quantum Number Deter cdil / a + Azimuthal Quantum Number ea ial ; bac ; ruil pe eB WeMdel® Wd oe LAOLUM OL si-ig enameled | A Spin Quantum Number ATOMIC ORBITALS i en ad Shapes of Atomic Orbitals Energies of Atomic Orbitals ] Electrons in an atom distribute themselves Led achisheal elit 5 to reach the lowest possible energy to Pla Me Set ets om eo. ere rey era EVs rasa tas aol ey aC ag a Fen emi M emcee hele ae i ' ‘ | ry L oI There are three p orbitals - - - + 5 rl “hh . —— its mile Te ene Leta if ey a woo f A ao ey no Lo a a be mF rg re ee cee ee re ee Fel ‘ oe a Ss = — i a ae ag ee af WM ieee [em Wee mega ee 3 + 4 g° @& : : tT 3p ad = . i = 7 Fi Caer = lore \ / ' ay eet ted BM ayesc- ws pape ea lj eo Ld a a? _ - © _ s - s Reet | | | i 8 ap a *y "5 = rs ATOMIC MODELS — » Development leading to Meare Geter Wie te ee Me see Mes ee) eee "i * cel SCs nucleus is surrounded by : . Qualnature of S ° : * a feels de alin ae : electromagnetic radiation ! Tse (aie erat celat mem b ea r aoe : ns : Black Body Radiation H res oie A) « Photoelectric Effect 1 «Bohr Bury Scheme : Distribution of electrons : in orbits is called electronic : configuration H ; : q iH Anatom resembles a ; sphere of positive charge 4 with electrons present J aie (om eared) a] preic sy da atom is Pesta aa i /empty space mostly with ‘electrons orbiting in set, | predictable paths around | fixed posi tively charged Pale tel (=) 0h) Alpha particle scattering experiment Palgee artes Be aes for ta 2 MSE ats alls Pe td eel _. viewing microscope i. er ee es a> * , *. » ae mission Spectra } Emission —} oa “By ABOrphian Spectr yl Absorption Spectra a ee |e High density Cald gas as hot matter Dual Behaviour of Matter pes Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle It is impossible to determine an electron’s position and momentum at eat-in enn Radiations show dual behaviour i.e. both wave-like and particle-like properties This means that just like photons, electrons should _ 8a Particle also have a wavelength as produce wellas momentum. eh i al Deve I Every eighth element in the arrangem arrangement - Newlands’ Octave Atomic Volumes Dobereiner's Triad-Atomic mass of 2 Part I lopment of the Periodic Table cation of elements - a) oS 6 7 ent would have same properties as the first element in the occupy the same position on the curve - Lother Meyer's Volume Curve the element present in middle of the triad is equal to the arithmetic mean of the atomic masses of the other two elements Physical and chemical properties of the el Every group has the same number of valence electron, but number of shells increase by one Every period has the same number of shells ALKALI METALS dtl Lithium BB sein Ba evricion acon Tl rancium OTHER NON METALS aa (i be Bef caton Nitrogen, Cheygen (eB S2| Poomptorn Sutin (Ae) [Se sete Hydrogen ae obassi eT 2 Cale & Bariurn @ Radium POST TRANSITION METALS is) Gallium es Indium, Tan Thallium.Lead Ada Magnesaun a ‘Strowtaum Physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses - Mendeleev's Periodic Law ements are the periodic functions of their atomic numbers 24 6 £9 10 1) 82 13 14 15 16 17 18 The Periodic Table of the Elements 5 7 Group—1 {Petied flock ALIKALINE EARTH METALS TRANSITION META as a ‘Pine Yous Medben Taieem Rbaliom Sih S o of in “algectons ee gigas (Gnvaugntores Hid * Temporary dipoles * Between Non polar molecules * Low strength of attraction Dipole - Induced Dipole Forces rs & bs & Induced dipoke - * One permanent, one induced dipoles « Atleast one molecule must be polar * Medium strength of attraction Thermal energy increases Solid Intermolecular Force Increases * At constant temperature (T),the volume(V) of the given (©) CHARLES’ LAW * At constant pressure (P), the volume (V) of a given amount of a gas is inversely proportional to pressure (P) amount of a gas is directly proportional to absolute temperature (T). * Vee T (p and n constant) or, ¥* t= Ms # dec te} focal Th = ® Voc pc and n constant) or, PiV; = P2V2 spe 4(T constant) or, as = Pt po Vi Ta>Ta>Ty | years: d= density} es Ls th ee — Ta2Ta2T1 Vor 1/d— V/V ord — ee VAMU cy louse ON « At constant volume (V), the pressure of a given amount of a gas is directly proportional to absolute temperature (T). * px T(Vandn constant) or, Pt = Pa Tr Ta | Wi p Va Zz sie Va>VarVi Oo T(K) — t) AVOGADRO'S LAW « At constant temperature (T) and pressure (P), equal volumes (V) of all the gases contain equal number of molecules. * Ve n (Tand p constant) or, Vs = Va i Volurne wn Volume (v2) Quantity in mol Quantity in moll fn) a) Ideal Gas equation * From Boyle's, Charles’ and Avagadro's law, Qe = constant For 1 mole, Pave = Fava [Gas equation] * For 'n’ moles of gas, pV = nRT =i RT > a This is called ideal gas equation and R is called universal gas constant. Pivs _ PoV2 5 ‘ a (combined gas equation) n. T constant ECR me mc eect * When two or more chemically non-reacting gases are enclosed in a vessel,the pressure (4 exerted due to gaseous mixture is the sum of partial pressure (P,,P,,P,...P,) © Pig PLAP, FPycssisicesens +P = a Di cial Vy | | | Connbanaragy thee Where, P, =x, P_, and P,=%, Py ' tec gactars, Where x, and x, are mole fraction of gases ® o . - °° "re 1 and 2 respectively. 0 ° co eo *® o LJ oo o P, P, Pia P * P, Tr eam Lice) « The rate of effusion (or diffusion) of non-reacting gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressure are inversely proportional to the square root of their densities |.” “oa Diffusion; |< * ‘i : ‘ ( | or molar masses jets Te - oe WI re 1 oc 1 Lies =" wh oe Jd /M If two gases are diffused (or effused) under different pressures P) and Ps, then fr, V,t, Ee | FC Mt © 2 Kinetic Theory of Gases « Explains Microscopic (Pressure, Temperature) and Macroscopic properties of Gases (Kinetic energy) d, Bs |M, d, "E, | Ma Different types of molecular velocities defines for gas molecules E} Average Velocity (7) 5 ot Mice ga Vi ear lar ae where, d = density of gas, M = malar mass of gan (b | Root Mean Square Velocity (2j00 ) me aaiietigns Leap | 3p % M M p Relation between 2 2)... and 2%, 2h: Di Dogg = VB: WE NB ( 2 >b, hence Van der Waals equation (for 1 Lane amsorde (P+8,)v = RT or vi pre (1 -yaq)=z ion iy hanes Bob easteren 8 ant can be neglected.Hence, Van der Waals ees = RT (For 1 mole f gas behaves as an ideal gas, rol Pd P>> jas hence 8, can be neglected, and Van der Waals equation becomes, P(V -b) = RT (Forn=1 mole) or Fy= zip di] pe Be Both P and V are small and hence both pressure and volume corrections are appreciable.Hence,there is no change in the Van der Waals equation. cetera) eg atte factor to consider molecular volume Rea eMC os eee een) i | Critical Temperature (Te) (al auckutui al temperature above which the gas can not be liquefied, even if a large pressure is applied. itis expressed as: Tg = one ii Teese (5) it is the minimum pressure required to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature and is given by P. = a/27b* iifetebetekeio) It is the volume occu- : i pied by a mole of gas at critical temperature - a and pressure and is given by V_ = 3b 6, @ No definite shape but have definite volume. = ® Density less than solid but more than gas. © Density decreases with increase in temperature. © Molecules held together by Van der Waals force like London forces, Hydrogen bonding ete. i— Isotherm of CO: showing critical temperature A} Evaporation. When kinetic energy of liquid molecule exceeds intermolecular force of attraction, it escapes as vapour and the process is called evaporation. Surface molecule : net attraction into the liquid ® The force acting along the surface of a liquid at right angle to any line per unit length is called surface tension. @ Surface tension = Wa Fores: = Nm ~~ Change in area Length : Unit = Nm ® Due to surface tension, liquids tend to rise or fall in capillary tube, and is given by h =-2Teos 8 "pg Where, T = surface tension, p= density of liquid, r= radius of capillary, 8= angle of contact Interior molecule : attracted in all directions During evaporation and boiling,the pressure exerted by vapour in equilibrium with liquid at a particular temperature is called vapour pressure. of the plate ‘A’ ¢ ¢ u-du Viscosity is the measure of the resistance offered to the flow of liquid due to internal friction between two liquid layers. @ The viscous force between two liquid layers of area of cross-section A, separated by a distance dx having velocity difference dv is F = n ase Where, n is coefficient of viscosity, and is constant for a liquid at a given temperature. Unit of n : Nsm* or Pa-s (SI unit), poise or gem “s" (CGS Unit) The reciprocal of viscosity is called fluidity. ole ielaielan amy Rate of forward reaction = Rate of reverse reaction — SLE Us sree No change in the Amount/concentrations of the in amounts reactants and the products Equilibrium Constant aA(aq) + bB(aq) = cC(aq) + dD(aq) c c] be Equilibrium concentration of products b hen f CSG SR me keer ikaet ach cs Gibbs free energy and equilibrium Le chatelier’s Principle constant RE a eee [C] [0] pressure, volume, or concentration of a ea eaPereel system will result in predictable and CNR) eye) et Meir Uae a) itera) achieve a new equilibrium state. {\G=0 and K = o PACH ae i ear ret ene ie AG =-RTIn ae Factors influencing Equilibrium Concentration Temperature ede A pn CSO oe: A+2B = C+D Intheasing concentration of Ue em tee mm De ea med CO Re ere EM tae ea a See aa sag 4 Po oe pressure will have no offect Addition of Catalyst or inert gas do not have any effect on Equilibrium Theories of Acids and Bases Seema The Bronsted Lowry Theory ay Acids are substances Pee ele icelue(elately Acid are electron pair that contain hydrogen Lae Elaa)sG lee eee e-aei| sat-]ae Mme EBs lis) Ci e-lasslielg eee (ace Berg cima ie) eee ee lel tel e oe OH, group HCl and NaOH NH, and H,O =] Limited to water Limited to proton transfer solutions only er Tel ee] lonic Equilibrium lonization of weak acid lonization of weak Base HA (aq)+H,O(1) 4H,O*(aq)+A A+H,O > OH +HA* Generalised theory K, = [H,O° } [A] / [HA] ee eee Solubility and Solubility product MX, (s) == yM" (aq) + 2X" (aq) ree Ul Brisa melee melt iel alg Molar solubility of the ions Buffer action a meele) al (Te) mel) a H,O*(aq) + CH,COO (aq) = ia .o° Eerie alam ele ie Cem dom tog Mero Me gmt R eRe Ri ma das ee = — : . CH COOH(aq) 4— CH COO (oq) + HO fe es eee) ee ee ele rs] eet emia r meaty) iit me rel latsta nes] Pe eed a after addition of buat) 4 Taal acid and base iis 4 fie tt | i CH COOH i Redox Reactions in terms of Peers eta Coley aie (uy fa Ree eater ne peli e oneeton , ® Oxidation: 1. Addition of Oxygen/Electronegative Loss of electrons by any species Element. Reduction: ees 2 nemoyel of Hydrogen/Electropositive Gain of electrons by any species lement. ® Reduction: : ® Oxidation Agent : Acceptor of electron(s) 1. Bengt of Oxygen/Electronegeative Reduction: Donor of electron(s) lement 2. Addition of Hydrogen/Electropositive * Oxidation State of an element ina Element compound is ascertained by a set of rules 1. The oxidation number of the atoms in any free, uncombined element, is zero 2. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a compound is zero 3. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in an ion is equal to the charge of the ion 4, The oxidation number of fluorine in all its compounds is -1 5. The oxidation number of other halogens in their compounds is usually -1 1. Combination Reactions 00 +1-1 H,+ Cl, + 2HCI +3 -2 0 0 3 -2 AFe+30,—* 2Fe,0, . Decomposition Reactions #1 -2 0 0 2H,0(I) ——— 2H,(g)+0,(q) . Displacement Reactions 0 41-1 +2 -1 0 Cd(s) + 2HCI(aq) ———+ CdCl,(aq) + H,(g) 4.Disproportionation Reactions +1-1 +1-2 0 2H,0, 2H,0+0, = & 5 & 2 £ ce 2 = 6 & 2 e £ 3B - jua6e Bulonpe JeBuoys * Oxidation: Increase in the oxidation number * Reduction: Decrease in the oxidation number * Oxidising agent: Reagent which can increase the oxidation number * Reducing agent: Reagent which lowers the oxidation number * Redox reactions: Reactions which involve change in oxidation number * Oxidation Number Method * Half Reaction Method ¢ Electrochemistry * Titrations « Combustion * Photosynthesis * MnO, + 8H’ + Se” —* Mn® + 4H.0 (KMn0O, as an oxidising agent in acidic medium) * Cr,0,% + 14H’ + 6€° —> 2Cr* + 7H,0 (K,Cr,0, as an oxidising agent in acidic medium) The difference between the electrode potentials of the two electrodes constituting the electrochemical cell is called EMF EMF = E° cathode ~ EP anode Current flow « Electron flow inde Cathode Salt bridge Oxidation Reduction Zn —> tn, 2 Ca _+ 26 $B Gu, Negative E- = Stronger reducing agent than the H*/H, couple Positive E’= Redox couple is a weaker reducing agent than the H*/H, couple Should be Placed in Group 1 Hydrogen has one elactron in its ay H(z=1):1 ae ee) ee Na (z=11):2,8,1 1 Rite ort reno r aE ol recur i Hydrogen soe) Good Reducing Agent comet eee ee tke) Exot leer ceed) Forms Halides Fs eel} ete + 2HC Position of Hydro laa ARS) ae Hydrogen can gain one olactron to og | ca ee ol Cl+e+ Cl Hydrogen and halogens form diatomic molecules. H,,Cl, Combines with metals to form metallic hydrides. Pee Pu Ee Rew. ne) Peers gee Rina 1e] ace) form molecules with covalent bonding. Isotopes. H H H Ae Hydrogen phiynlaal Propartion a Se eC SLE eC Rta Lod See cd eer tn) erent eter . 4 es 1H Ts) OO ee a sade eo et ee ac eet te Coe Ce | DC ec del DS ea Ree — Ll a OREN eae eer edahsa ced be ea le ee aay oiled @ Whon Hydrogen reacts with s-Biock Pree nc) fal arse tir Bic ere ui eo ae! atic) Rat eee Hf eectee ert nt nc +h Pr erica) bea als ed Amphoteric Nature rel mar ent 1] cheae: CRON Ect Came) Hydrolysis Reaction eee) ites em) Redox Reactions Pe ee ela Tac no nal Ps 96.0 pm_ Peter ea te hl Goel gee CR CCE m Se era ao Beard Ce ee Cty Fe ea SC Eats Peer Er eM elt hed et Reet Re} et ees as eer (sa 1c) dol ae pe aie roca eMC eed eee ee eR ae PO er cek Cg et) ei ied Pres] 0) Heavy Water (D,0) eee Te mt Ler Lem Mei eels L Ui) Ca Da eu ee tae Ce een eran race eT enone rm cu) Pee uC Oe rae ae on) HydrogenasaFuel 2H, +O, + 2H,0 + a lot of heat energy Why is hydrogen a better fuel source than fossil fuels like coal and petroleum? Ce Cue tur ice me ities © Has a higher efficiency than gasoline, olf, petrol, etc ® Engines working with hydrogen as a tual operate silently. et ae ue ea er Lieu Ce mie at Grier en Mea hoes Reducing action eer mer er tte pe ae Ser Penn PSR Re Vena Pane Er | Un PTE RE atta a The 5-Block Elements penctielty lowrarde sir | Li,O, Na 0, Mo, = oo [Washing Sods} eR oe ee eel i — ae ered Chemical Properties [Sodium Chioride Chioride | « (M=Li, K, Ma, Rb, Cs} Sodiurn ow | | Atomic and Physical Properties / (M= F, Cl, By, 1) [ Iti, Wa, WK, Fibs, Cs) * Silvery white, soft and light metals Co . . Ce | t * Electronic Configuration - ns! * Atomic and lonic Radil - Increase down the group “TE, EA,EN - Decrease down the group * Hydration Enthalpy - Decrease down the group Reducing Nature — Strong Reducing Agent M(5) > Pale) sublimation enthalpy Mig) > M"(g)ee” ionisation enthalpy M"(g}+H,0 > M"(aq) hydration enthalpy Alkali Metals ee GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Anomalous Properties of Lithium OF THE COMPOUNDS OF THE ALKALI METALS - * Least reactive * Deliquescent Oxides and Hydroxides * Lithium hydrogen carbonate is not obtained M,O + H,0 2M" 20H in solid fanm while all other elements form M0, + 2H,0 <) 2M" 4 20H" + H,0, sold hydrogencarbonates aM, + 2,0 4 aM" + 20H + H,0, +0, * Lithium nitrate on heating gives lithium = ouide Halides AK (Mel, Br, F, |) 5 z 3 High negative enthalpies of formation ” shes aesemnaepiineg 2 Salts of Oxoacids The alkali metals form salts with all the Uses of Alkali Metals oxo-aciels, They are generally soluble in |— water and thermally stable er i Teter] eee boii) Batteries Street lamps to give Potassium nitrate is orange glow used as fertilizer and explosives, Medicines to treat Alloyed with potassium Potassium hydroxide is mental disorder to make material for used in the manufacture transferring heat in of soft soap, Nuclear reactor, Sodium Hydroxide is In the body, potassium used to prepare ions are needed to send cosmetics, soap etc. nerve impulse. in the bady, sodium ians ore needed to send nerve impulse. The s-Block Elements | Be and Mg -Inert to Calcium Oxide -——— a eacenly tome antes | Oxygen and Water ———<—<—<—<—$_$—== | Metals | Ca, Se, Ba- Form oxide Calcium Hydroxide — | and nitride Tae a ees ate are ee gd [ rs enemas’ — EEE tad fm | Plaster of Paris } Pes Mites cst gale =~ | SU i a | —————EE ——— * Electronic Configuration- ns* =p K, Fb, Cs) * Atomic and ionic radii - Increase down the group ‘ eae * 1E,EA,EN-Decrease down the group ——_____» Maix+yjNH {M(NH ) ]°*+2[e(NH } ] * Solubility- Decrease down the group eee rh wd * Melting and Boiling Point decreases Reducing Nature * Strong Reducing Nature * Large negative values of reduction potential * Reducing power is less than those of their corresponding alkali metals Alkaline Earth Metals GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Pu een meee OF THE COMPOUNDS OF THE ea LOL ee sod | ee a ae re ee a * it’s small and has high polarising power. — SS * Relatively high electronegativity and Oxides and Hydroxides ionivation enthalpy a4 compared to other MO+H,0 > MIO), members. Be(OH), + 20H" [Be(OH),)” _ * Absence of vacant d-orbitals in its valence Beryliate lor shell. Be(OH), + 2HC)+ 2H.0 + [Be(OH), jc, Halides : eae LLL Except, Be, all alkaline earth metals are Beryllium and Aluminium ionic in nature } Li ate Uses of Alkali Metals Salts of Oxoacids ; Me * Carbonates * Nitrates * Sulphate: * Be- Manufacture of alloys * Cu-Be alloy Used in the preparation of high strength springs * Mg-Al alloys- Used in aircraft construction * Ca- Used in the extraction of metals from oxides * Bislogical Importance — Ca and Mig Some p-Block elements - Group-13 * Electronic configuration: ns*np' * Boron is a metalloid and Al, Ga, In * Elements: B, Al, Ga, In, Tl and Tl are metals * Atomic radii: Generally increases down the group, but atomic radius * Melting Point: Decreases from B of Ga is lower than that of Al to Ga and then increases * lonisation Enthalpy: 4.H, 2Al* (aq) + 6CI (aq) + 3H, * Alkalis- 2Al (5) + 2NaQH(aq) + 6H_O(l) > 2Na*[Al(OH),}-(aq)}+3H_(g) * Reactivity towards halogens Compounds of Boron Borax (Na,B,0,-10H,0) Na,B,0, + 7H,0 > 2NaOH + 4H,BO, ‘Onboborte acid * 2E(s) + 3 X, (g) > 2E ; (Except Til,) (X =F, Cl, Br, | Na,B,O, .10H,0 > Na,8,0, > 2NaB0,+ B,0, ee eee el eee Diborane (B,H,) H Preparation: pO—B—-0, ZNaBH, +1, > BH, + 2Nal +H, Na, Ope 2BF, + 6NaH > B.H, + 6NaF OH Properties: B,H, + 30, > 8,0, + 3H,0 Orthoboric Acid (H,B0,) BH, + GH,O > 28(OH), + 6H, Preparation: 2B,H, + 6NH, > 3(BH,(NH,),]"1BH,) > 2B.N.H, + 12H, Na,B,O, + 2HCI +5H.O > 2NaCl + 4H,BO, Properties: Structure : Monobasic acid- 2 centre-2 electron type B(OH), +2H,0> [B(OH),) +. H,0° 3 centre-2 electron type(banana bond) a H,80, SHBO, 8,0, =H" ? + aot 0” ~o * i H oH | : a o., Some p-Block elements - Group-14 * Electronic configuration: ns'np* * All members of Group 14 are * Elements: C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb solids * Atomic radii: Generally increases down the group * Cand Si are non-metals, Ge is * lonisation energy: Generally, decreases down the group but slight — and Sn & Pb are soft irregularity is observed fram Sn to P r shieldii metals. gularity rom 5n to Pb due poor shielding effect of * Melting & Boiling Point: d and f electrons. Diecheacex down the * Electronegativity: The electronegativity values are almost same from om Group Sito Pb. More electronegative than Group 13 elements. Physical properties Atomic properties Group-14(Carbon family) Anomalous Properties of Carbon v * Small size * High lonization Energy * High electronegativity * Absence of d-orbitals. * Shows maximum covalency of 4 * C forms highly stable covalent compounds * Ability to form long carbon chains (catenation) * Forms multiple pr-pr bonds with itself and with different molecules; C=C, C=5, c=0 Chemical properties ¥ * Oxidation state: +2 and +4 “ Reactivity towards oxygen: * E+O, > EO, Or 2E+0, > 2E0 * CO, SIO, and GeO, are acidic; SnO, and PbO, are amphoteric in nature. * CO is neutral; GeO is distinctly acidic and SnO and PbO are amphoteric. * Reactivity towards water: * Carbon, silicon germanium and lead are not affected by water * Tin reacts with steam :- Sn +2H,0~49n0,+ 2H, * Reactivity towards halogens: * The group 14 elements are oxidized by halogens Compounds of Carbon * E(s) + 2X, (g) > EX, ; (E=C, Si, Ge) (x = F, Cl, Br, I) P rb * The +2 halides are more stable for tin and lead, Snx, | and PbX.. Carbon Monoxide (CO) Preparation: Carbon Dioxide (CO,) Preparation: a 2C{s} + O,(g) —32CO(g) C(s) + 0,(g)——>C0, (g) HCOOH ——=——9H,0 + co CH,(g) + 20,{g)-45€0,,(g) + 2H, O(g) Cts) + H,O(¢) “9. co{a) +H,e) CaCO, (s) + 2HCI (aq) > CaCl,(aq) + CO,(g) + H,O(!) woven ean a 2C(s) + O,(g) + 4N,(g) ———9.2C0/e) + 4N.{e) Uses: ae * Useful for the process of photosynthesis where green Uses: plants convert atmospheric In the extraction of many metals fram CO, into carbohydrates such their oxides ores, as glucose. * Responsible for greenhouse Fe,O,(s) + 3CO(g) 45 aF ets) +300, (g) effect, which keeps the ZnO{s) + CO(g)—B>zn(s) + CO, ta) atmosphere warm. Compounds of Silicon Silicon dioxide Silicones * Covalent, three dimensional Preparation: network solid * 2CH,Cl + Si > (CH,),SICI, + 2H,O > (CH,),Si(OH), + 2HC! * Almost non-reactive due to high “ . 4,0 2 Si-O bond enthalpy n(CH,),Si(OH), TFornenam Silicones ye, [R | Silicones oo 6 ‘ R 1e-Or where R = alkyl or phenyl group SHO-SHOS | R /n Re a Uses: Retnecot * They are used as sealant, greases, electrical insulators and for water proofing of fabrics Silicates Types of Silicates * Orthosilicates contain discrete SiO,” tetrahedra, * Pyrosilicates contain 5,0," unit. * Cyclic or ring silicates contain {sio,)" unit. * Chain silicates contain (SiO,”), unit. * Sheet silicates contain (Si,O,),?" unit. * Three dimensional silicates contain three dimensional network structure. Zeolites * Aluminium atoms replace few silicon atoms in three-dimensional network of silicon dioxide * Cations such as Na‘, K* or Ca* balance the negative charge. * Used as a catalyst in petrochemical industries for cracking of hydrocarbons and isomerisation. B_H.., Boranes: B_H,,, Boranes: B.H, (diborane) | B,H_,(tetraborane) | B.H, (pentaborane — 9) B.H,, (pentaborane — 11) B.H,(hexaborane — 10) | B.H,.(hexaborane — 12) B,,H,,(decaborane — 14) B.H,,(octaborane - 14) Si_H,.., (n =1to8) Ge_H,,.. (n = 1to 5) Organic chemistry -Parto1 al Organic Compunds Acyclic or open chain or aliphatic Cyclic compounds compounds Example: CH, —CH, —CH, (Propane) Homocyclic compounds Heterocyclic compounds Alicyclic compounds or Aromatic Alicylic Aromatic carbocyclic compounds compounds compounds Ls (Y € Cyclopropane THF Pyridine Benzenold compounds Non-benzenold compounds “ OH S Phenol azulene IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic compounds Components of an IUPAC name Name of an Organic compound is made up of eee me LLL etree ier lame] iy Number of Substituent carbons in longest + Type of chain + If functional group chain is present Basic Steps to Name an Organic compound Structural Representation of Organic Compounds HoH ro H—¢—t—H H = we JL | HM ‘ oi / / \ H H i i Polygon Formulae H—C==C—H _— condensed (Only forcycic 3-Dimensional Complete Structure Structure Bond Line Structure compuonds) Strucure Organic chemistry - Part 02 eee Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula, but have a different structures or arrangement of the atoms in space. This phenomenon is called Isomerism. 2 St ee ee ] Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula but . different structures. Isomers differ in their ——————— spatial arrangement about a double bond. Chain Metamerism mae Optical Positional ~ Tautomerism Isomers differ in ators Functional Ring-chain in 3D space which create mirror images of each other. , r eo a [ Permanent state of polarization. 6555+|555+ B55 = S- 5555- 558- 55-\5- 3 Cc——-C—>_- C+ -C-+_F C—_—C—_t—_-C-+-¢-+9 Temporary polarisation and reversible ,occurs in the presence of reagent. n-electrons of the multiple bond are | n-electrons of the multiple bond are transferred to that atom to which the transferred to that atom to which the reagent gets attached attacking reagents do not get attached. The permanent polarization produced In the molecule by the i Interaction of two pl bonds or between a pl bond and lone palr of electrons present on an adjacent atom. « ® =~, ¢:. . s cH, CH,—-CH=CH-0O CH,=CH-Cl: «+ CH,—CH=Cl: Organic chemistry - Part 03 Nucleophilic Substitution Alkyl halides + Cyanide lon Halogenation of methane ene substitution UV light R-X4Y4R-¥4X R-Br + CN» R—CN + Br cH, +, cH, + HC Alkene + HBr yadek fe Sodium 2,4-dinitrophenyl Nitrous Sodium Schiff’s Test Metal Test eee AcidTest Bicarbonate test - Ester Test Acetyl Chloride Test TT giitei ate) of Organic Compounds PV, x 273 Volume of Nitrogen at STP = 760 x T, 28 x Volume of N, at STP x 100 “oOfN 22400 x mass of organic compound Percentage of N = where 14x Mx 2(V—V,/2) m mass of organic compound ing Molarity of H,SO, taken Volume of H»SO, Volume of NaOH used in titration Atomic mass X xm, 100 % of Halogen (X) = Mol. mass of AgXx m where X —»_ is Halogen (Cl, Br, I) m, — > Mass of AgX m —>» Mass of org. compound ing HYDROCARBONS Aliphatic Aromatic hydrocarbons hydrocarbons or arenes (unsaturated) Eg: Benzene Nomenclature 1. Longest continuous chain to be chosen 2. Substituent to be properly numbered 3. Suffix —ane after the root word Alkanes CH, a] ree) mice lan Chemical Properties 1, Unsaturated hydrocarbons Substitution Reaction Pd/N hv CH, = CH, +He t CH, - CH, CH, + Cl, ———> CH, Cl + HCI Ethene Ethane Controlled oxidation 2. Alkyl Halides Zn,H* Cu/523k/100atm : —————_> CH, - Cl+H, ———> CH, + HCI CH, +0, 2CH,OH 3. Carboxylic acids cao CH,COO'Na* + N8OQH———> CH, + Na,CO, Nomenclature 1.Longest continuous chain containing the carbon-carbon double bond, suffix of ene 2.Numbering from nearest carbon to the double bond hex-I-ene 4-methylhes1-ene 4-ethyl-2-methylhew-1-ene 3.Substituent to be properly numbered wy Cee es oe Alkenes CH,. Nomenclature 1.Longest continuous chain containing the carbon-carbon double bond, suffix of ene 2.Numbering from nearest carbon to the double bond 3.Substituent to be properly numbered Chemical Properties Addition Reaction Se=c% KY ——> -¢ -¢- This 7 bond is broken Two o bond are formed Oxidation Combustion CH, = CH, + 30, > 2CO, + 2H,0 By KMnO4 Be kKMnQ, amt 08 OH Alkene Cold an (vicinal diol) ow? Nt Ag ony heen 1 ere 4-methylhex-l-ene 4-ethyi-2-methylhex-1-ene Prepared from 1. Alkynes RC = CR’ + C———- Alkyne anes 2. Alkyl Halides trans - Alkene H H H H H H-O-tH 3 oe H X x(Halogen)=C1,B6r,! 3. Vicinal Dihalides CH,Br - CH,Br + zn—+ CH, = CH, + ZnBr, CH,CHBr - CH, Br + Zn——®CH,CH = CH, + ZnBr, 4, Acidic Dehydration H H | | Cone. H:SOu H-O-C-H — = CH, = CH, + H,0 H OH Ethanol Ethene oo =m 1. Longest continuous chain containing H, c H the carbon-carbon double bond, suffix -yne H Ze ian ee = J 2. Numbering from carbon nearest to the buta-1.3-diene buta-1-yne buta-2-yme —cyclobutene triple bo nad A i 3. et to be — numbered bicyclo[1.1-0]butane H,C~ CH, -CH-C=¢-CH CH, CH, P C CH,CH, cH 2 methylenecyclopropane 1. «methyleyeloprop-1-ene 3-ethyl-6-methyl-oct-4-yne (right) TTT el mili AlkynesC H, elie] Mace) las 1. Calcium Carbide Addition Reaction CaC, + 2H,O-——+Ca(OH), + C,H, se oon Halogens Water -C=ch +Br-e— = -~_ eu Snes ial my im, 2. Vicinal Dihalides 7 arr fr Br Liha Tetubromepeopanat Aromatic Hydrocarbons (Arenes) ay ene Benzene Toluene Naphthalene OO} Biphenyl Weitere) 1. Place the substituent's name before the name of the compound as a prefix in substituted aromatic hydrocarbons, 2. Attach Greek numeral prefixes such as di, tri, and tetra to indicate similar substituent groups in compounds with more than one substituent group. 3. If different substituent groups are present, the substituent at the base is assigned number ‘1’, 4. Use terms such as ortho, meta, and para as prefixes to represent the relative positions like 1,25 1,35 14. RGU m eit eee aural O-0=0 Preparation 1, Cyclic polymerisation of ethyne we Red hot iron tube 1G = one CH SS Son! 2. Decarboxylation of aromatic acids COONa CQ +NaQH OH Chem CD +20 Chemical Properties 1. Electrophilic substitution reactions (i) Nitration oO +Na,CO, 3. Reduction of phenol NO. 323-333 K Oo + Cone.HNO, + Conc. H,SO, ——~ +O Nitrobenzene (ii) Halogenation ad ‘Anhyd, AIC, Cra 2 Cera Chlorobenzene (ili) Sulphonation S0,H Co +H,S0,(S0,) ——“—- OQ +H,0 Benzene Fuming sulphuric sulphonic acid acid (iv) Friedel-Crafts alkylation CH, CO +CH,Cl eee oO +HCl Toluene CH, AIC, oO +CH,cl 2S Cena Ethylbenzene (v) Friedel-Crafts acylation ‘COCH a Antryd. AICI, C +encoa = C+ Acetylchloride Acetophenone COCH, CC) sereo0 1. ) eencoon Acetic anhydride 2. Addition reaction {l) Hydrogenation Omt-O Cyclohexane (ii) Combustion 15 C,H, +50, > 6CO, + 34,0 Environmental Pollution : Part - | =P ly Ties eth atele * Deterioration of earth's land surface « Caused due to garbage, factories, mining a Times enarey a i * Caused by gaseous pollutants and particulate pollutants a alan Lt Reduce Pits Bee Less Hazardous bet Tr ese WUE TE eC lal a ap consi Chemicals Design for ith musica Condensation Process of changing water vapour into water Afforestation Planting trees Teel iia ean sin Pets iS ae PE me bates em eel ace a] ia it Design for Degradation Principles inherently Benign | Chemistry for aie ae etd emits trl an weg | Reduce ee hes eer gest Bet bites ws Rainbow Caused by the dispersion and refraction of sunlight Stratus Clouds Different types of clouds Miscellaneous Finods Concepts Caused due to deforestation, climate change Leaching River Deltas The river needs to carry sufficient sediment to deposit at its mouth to form the delta Removal of a solute from a porous solid when it comes in contact with a liquid Vim voll iehate) a Particulate Pollutants abaeleere-[a ele) Gasoline cat) Liat || Lt deet ity EL Vegetation LU er TET Rat re Pele spas Used as fuels in industries * Climatic Ped and the manufacturing sector disturbanee, Iitxe RK ie Air pollution is mostly caused pee due to automobiles that run on hydrocarbon based fuels € NO is converted to NO, * Failed | pregnancy NO:—NO+O(in presence of sunlight) Volcanic eruption K | * Birth defect a D4 * Increase In & ert ne (Ree. groen house gases ' fa ical Warde Ss Decnrase in rain 4 fall _ Gaseous Pollutants Oxides of carbon Oxides of Nitrogen ET eel ele ite tia ea Mey Respiratory disease Solid state Amorphous ia eli *Randomly organised *Ordered arrangement *No specific shape *Specific geometrical shape *Melts slowly over a range ¢Sharp melting and boiling of temperature points «Short order arrangement of *Long order arrangement ae ymale (=e om ec] ge(e (ss *They break unevenly *Break evenly «Super cooled liquid. *True Solids Crystal lattice is an array of points in a particular order which describes the arrangement of particles of a crystalline solid. Wiligecigg The smallest repeating structure in a crystal. Unit Cell Saale Ere eeu ick e Tlie ele eae Location of particles ee eed ee eer ee Corners + Faces Number of particles | rl 7 A aq s8=1 oe bas ta —jxB+(— x68 in a unit cell rs ae hie ad Packing efficiency Ly rit Bravais Lattices CUBIC aeb=c cefey=%)" TETRAGONAL a=bec asf=y

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