Machine Elements

Umut KARAGÜZEL
Introduction

Power
Transmission

Friction Wheel

Dr. Ali Aydeniz

Folie 1
 Introduction
 A shaft is a rotating member, usually of circular cross section, used to
transmit power or motion. It provides the axis of rotation, or
oscillation, of elements such as gears, pulleys, flywheels, cranks,
sprockets, and the like and controls the geometry of their motion.
 An axle is a nonrotating member that carries no torque and is used to
support rotating wheels, pulleys, and the like. The automotive axle is
not a true axle; the term is a carry-over from the horse-and-buggy era,
when the wheels rotated on nonrotating members.
 A non-rotating axle can readily be designed and analyzed as a static
beam, and will not warrant the special attention given in this chapter
to the rotating shafts which are subject to fatigue loading.
 A complete shaft design has much interdependence on the design of
the components. The design of the machine itself will dictate that
certain gears, pulleys, bearings, and other elements will have at least
been partially analyzed and their size and spacing tentatively
determined.

Machine Design I - Shafts and Axles

 Shafts
 Shafts are supported in general at two locations. The shafts are under
bending due to the machine components assembled on them and under
torsion due to power transmission.

Two-stage
gearbox and
three seperate
shafts

Machine Design I - Shafts and Axles

Shafts in Gearboxes

Machine Design I - Shafts and Axles

Shaft Layout
• The geometry of a shaft is generally that of a stepped cylinder. The
use of shaft shoulders is an excellent means of axially locating the
shaft elements and to carry any thrust loads.

Example of a stepped shaft supporting the

gear of a worm-gear speed reducer.
Each shoulder in the shaft serves a
specific purpose.

Machine Design I - Shafts and Axles

 Shaft Configurations

 A gearbox example for high speed aplications. Even though a uniform

cross-section is easier to manufacture and is good for the strength of the part,
the geometry of the shaft is more complex due to the design considerations as
shown below. Machine components such as gears, pulleys, sprockets are
assembled on the the shaft by using keys.

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Shaft Configurations

 The surfaces of the shafts may be machined to a conical shape for the
shaft-hub connections. The shafts may include holes for different reasons.
The shafts may have shoulders, grooves for locating collars and/or threaded
sections.

Shaft of a grinding
machine.For support,
hydrostatically
pressurized bearings
are used. The
dimensions of the
shaft are determined
such that the
deformations on the
shaft are minimized.

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Shaft Configurations
 The shafts of some machine components have to comply with some
standarts. (For example end of shafts used for power transmission). Also
some machine components such as bearings limits the dimension of the
shaft. Also the assembly and the disassembly of the system should be
considered. In some applications hollow shafts may be used.

Spindle motor of a lathe Machine

Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Assembly and Disassembly

 Consideration should be given to the method of assembling the

components onto the shaft, and the shaft assembly into the frame.
 This generally requires the largest diameter in the center of the shaft,
with progressively smaller diameters towards the ends to allow
components to be slid on from the ends.
 If a shoulder is needed on both sides of a component, one of them
must be created by such means as a retaining ring or by a sleeve
between two components.
 The gearbox itself will need means to physically position the shaft
into its bearings, and the bearings into the frame. This is typically
accomplished by providing access through the housing to the
bearing at one end of the shaft.

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Shaft Configurations

 In general, the componenets such as gears, pulleys etc. are assembled on

shaft. However, sometimes some part of the shaft may be machined as
gears, pulleys etc. A common example is crankshafts.

Crank-
shaft of a
vehicle

Machine Design I - Shafts and Axles

Crankshafts

Machine Design I - Shafts and Axles

Cardan shafts

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Shafts for Ships

Titanic -1912

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Shaft Applications

Axle and drive-shaft of a

front-wheel drive car
1. Axle carrying the tire
2. Drive shaft
3. Constant speed clutch
4. Bearing,
5. Rim
6. Brake

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Elastic Shafts

 Elastic shafts are used in applications at which the transmitted torque is

small and the distance is relatively long. Used in hand-held grinding, drilling
machines, speedometers in cars etc. As shown below, elastic shafts consist
of spring wires wrapped in opposite directions.

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Axles
 Axles do not transmitted any torque. Rope pulleys, vehicle tires,
conveyor support roller, adjusting pulley, sprockets etc.

Conveyor support rollers on a non-rotating axle

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Rotating and Non-rotating Axles

Rail vehicle wheel, non-

rotating axle (a)
and rotating axle(b)
design
The axle in (b) is under
dynamic loading
(bending). In curves,
this axle is under some
torsion due to the
friction between the
wheel and the rail.

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Axle Applications

A rotating wheel and

the gear mounted on
the wheel is assembled
on to a non-rotating
axle (In some
applications it is called
pin)

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Axle Applications
A front wheel
design of a truck.
Non-rotating axle
carriyng the wheel

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Axle Applications

Live center of a lathe. The rotational part can be

considered as an axle. Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Shaft and Axle Materials
 Deflection is not affected by strength, but rather by stiffness
as represented by the modulus of elasticity, which is
essentially constant for all steels. For that reason, rigidity
cannot be controlled by material decisions, but only by
geometric decisions.
 Necessary strength to resist loading stresses affects the
choice of materials and their treatments. Many shafts are
made from low carbon, cold-drawn or hot-rolled steel, such
as ANSI 1020-1050 steels.
Shaft and Axle Materials
 Significant strengthening from heat treatment and high
alloy content are often not warranted. Fatigue failure is
reduced moderately by increase in strength, and then only
to a certain level before adverse effects in endurance limit
and notch sensitivity begin to counteract the benefits of
higher strength.
 A good practice is to start with an inexpensive, low or
medium carbon steel for the first time through the design
calculations. If strength considerations turn out to dominate
over deflection, then a higher strength material should be
tried, allowing the shaft sizes to be reduced until excess
deflection becomes an issue.
 Composite Shafts
In recent years, composite materials have particular
attention on shaft manufacturing. Fiber is used to
transmitted the force. The weight of these shafts is lower
compared to that of steel shafts. These shafts also
dampens the vibration (sound) to some extent which does
not exits on steel shafts.

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Recommendations
 There are no absolute rules for specifying the general
layout, but the following guidelines may be helpful.
 It is best to support load-carrying components between
bearings rather than cantilevered outboard of the bearings
 Pulleys and sprockets often need to be mounted outboard
for ease of installation of the belt or chain.
 The length of the cantilever should be kept short to
minimize the deflection.
Recommendations
 Only two bearings should be used in most cases. For
extremely long shafts carrying several load-bearing
components, it may be necessary to provide more than
two bearing supports.
 Shafts should be kept short to minimize bending moments
and deflections.
 Some axial space between components is desirable to
allow for lubricant flow and to provide access space for
disassembly of components with a puller.
 Load bearing components should be placed near the
bearings.
Recommendations
 The components must be accurately located on the shaft
to line up with other mating components, and provision
must be made to securely hold the components in position.
 The primary means of locating the components is to
position them against a shoulder of the shaft.
 A shoulder also provides a solid support to minimize
deflection and vibration of the component.
Recommendations
 Sometimes when the magnitudes of the forces are
reasonably low, shoulders can be constructed with
retaining rings in grooves, sleeves between components,
or clamp-on collars.
 In cases where axial loads are very small, it may be
feasible to do without the shoulders entirely, and rely on
press fits, pins, or collars with setscrews to maintain an
axial location.
 Recommendations

 Tight tolerances and surface quality should not be used on

the surfaces.
 The minimization of the number of steps for manufacturing
should be considered during the design phase.
 If a cylindrical bulk material is used to machine the shaft,
extreme changes on the shaft diameter should be avoided.
This will reduce the amount of scrap material and reduce the
cost of manufacturing.

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Recommendations

 Stress concentration should be reduced by rounding. In

some cases extra notches can reduce the amount of stress
concentration.
 Length of shafts should be as small as possible and the
locations of the external loading should be close to the
supports. Thus, the amount of deflection and bending
moment is reduced.
 Stress concentrations should be avoided at critical cross-
sections. If not possible, the surface quality or the curvature
radius may be increased.

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Decreasing the Effect of Stress
Concentration

Designs in shafts and axles to decrease the effect of stress

concentration

Machine Design I - Shafts and Axles

Decreasing the Effect of Stress
Concentration

Adding extra notches to decrease the stress concentration (a, b, c, d)

and designs to decrease the stress concentration in fits (e, f) Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Shaft Design for Stress
Critical Locations
 It is not necessary to evaluate the stresses in a shaft at every point;
a few potentially critical locations will suffice.
 Critical locations will usually be on the outer surface, at axial
locations where the bending moment is large, where the torque is
present, and where stress concentrations exist.
 By direct comparison of various points along the shaft, a few critical
locations can be identified upon which to base the design.
 Most shafts will transmit torque through a portion of the shaft.
Typically the torque comes into the shaft at one gear and leaves the
shaft at another gear.
 A free body diagram of the shaft will allow the torque at any section
to be determined.
 The torque is often relatively constant at steady state operation.
 The shear stress due to the torsion will be greatest on outer
surfaces.
Shaft Design for Stress
Critical Locations
 The bending moments on a shaft can be determined by shear and
bending moment diagrams.
 Since most shaft problems incorporate gears or pulleys that
introduce forces in two planes, the shear and bending moment
diagrams will generally be needed in two planes.
 Resultant moments are obtained by summing moments as vectors at
points of interest along the shaft.
 A steady bending moment will produce a completely reversed
moment on a rotating shaft, as a specific stress element will alternate
from compression to tension in every revolution of the shaft.
 The normal stress due to bending moments will be greatest on the
outer surfaces.
 In situations where a bearing is located at the end of the shaft,
stresses near the bearing are often not critical since the bending
moment is small.
Stresses on Shaft and Axles

1) Calculations for Stress

2) Calculations for Vibration

3) Calculations for Deformation (deflection)

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Calculations for Strength

Strength calculations can be seperated into two

1. Dimension Calculations

2. Calculations for Control

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Dimension Calculations -1

In a design of shaft or an axle, a shaft/axle can be considerd as a

beam having supports at bearing locations.

Before the final design, the actual stress distribution along the
shaft/axle cannot be found.

The forces acting on the shaft/axle due to the components mounted

on it and the location of these components on the shaft/axle is good
enough to start the calculations for stress. Even though the forces
acting on shaft/axle are distributed loads, in the model they are
considered as point load. By doing this assumption, the calculations
are performed for a higher stress. With the point load assumption,
the design will be more on the safe side. In critical applications,
more realistic calculations are performed by considereing the
distributed loading.
Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Dimension Calculations -2

First thing to determine is the variation of external loading.

Even constant, same direction bending moment results in
dynamic loading on rotating shafts/axles

The variation of stress at a

point on a rotating
shaft/axle with constant
loading (constant bending
moment)

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Dimension Calculations -3

 On rotating shaft/axles if the angular velocity of

loading is equal to the angular velocity of the
shaft then the load can be considered as static.
 On non-rotating shaft/axles, if the variation on
loading is neglectibly small then it can be
considered as static.
 Power transmission results in torsion on the
shaft. If the variation of torsion is neglectibly
small then it can be considered as static.
 In same cases, not only the magnitude but also
the direction of torque is important.

Machine Design I - Shafts and Axles

 Dimension Calculations -4
Dimension of Shafts
Mb
If only torsion exists  allow
Wb

For solid shafts Wb    d3 / 16

16  M b  allow   y / S
Static case
d 3
  allow
 FS  b0  b1
Dynamic case  allow 
k  S
Size factor b0 , surface factor b1 and fatigue stress-
concentration factor is selected a priori. Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Dimension Calculations -5
Axle dimensions
Axles under bending Me
e 
moment We

Solid axles W e    d3 / 32

32  M e y
d 3 Static case  b allow 
   b allow (Non-rotating)
S
 FS  b0  b1
Dynamic case  b allow 
(Rotating axle) k  S
Size factor b0 , surface factor b1 and fatigue stress-
concentration factor is selected a priori. Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Dimension Calculations -6
Both bending and torsion
If the shaft is under both tension and torsion then the
diameter of the shaft calculated approximately
according to only the torsion stress.
Since the shafts is under dynamic bending
16  M b
d 3 with torsion, the effect of the dynamic
  allowable bending considered by selecting a slightly
higher safety factor (meaning slightly
reducing the allowable stress)
If the material is a carbon tool steel such as St 42, St
50, St 60 and St 70, then the allowable=12...20 N/mm2
is selected and the diameter of the shaft is
determined. Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Calculations for Control
The external loads are shown on
a beam model and the reaction Critical stresses (cross-sections)
forces at the supports are
calculated. The diagrams for the
distribution of bending moment
and torque are drawn if needed.
In addition to that, considering
the shape of the shaft the critical
locations at which the stresses
are higher are determined. While
determining these locations, not
only the moment values but also
some other factor such as stress
concentration should be
considered. Even though the
bending moment adn torque are
relatively lower, that location may
be a critical location due to stress
concentration. In general number
of critical locations is around 1, in
some cases 2-3. The safety
factor in these locations should Machine
Design I -
be determined seperately. Shafts and
Axles
 Calculations for Control -2
The calculations for the critical locations is straight forward if the stress is
only due to bending OR torsion.
First the allowable stresses for these critical locations are determined; b
allow or t allow.
For static loading b allow=y , b allow=y .
For dynamic loading b allow=fatigue strength.b0.b1/k or t allow=fatigue strength.
b0.b1/k
For each critical location; b0, b1 and k are to be determined seperately.
fatigue strength or fatigue strength are determined from the Smith diagrams for
the corresponding material
Safety factor for specific cross-section (critical location),
 b allow
Under only bending, S
b
Under only torsion,  t allow
S
t Machine Design I - Shafts and Axles
 Calculations for Control -2

If the part is under both bending and torsion, then the

equivalent stress is calculated by using the appropriate
hypothesis.
Equivalent Stress (Von-mises Hypothesis)  v   2
b  3 t
2

 b allow
Safety factor S
v
In most cases for shafts, the bending
stress is dynamic whereas the torsion is  v   b2  3  ( K f  t ) 2
either constant or the torque variation is
negligibly small.
Kf=b allow/(2t allow)
Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Calculations for Control -3
Here are the steps that should be followed.

 First, the static and dynamic loading and the corresponding

stresses for each critical location is determined

Static equivalent stress

 vm   bd2  3 td2
(Mean stress)

Dynamic equivalent stress  vg   ba2  3 ta2

(Stress amplitude)

Later the fatigue strength for the corresponding mean stress is

determined from Smith diagrams.

Machine Design I - Shafts and Axles

Calculations for Control-4

The safety factor for each

critical location
bd’
 bd 'b0  b1
S
 k   va

amp
Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Estimating Stress Concentrations
 The stress analysis process for fatigue is highly dependent on stress
concentrations.
 Stress concentrations for shoulders and keyways are dependent on
size specifications that are not known the first time through the
process.
 Fortunately, since these elements are usually of standard
proportions, it is possible to estimate the stress concentration factors
for initial design of the shaft.
 Shoulders for bearing and gear support should match the catalog
recommendation for the specific bearing or gear.
 A look through bearing catalogs shows that a typical bearing calls
for the ratio of D/d to be between 1.2 and 1.5. For a first
approximation, the worst case of 1.5 can be assumed.
Estimating Stress Concentrations
Round shaft with shoulder
fillet
in torsion. τ0 = T.c/J, where
c = d/2 and J = πd4/32.

Round shaft with shoulder

fillet
in bending. σ0 = M.c/I, where
c = d/2 and I = πd4/64.
Estimating Stress Concentrations

Grooved round bar in

bending. σ0 = M.c/l, where
c = d/2 and I = πd4/64.

Round shaft in bending with

a transverse hole.
σ0 = M/[(πD3/32) − (dD2/6)],
approximately.
Estimating Stress Concentrations

Notched rectangular bar in

bending. σ0 = M.c/I, where
c = d/2, I = td3/12, and t is
the thickness.

Rectangular filleted bar

in
bending. σ0 = M.c/I,
where
c = d/2, I = td3/12, t is
the
thickness.
 Estimating Stress Concentration-1

Stress concentration factor k or Kt values can be determined from

the graphs according to the geometry and loading conditions.

a) b)

Stress concentration factor for a shaft with a shoulder a) Bending, b) Torsion

Machine Design I - Shafts
and Axles
Estimating Stress Concentrations-2

The relation between the notch sensitivity and stress

concentration factor and fatigue stress concentration factor:
k=(k-1)/( k-1)
k or Kf=endurance limit of notch free
k, notch sensitivity specimen/endurance limit of notched
specimen

Material q

Tool steel, St 37...St 60 0,4...0,8

Tempered steel 0,6...0,9

Spring steel 0,9...1

Light metals (Aluminum etc) 0,3...0,6

Machine Design I - Shafts

and Axles
Estimates for stress concentration factors for common
applications

Machine Design I -
Shafts and Axles
First Iteration Estimates for Stress
Concentration Factors

These factors are only estimates for use when

actual dimensions are not yet determined. Do
not use these once actual dimensions are
available.
 Size factor kb

Diameter, d[mm] Size factor, kb (bo)

10 1,00
15 0,98
20 0,95
30 0,90
40 0,85
60 0,80
120 0,75

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Surface factor, kb (b1)

Ultimate Tensile 300 400 500 600 700 800 1000

Stress (N/mm2)
Fine polished 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0
Polished 1,0 0,99 0,985 0,98 0,975 0,972 0,97
Ground 0,97 0,96 0,95 0,94 0,935 0,932 0,93
Fine machined 0,93 0,92 0,91 0,90 0,89 0,885 0,88
Machined 0,91 0,90 0,88 0,86 0,84 0,82 0,78
Rough 0,80 0,74 0,67 0,61 0,56 0,51 0,43

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Calculations for Vibration

 Vibrations during bending

Natural frequency

C
n 
m

Self-exciting systems

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Calculations for Vibrations-2
The frequency of the system is equal to the rotation of the shaft and the
angular velocity is =2n/60. Frequency – Amplitude (response) of the
system is given below. The graph is given for differnet damping ratios
since some of the components such as bearings in the system results in
damping.

Frequency-response behavior of
a self-exciting system
(R: damping ratio)

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Calculations for Vibrations-3

 Vibrations during torsionThe natural frequency of the

vibrations of the mass located at
the tip of the cantilever beam
which is under torsion and
assumed to be massless

Cb
n 
J

Vibrations during torsion

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Calculations for Vibrations-4

J1 J2

The natural frequency

Cb of the vibratons during
torsion of a one DOF
system

Cb ( J1  J 2 )
n 
J1  J 2

Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Calculations for Vibrations-5

Vibrations during torsion is more important

compared to that during bending. In the analysis of
such systems, not only the shafts but also the
clutches, gears etc. assembled to the shafts have
to be considered as a whole system.
J1 JG J2
J1 JP Jp+ J'2=
Cb1 i2 i2
z1

Cb2
J2
=
Cb1
Cb2
C'b2=
JG
z2 i2
Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Deflection Considerations
 Deflection analysis at even a single point of interest requires
complete geometry information for the entire shaft. For this reason, it
is desirable to design the dimensions at critical locations to handle
the stresses, and fill in reasonable estimates for all other dimensions,
before performing a deflection analysis. Deflection of the shaft, both
linear and angular, should be checked at gears and bearings.
 Allowable deflections will depend on many factors, and bearing and
gear catalogs should be used for guidance on allowable
misalignment for specific bearings and gears.

Typical Maximum
Ranges for Slopes and
Transverse Deflections
 Deflection Considerations-1
For example, the elastic deformations on the
spindle of a lathe affect the tolerances of the
machined part.

(L) is the distance between two bearings, 0,0005.L may be given as maximum
deflection. The maximum allowable slope may also be 0,001 radian= 0,0535
Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Calculations for Deflection-2
For machine tools, the maximum deflection is generally given as
0,002.L
However, the maximum slope has more effect on the results. Some
shafts have special designs to take care of the excessive deflection.

Spindle of a grinding machine. Machine

Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Calculations for Deflection-3

In some designs, angular deformations due to

torsion have particular importance.
Mb
Angular deformation on
a uniform bar with a
Mb
length of L

 Mb  L

L
G  Ip

In machine design, the limit for angular deformation () is

generally 0.005 radian for a 1 meter long shaft. Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
 Example
8 tonnes of weight is acting on an axle of a wagon. The axle is made of
St 70 and is under dynamic loading. The surface finish on the bearing
shaft contact surface is clean and the tolerance of the surfac e is N6. Fatigue stress
concentration factor for the shoulder is 1.5 and the safety factor can be taken as S = 2.
(a) Calculate the maximum bending stress at cross-sections A-A and I-I
(b) Determine the allowable stress
(c) Determine if the operation is safe. If not, what changes do you suggest in the design?

 e
Me We    d 3 / 32
We  v  2  3  2
Machine
Design I -
Shafts and
Axles
Shaft-Hub Connections
Introduction
 A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to
transmit power from one place to another.
 The power is delivered to the shaft by some tangential
force and the resultant torque (or twisting moment) set up
within the shaft permits the power to be transferred to
various machines linked up to the shaft. In order to
transfer the power from one shaft to another, the various
members such as pulleys, gears etc., are mounted on it.
These members along with the forces exerted upon them
causes the shaft to bending.
 In other words, we may say that a shaft is used for the
transmission of torque and bending moment. The various
members are mounted on the shaft by means of keys or
splines.
Machine
Design I
Introduction

Shaft-hub connections have various designs:

 Rigid (Do not allow disassembly)
 Connection by force
 Connection by shape
 Allows axial movement

Machine
Design I
Rigid Shaft-Hub Connections

Cannot be disassembled without damaging the shaft, hub or

the fastener

Machine
Design I
Shaft-Hub Connections Connected
by Force

The relative movement on the contact

surface is eliminated by the friction
force due to the pre-load.

Machine
Design I
Shaft-Hub Connections Connected
by Shape
The connection between the shaft and hub depends on the shape
of the third component such as keys, pins etc.

Machine
Design I
Shaft-Hub Connections
Connected by Force

Interference Fit

Machine Design I
Introduction
 Easy to built
 The tolerances of the shaft and hub are selected such
that a pressure raises on the contact surface.
 This pressure results in an elastic deformation on the
shaft and hub.
 For example, if the diameter of the shaft is higher than
that of the bore, then the shaft shrinks and the diameter
of the bore increases.
 If this deformation is within the elastic region, then
pressure builts on the contact surface and due to friction
the connection established.

Machine
Design I
Introduction
Interference fit can be classified into two according to the
assembly type,
Longitudional Interference fit is obtained by applying axial
force at room temperature. There are different methods
to apply the axial load.
Radial Interference fit is obtained without the existence of
an axial load. After the assembly, the forces will act on
the radial direction. This radial force can be obtained by
heating the hub or cooling the shaft.

Machine
Design I
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Easy to obtain
 No need for keyways
 Suitable for impact or dynamic loading
 Good for alignment
 Easy to assembly
 The accuracy of the tolerances during the machining
phase is critical
 Not suitable for assembly and disassembly
 Cannot be applied in some designs
During the design phase, the tolerances are determined
such that the necessary torque is transmitted and the
deformations are within the elastic limit.
Machine
Design I
Applications

 Inner/Outer Rings of the Bearings

 Hubs of the Cluthces
 Gears
 Wheels and Flywheels assembled on the
shafts
 Bushings for Sliding Bearings
 Fragmented Crank-shafts
 Cylinder jackets…….

Machine
Design I
 Calculation Methodology

Power (P) Moment Moment transmitted

Rotational speed Md=9550(P/n) through friction
(rpm) Ms=k.Md

Needed difference Pressure needed on

in diameter (d) the contact surface
(p)

Tolerances that
satisfies the needed
difference in diameter
???

Machine
Design I
 Limits and Fits
During the machining of a part, there will be a slight difference
between the actual and prescribed dimensions. Thus, small
differences on the dimensions of the part is allowed
considering the functionality of the part, cost and ease of
manufacturing etc. This small difference on the dimension is
called tolerance (limit)
Even though several of the same part is machined on the same
machine by the same worker, the dimension of these parts will
be different due to;
•Inaccuries in the machinery
•Errors due to heat and light (Expansion of the measurement
devices etc.)
•Errors in measurement devices
•Human errors
 Limits and Fits

 Dimensional Tolerances
The tolerances are shown on the dimension of the part.
 Form and positioning tolerances
Machining errors on the form and the positions of the part
are inevitable.
 Limitations related to surface quality
 Dimensional Tolerances
Dimension:

The surface #1 is not functional.

 
Thus, there is no need to
define tolerance. The surface
#2 is a fit-surface.



A diameter of  50,036 is almost
impossible to obtain and there
is no need to have this specific
dimension.
 Form Tolerances
Upper and lower limits are determined without effecting the
functionality of the part.
Tolerans
24 m

Üst limit
50,036

50,048
Alt limit
50,024
ISO (International Standards Organisation) Tolerance
Definition:
Nominal Dimension is used as a reference. This dimension is the approximate value of the
desired dimension. This value is shown as basic size.
T = Max. Size – Min. Size = dmax - dmin
T = Upper Deviation – Lower Deviation = Aü - Aa
dmax = d + Upper Deviation = d + Aü
dmin = d + Lower Deviation = d + Aa

+ Tolerans (T)

0+ Çizgisi
dmax Üst limit

Aü Üst sapma
dmin Alt limit

Nominal boyut
Aa Alt sapma
-
 Definitions
• Basic size is the size to which limits
or deviations are assigned and is the
same for both members of the fit.
• Deviation is the algebraic difference
between a size and the
corresponding basic size.
• Upper deviation is the algebraic
difference between the maximum
limit and the corresponding basic
size.
• Lower deviation is the algebraic
difference between the minimum limit
and the corresponding basic size.
• Fundamental deviation is either the
upper or the lower deviation,
depending on which is closer to the
basic size.
Definitions
• Tolerance is the difference between
the maximum and minimum size
limits of a part.
• International tolerance grade
numbers (IT) designate groups of
tolerances such that the tolerances
for a particular IT number have the
same relative level of accuracy but
vary depending on the basic size.
• Hole basis represents a system of
fits corresponding to a basic hole
size. The fundamental deviation is H.
• Shaft basis represents a system of
fits corresponding to a basic shaft
size. The fundamental deviation is h.
The shaft-basis system is not
included here.
ISO (International Standards
Organisation) Tolerance Definition:
 ISO tolerance definition defines the difference between the
upper and lower deviation (Tolerance) and the location of
this tolerance with respect to the basic size.
 Tolerance is determined by the nominal size and the
manufacturing quality of the part. There are 18 zones in ISO
definiton. These are shown as 01, 0, 1, 2, 3,………., 15, 16.
For the same nominal size 01 defines the tightest tolerance,
16 defines the widest tolerance.

I T 12
(ISO Tolerance Tolerance
Grade)
Base Tolerance T= k . i
ISO (International Standards
Organisation) Tolerans Sistemi:
i base tolerance unit and for IT5 to IT16;

i  m   0,45 3 D  0,001 D mm ≤ 500 mm

i  m   0,004 D  2,1 mm ≥ 500 mm

D is the average of the maximum and the minimum size.

D  Da Dü
ISO (International Standards Organisation) Tolerans Sistemi:
ISO Tolerance Grade level
Grade coefficient k

IT1-4 -
k grade level coefficient. IT5 7
IT6 10
IT1 to IT4 is used for gauges, IT7 16
special measurement devices, IT8 25
IT6-9 for common mechanical IT9 40
engineering problems, IT10 64
IT11 100
IT12-18 for rough machining.
IT12 160
IT13 250
IT14 400
IT15 640
IT16 1000
IT17 1600
IT18 2500
ISO (International Standards
Organisation) Tolerance Definition:

Example : A shaft with a nominal diameter of  60 mm has

a tolerance grade of 8. Calculate the tolerance.

60 mm is in between 50 and 80 mm. Thus, Da=50 mm,

Dü=80 mm
D  Da Dü  63,25 mm

i  m   0,45 3 D  0,001 D  1,86

IT8 → T=k.i= 46 m
 Base tolerances (m) ve standard diameters
ISO Nominal Dimensions [mm]
Toleranc 1 >3 >6 >10 >18 >30 >50 >80 >120 >180
e Grade ...3 ...6 ...10 ...18 ...30 ...50 ...80 ...120 ...180 ...250
01 0,3 0,4 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 2
0 0,5 0,6 0,6 0,8 1 1 1,2 1,5 2 3
1 0,8 1 1 1,2 1,5 1,5 2 2,5 3,5 4,5
2 1,2 1,5 1,5 2 2,5 2,5 3 4 5 7
3 2 2,5 2,5 3 4 4 5 6 8 10
4 3 4 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14
5 4 5 6 8 9 11 13 15 18 20
6 6 8 9 11 13 16 19 22 25 29
7 10 12 15 18 21 25 30 35 40 46
8 14 18 22 27 33 39 46 54 63 72
9 25 30 36 43 52 62 74 87 100 115
10 40 48 58 70 84 100 120 140 160 185
11 60 75 90 110 130 160 190 220 250 290
12 100 120 150 180 210 250 300 350 400 460
13 140 180 220 270 330 390 460 540 630 720
14 250 300 360 430 520 620 740 870 1000 1150
15 400 480 580 700 840 1000 1200 1400 1600 1850
16 600 750 900 1100 1300 1600 1900 2200 2500 2900
17 - - 1500 1800 2100 2500 3000 3500 4000 4600
18 - - - 2700 3300 3900 4600 5400 6300 7200
Tolerance Zones

The magnitude of the tolerance zone is the variation

in part size and is the same for both the internal and
the external dimensions.

Tolerance zone is shown with capital letters for holes and

lowercase letters for shafts.

Basic size determines the ,

lower deviation of the H zone for holes
upper deviation of the h zone for shafts
Letter Symbols for Tolerances (Basic Hole System)
 Examples:

55 r6
r: outside diameter
+
Grade 6
55 mm nominal

Aü=60 m

Aa=41 m
diameter
0+ Çizgisi

Base tolerance: 19 m
(Depend on the grade and the
diameter)
 Examples:

60 G7
G: inner dimensions
Grade 7 +
60 mm nominal

Aü=40 m
diameter

Aa=10 m
Base tolerance: 30 m 0+ Çizgisi

(Depend on the grade and the

diameter)
 Examples

 90P7
P: inner dimension
Grade 7 +
0+ Çizgisi

Aü=-24 m
90 mm nominal
diameter

Aa=-59 m
Base tolerance: 35 m
(Depend on the grade and the
diameter)
Tolerance
Table
Example

Machine
Design I
Fits

Two cases. Either clearance or interference.

Fits

 In an actual case it is hard to determine in

advance whether there is an interference or
clearance.
 Surface roughness and form tolerances make
things more complicated.
 Even considering only the dimension tolerances,
there are four different cases.
 Case 1

 %100 Interference
Fit
+ mil

Maksimum sıkılık
Minimum sıkılık

0+ Çizgisi

DELİK
 Case 2

 Transition fit(mostly interference fit)

+
Maksimum boşluk

mil

Maks. sıkılık
0+ Çizgisi

DELİK
 Case 3

 Transition fit (Mostly clearance fit)

Maksimum sıkılık
+
DELİK

Maks. boşluk
0+ Çizgisi

mil
 Case 4

 %100 Clearance Fit

+ DELİK
Minimum boşluk

Maksimum boşluk
0+ Çizgisi

mil
Fits
Fits

In basic shaft system, the tolerance of the diameter of the shaft is
taken as “h”.
 Fits

In basic hole system, the tolerance of the hole is taken as “H”

This system is more common since it is easier to manufacture the
shaft.
Descriptions of Preferred Fits Using the
Basic Hole System
 Shaft-Hub Connections

The following are the suggestions on determining the tolerances

on the contact diameters of shaft and hub.
 The functionality of the assembly is satisfied
The tolerance zone should be as broad as possible. This
reduces the time and cost for manufacturing.
Tighter tolerances can be defined for shafts since it is easier
to machine them. (Example: K8/h6)
Manufacturing capabilities should be considered. The
machinery, tools, measurement devices, and labor that the
company have should be taken into consideration.
Shaft-Hub Connections
 Let’s use indice 1 for shaft and indice 2 for hub (hole). If it is
assumed that the dimensions shows a Gaussion distribution then the
mean interference can be defined as shown below.
 With the Gaussian distribution, most of the dimension values are
around the mean value m.
Equations
Interference d = dM – dG

T1  T2
Minimum interference min= Aa1 – Aü2= m –
2

Maximum interference max= Aü1 – Aa2= m +T1  T2

2

 min   max
Mean interference m =
2

A a 1  A ü1  A ü 2  A a 2
m 
2
 Connection Types (Gaussion Distribution)

Stating maks

m
Tg  T  T
1
2 2
2

then;
'min
Tg
 min   m 
'
min
2 Boşluk Sıkılık
Tg
Tg %99 aralığı
 max   m 
' %100 aralığı
2 'maks
Calculation Methodology
Transmitted torque through friction
Power P [kW]
Number of rev. n [rev/min]

Torque

P
M d  9550 [ Nm]
n

Transmitted torque
through friction

Ms=k.Md

k: Safety factor for torque transmission

k=1,2...2...2,5 Machine
Design I
Calculation Methodology
Transmitted torque through friction

d
M S  FS 
2

d
M S  Fn   
2
d
M S  p. A   
2
FN FS

d
MS    d  b  p    Machine
2 Design I
Calculation Methodology
Transmitted torque through friction
Required pressure on
the contact surface (p)

Required difference
on diameter (d)

Tolerance that
satisfies this
diameter difference?

Machine
Design I
Required Force for Assembly
Longitudional Interference Fit
The axial force can be applied
through a press or hammer.
The axial force is applied at a slow
speed of 2-3 mm/s
The burrs on the surface are
squeezed and come off due to tear.
The shaft have a chamber upto
5mm at the end surfaces for aligment
and not damaging the hub. Chamfer
angle can be 5...10...15°.

Fe    d  b  p  

Machine
A FN Design I
Required Temperature for Assembly
Radial Interference Fit
Longitudional interference fits have problems with an increase on the
diameter and an increase on the interference. In these cases, the
temperature of the hub can be increased or the temperature of the shaft can
be decreased. In this method, the burrs on the contact surface mostly
deforms plastically due to sole pressure effect. The roughness of the contact
surfaces is lower.

A practical equation for the clearance to assembly the parts can be given as;

UM0 = d/1000

The temperature difference between the shaft and hub is determined such
that the maximum interference Umax is satisfied.

Machine
Design I
 Required Temperature for Assembly
Radial Interference Fit

Thermal Expansion
t. .d = Umax+ UM0

Clearance for assembly

Interference d/1000

Umax + UM0
trequired = tambient +
.d
Linear coefficient of thermal expansion

Machine Design I
Vessels w/ thick wall thickness

In interference fit, stresses occurs in all three dimensions.

According to the elasticity theory, the following assumptions are
made:
1. Only elastic deformations occur (stresses lower than yield
stress)
2. Materials obeys Hooke’ Law
3. Planes passing through the axis remains plane after
deformation and the circular cross-section keeps its shape.
Thus, the shear stresses on these planes are zero.
4. Along the direction of the shaft axis, the elongations are the
same and the stresses are constant.
Machine
Design I
 Vessels w/ thick wall thickness
State of Stress
Stress equation is used to
determine the strain
values. Keeping the
assumptions in mind,
radial and axial stresses
are principle stresses; and
these directions are
principal axis.
Equilibrium in radial direction

Sin dj/2dj/ and omit the small second order terms:

Machine
Design I
 Vessels w/ thick wall thickness
State of Stress
Second equation is based on the
assumption #4 (elongations along the
axial direction is constant:
z ( t   r )
z   
E E

Since z is constant

 t   r  2  A  const .

If both equations above are solved together

B B
r  A 2 t  A 2
r r
Machine
Design I
 Vessels w/ thick wall thickness
State of Stress
B B Equations show the stress
r  A t  A distribution
r2 r2

Boundary Conditions
on Hub:
r = -p @ r = rGi
r = 0 @ r = rGd
Boundary conditions
on shaft:
r = 0 @ r = rMi
r = -p @ r = rMd

Stress distribution on shaft

Stress distribution on hub

Machine
Design I
 Vessels w/ thick wall thickness
State of Stress
 FOR HUB: After the boundary conditions are applied,
the radial and axial stresses can be found as:
rGi2  rGd 2

 tG  p 2 
2 
1  
2 
Arbitrary radius
rGd  rGi  rGx  of the hub

rGi2  rGd 2

 rG  p 2 
2 
1  
2 
rGd  rGi  rGx 

Designation:
d d
QG  , QGx  Gx
dGd dGd
dMi d
QM  , QMx  Mx
d d
Machine
Design I
Vessels w/ thick wall thickness
State of Stress
 Rearrangement of the equations
QG2 1  QGx
2
 tG  p  Tensile
1  QG QGx
2 2
Stress

QG2 1  QGx
2
Compressive
 rG  p  
1  QG QGx
2 2 Stress

Inner surface of the hub (QGx=QG)

1  QG2
 tGi  p ,  rGi  p
1  QG2

Hub outer surface (QGx=1) Inner hub surface is

2  QG2 critical
 tGd  p ,  rGd  0
1  QG2

Machine
Design I
Vessels w/ thick wall thickness
State of Stress
 Maximum Equivalent Stress (Mohr hypothesis)
1   2  tGi   rGi
 maksG  
2 2
1  1  QG2 
 maksG  p   ( p)
2  1  QG2

p
 maksG    emG
1  QG2

For Mohr hypothesis: maxG=2.maxG

2p For steels allowG(0,8…0,9). y
 maksG    emG
1  QG2

3  QG4
 maksG  p    emG
Von Misses theorem 1 Q 2
G Machine
Design I
Vessels w/ thick wall thickness
State of Stress
 Similar calculations can be performed for shaft

p
 max M    allowM
1  QM
2

For Mohr hypothesis: maxM=2.maxM

2 p
 max M    allowM
1  QM2

For steels allowM(0,8…0,9). y

Machine
Design I
 Vessels w/ thick wall thickness
Stress Distribution
Hollow shaft

Solid shaft

Machine
Design I
 Vessels w/ thick wall thickness
Stress to Strain
Elongation under radial and
tangential stresses is constant
along the circumference at a
particular r , however it varies
along the radial direction
If the displacement at a radius of r
is u then, the displacement at a
radius of r+dr is
du
u  dr  u  du
dr
In this case, the infinitesmall element elongates du in the radial direction. The
strain in the radial direction: (dr  du)  dr du
r  
dr dr
Strain in the tangential direction (r  u)  dj  r  dj u
t  
r  dj r Machine
Design I
 Vessels w/ thick wall thickness
Stress to Strain
The radial and tangential stresses
are principal stresses and if a plane
stress case is considered;
M 1
 tM    t     r 
d E
t and r are known as a function
of p. Then,
M p  1  QM2 
    
M
d EM  1  QM2


G p  1  QG2 
If similar calculations are     
G
performed for the hub; d EG  1  QG
2


Machine
Design I
Vessels w/ thick wall thickness
Stress to Strain
The required interference to obtain the preferred pressure p
U  d  G  M

Overall p  d  1  QG2  p  d  1  QM2 

d  
 
 G   
   M 
EG  1  QG 2
 EM  1  QM
2


If the hub and the shaft are made of the same material EM=EG and G=M
p  d  1  QG2 1  QM2 
d    
2 
E  1  QG 1  QM 
2

Common case: Solid shaft (QM=0) and same material

2p  d
d 
E  (1  QG2 )
Machine
Design I
Effect of Surface Roughness
After the fit, the burrs on the contact surface are
squeezed due to pressure. This results in a loss on the
interference. During the assembly, 80% of the burrs on
both shaft and hubs are assumed to be squeezed.
If the loss on interference is given by U (G)

U  G  2  (0,4  R zM  0,4  R zG )

Actual interference on the contact surface

S  d actual  U  U  U  G

In general, Rz depends on the machining

process and can be found in the literature.
Machine
Design I
Selection of Tolerance
The actual interference is obtained by the tolerances
defined for the shaft and hub contact surface.
Minimum interference Smin is determined from the
minimum pressure pmin needed for shaft-hub connection
to function properly; and the maximum interference Smax
is determined from maximum pressure pmax resulting in a
stress which does not exceed the allowable stress.
The upper and lower limit of the interference U can be
obtained from the tolerances of the shaft and hub
diameter
Ulower > Umin Uupper < Umax
Umin = Smin+U Umax = Smax+U
Machine
Design I
Design Recommendations

Higher pressure at
the edges
Machine
Design I
Design Recommendations
To eliminate the pressure increase at the edges

Machine
Design I
Shaft-Hub Connections
Connected by Force

Bevel Fits

Machine Design I
Bevel Fits
A conical shaped shaft is pushed axially against a hub with the help of, in
general, bolted joints.
Since the contact surface is symmetric, it can be assummed that the
pressure in the contact surface is uniform. The prerequisite for this
assumption is the angle of the cone is the same for both shaft and hub.
•Good alignment
•Suitable for the transmission of
higher loads
•Suitable for dynamic loading
since there is no stress
concentration due to keyway etc.
•Easy to disassembly if designed
properly
•Manufacturing cost is high
•Only applicable to shaft ends.

Machine
Design I
 Bevel Fits

Designations
 d2  d1
Slope tan 
2 2l

d2  d1
Cone level C
l

d1  d2
Mean diameter dm 
2
Machine
Design I
 Bevel Fits

The transmitted torque for this joint (FU: circumferential force)

rx is the radius M S   FU  rX FN is the normal load acting

on an area of A
At a radius of rx the torque that M S   U  p  A  rX
can be transmitted due to friction
on an area of A M S  U  p   A  rX Since the cone level is small
mean diameter is used.
Total torque transmitted due to dm
friction through all contact surface
M S  U  p  A 
2
Machine
Design I
Bevel Fits

Thus, needed surface pressure:

2 MS
p
U    d m2  l A=pi*d*l

Ms=k.Md and Md=9550 (P/n)

determines the frictional torque. With the geometry known, the surface
pressure needed to transmit the required torque can be calculated.

Machine
Design I
Bevel Fits
In order to determine the required pressure on the contact surface, the torque for
assembly have to be calculated for bevel fit applications

If the axial component of the frictional force and normal force is written;
 
Fe   p  A  sin   a  p  A  cos
2 2
Instead of the pressure term, if the required pressure term is written;
2  MS     2  MS 
Fe   sin  a  cos    tan(  a )
U  dm  2 2  U  dm 2

Machine
Design I
Bevel Fits
2 MS     2 MS 
Fsö   sin   a  cos    tan(   a )
U  d m  2 2  U  d m 2

The axial force needed to disassembly the connection can be found by changing the
direction of the frictional force
2 MS 
Fsö   tan(   a )  0
U  d m 2
Self-locking condition should be satisfied to eliminate the self-disassembly.

 a
w/ self-locking 2
w/o self-
locking

Machine
Design I
 Bevel Fits

Sometimes Woodruff keys are In machineries, the

In general, bevel fits are used with the bevel fits. In these drill and similar
used to assemble the applications the key is solely tools are mounted
pulleys and gears on the used to locate the hub on their base by the
shaft ends. circumferentially and not mean of a bevel fit.
considered in the calculations of Machine
transmitted torque. Design I
Bevel Fits

Cone
⁰≈ Applications
level
1:5 11,5⁰ Assemble and disassemble several times
Barely assemble and disassemble
1:10 5,8⁰

Conical holes on bearings

1:12 4,7⁰

1:15 3,8⁰ Assembly of vessel shafts to propeller

1:20 2,8⁰ Tools

Machine
Design I
Assembly and Disassembly
Mechanical

During the assembly of a bearing, no

excessive force should be applied on rolling
elements. An extra part which is machined
according to the shape of the interference
fitted ring of the bearing is assembled on the
shaft with the help of a hummer.

Machine
Design I
Assembly and Disassembly
Mechanical

Machine
Design I
Assembly
Means of heat

Machine
Design I
 Assembly
Pressurized Oil
In bevel fits, used
both for assembly
and disassembly;
for cylindircal fits,
used only for
disassembly.

Machine
Design I
Assembly
Pressurized Oil

Cylindrical
Fit

Bevel Fit

Machine
Design I
Assembly
Pressurized Oil – Hydrolic Nuts

Machine
Design I
Assembly
Pressurized Oil – Oil pumps

Machine
Design I
Assembly and Disassembly

Machine
Design I
Shaft-Hub Connections
Connected by Force

Clamped Fit

Machine Design I
 Clamped Fit
The principles of clamped fit
These type of connections
consists of several parts or
nothces otherwise it is not
possible to clamp shaft with the
hub. These connections have the
flexibility of determining the
location of the hub on shaft. It is
possible to locate the hub in any
axial and circumferential location.

The pressure distribution on the contact

surface is not uniform. In calculations,
the resultant force value is used instead Machine
Design I
of the surface pressure values.
Clamped Fit

A clamped fit of
a pulley

P [kW]; n[rev/min]

p[kW ]
M d [ Nm]  9550 
n[rev / min]

MS  k  Md
Application Value of k
Frictional torque that can be
transmitted through a clamped fit No or almost no impact 1,25

MS    FN  d FN  i  Fön Moderate impact 1,5

Severe impact 2
Machine
Number of bolts Design I
Clamped Fit
A power
switch

Moment equilibrium

Md  F  l  FS  d    FN  d

Equilibrium of upper and lower

half in static case

i  Fön  lS  FN  lN

Machine
Design I
Shaft-Hub Connections
Connected by Force

Special Designs

Machine Design I
 Tapered Sleeves (kovan)
Screw
Blind hole

Set the angular location of the shaft

and the hub and used as a safety
Machine
component in high loads Design I
Lock ring collars (Bilezik yay
halkaları)
(Ürdinger Rings) To apply axial load

Used to set the gears,

flywheels, sprockets,
clutches on the shaft
(good at alignment)

Machine
Design I
Lock ring collars
(Ürdinger Rings)

Can be used for the

shafts with a diameter of
6 mm to 1000 mm

Machine
Design I
Tension Ring (Germe halkası)
In general it is not possible to calculate the
transmitted torque. The values from the
manufacturer should be used.

Machine
Design I
Tension disc (Germe diski)
Use of a tension disc on V-
belt pulley-shaft assembly

Use of a tension disc on gear-

shaft assembly Machine
Design I
Hydrolic jacket (gömlek)

Pressure of the oil used on hub-shaft connection

Pre-assembly (no pressure) Post-assembly (with pressure)

Since the thermal expansion coefficient of the fluid and the jacket
is different, these components are not used beyond 70⁰C.
Packaging machinery, robots, machinery
Machine
Design I
Shaft-Hub Connections
Connected by Shape

Pre-tensioned, by
means of other parts

Machine Design I
 Pre-tensioned key connections
(Gib-head keys)
 The upper and lower surfaces of these
type of keys are not parallel.
 The slope of the key surface that is in
contact with the hub is standard (1:100).
 In general the hub is located and then the key is axially pushed
towards the hub. Due to the slope of the key surface, the
pressure between the shaft and the hub is obtained.
 This pre-tensioned key is pressed at the top and bottom surfaces
and it tranmits the torque. The side surfaces are tension-free.
 However, after a period of time due to slipping and bearing, the
pre-tension may decrease and the side surfaces of the key will be
in contact with the shaft and hub. This will cause both force and
Machine
shape connection. Design I
Hollow Keys (Oyuk
A common type of pre-tensioned key.
kamalar)
 The torque is transmitted through the
frictional force occurs on the contact
surface of key and shaft.
Since the bottom surface of the key is
machined to the same curvature as the
shaft, there is no torque transmitted by
shape.
The dimensions b and t2 of the key are
standard and depend on the shaft
diameter. The length of the key l is
determined after the strength calculations.
MS    FN  d
Fç  Fön  (tan   2  tan  )
Surface pressure FN MS
pM  pG    pG allow
Machine
b  l   d  bDesign
l I
Slotted Keys (Yuvalı kamalar)

The torque is transmitted

partially by force and partially
by shape.
1/3 of the torque is
transmitted through friction.
Suitable for higher torques.

Machine
Design I
Slotted Keys
First the torque is transmitted by frictional
force. If the coefficient of friction is assumed to
be the same on both surfaces then the
transmitted torque:

MS    FN  d
If the pressure at the key-shaft and key-hub
surfaces is assumed to be the same

FN
p1  p2   pM allow
bl
1/3 of the torque is assumed to be transmitted through friction. After that the
shaft slides with respects to hub and the key will be under shear. The rest of the
torque is transmitted by means of the key (shape).
Machine
Design I
Slotted Keys
Shear stress should be calculated for the side
surfaces of the key.
Mb
Tangential force FT 
d /2
FT
Shear stress k    k em
b l
FT
Surface pressure pM   pM em
t1  l
FT
pG   pG em
t2  l
In the calculations of the slotted keys, the torque transmitted through friction is not
considered and the dimensions of the keys are determined according to the
bearing and shearing of the key.
Machine
Design I
 Tangential Keys
They are used to transmit dynamic torque with changing direction and magnitude
Tangential keys consists of two keys located with an angle of 120°.
The keys are axially pushed towards the hub and the pre-tension between hub and
shaft is obtained.
Due to broad contact area, higher torque can be transmitted.
Only the length of the tangential keys will be determined. Other dimensions are
standard

Force causing bearing

Mb FT
stress on key surfaces
FT  Surface p  p allowMachine
d /2 pressure t l Design I
Technical Designation of Keys

Machine
Design I
Technical Designation of Keys

Machine
Design I
Shaft-Hub Connections
Connected by Shape

By means of
other parts

Machine Design I
 Plain Keys (Federler)
It is the most common type of key used for
the shaft-hub connections. Can be in
various forms.
The top surface of the key is flat.
 Thus, no pre-tension occurs after
assembly and the hub and shaft connected
by the mean of the key only.

There is a gap between the top

surface of the key and the hub; and
the side surfaces of the key
presses on the both the hub and
the shaft. The torque is transmitted
through this contact surface.
Since a gap is needed for assembly, it is suitable only for
unidirectional torque transmission. If a dynamic load is acting
Machine
Design I
then other designs with pre-tensioning should be used.
 Plain Keys
It is possible to move the hub axially
even during the operation. In these
case the key is called the locational
key. The tolerances for the key is
selected according to the application.
width of the key (b) h9
width of the slot (shaft) P9 (Force fit)
N9 (Locational
transition fit)
H8 (Sliding fit)
(hub) P9 (Force fit)
J9 (Locational
transition fit)
D10 (Sliding fit)
Sliding fit is used if the hub is moved along the shaft. In this case, since the
gap between the side surfaces is large the key should be fixed on the shaft.Machine
Design I
 The cross-section of a key
depends on the shaft diameter
and it is standard.
 Keys may be in different forms.

 Short keys are force fit onto the

shaft or a pin is used to secure
them.
 Long keys are mounted onto the
shaft by means of one or two
countersunk head bolts.
 Sometimes a screw hole is used
in the middle of the key to
dissamble the key by using a
puller bolt.
 However, these holes increase
the stress concentration and
reduce the fatigue strength.
 For connections by frictional
force, these keys are used to
locate the parts and to prevent
the shearing of the parts.
Machine
Design I
Plain Keys
 Standard dimensions

Machine
Design I
 Plain Keys
Only the length of the plain keys
is calculated.
The material of the plain keys has
in general an ultimate stress of
500...600 Mpa.

Bearing of the shaft Shearing of the key

2  Md 2  Md
pM   pM em k    k em
d  t1  l Bearing of the hub db l
2  Md
pG   pG em
d  t2  l
The bigger of these three
length values will be selected.
Machine
Design I
Plain Keys
Allowable surface pressure [N/mm2]
Hub material Almost no impact pallow Severe impact pallow
Unidirectional Dynamic Unidirectional Dynamic
Cast iron 65 45 40 20
Cast steel,
120 80 80 35
Steel

The relations between the approximate dimensions of hub length,

hub outer diameter, hub material and hub diameter

Hub material Key length Hub outer

diameter
Cast iron (1,5...2)d (2...2,2)d
Cast steel, steel (1...2,3)d (1,8...2)d

Machine
Design I
Plain Keys
Design considerations:
For calculations, it is assumed that the surface pressure is
uniform. However, actually, most of the torque is transmitted
through the part of the key that is closer to the drive. Thus,
this section is under higher torsion and bearing stress. This
can be eliminated to some extent by limiting the length of the
hub, selecting a material with a smaller torsional stiffness.
The length of the key should be smaller than the length of
the hub. Otherwise, the notch effect of the shoulder and the
keyway on the shaft surface will have a double effect on the
stress.

Machine
Design I
Plain Keys
Keyway Machining (Hub)

Machine
Design I
Plain Keys
Keyway machining (Shaft)
 Tools used for machining

End-mill T-milling cutter Saw milling cutter

(Parmak Freze) Used for Woodruff Key (Testere Freze bıçağı)

Machine
Design I
Plain Keys
Keyway machining (Shaft)

Machine
Design I
 Woodruff Key
Used for the transmission of relatively lower torque
It can rotate like a hinge inside the slot on the shaft.
If a pre-tension is needed then the keyway should include a slope.
Since the keyway is deep, the stress concentration factor is high. Thus, in general,
they mounted towards the end of the shafts.
Calculation steps are similar to that for plain keys.

Machine
Design I
 Camshaft
Instead of machining the keyway onto the shaft, the shaft can be manufactured with
a profile as shown below.
Good for alingment. Used in There is a small gap between the shaft and the hub
machinery. which will permit small amount of distortion. Good for
impact and dynamic loading.

Poligon shafts; To reduce the stress concentration,

Machine
interference fit tolerance is used. Machined with Design I
special machinery and good for alignment.
Camshaft
In plain keys the torque is transmitted through a local section. In
camshafts, the torque is transmitted uniformly along the key. Thus, there
is no concetranted stress.
Since the force is transmitted through a larger area, the width of the hub
can be decreased.
Camshaft are suitable for the axial movement of the hub (such as gear,
clutch etc.) due to the manufacturing tolerances. They are commonly
used in transmission and machine tools.
To reduce wear, the surface of the shaft is hardened and sometimes
grinded.
The profile shape, dimension, numbers are all standart according to the
shaft diameter. Only the length is calculated.
For safety, it is assumed that only 75% of the cross-section is under
loading.
Machine
Design I
Camshaft manufacturing

Machine
Design I
Hub manufacturing for camshaft

Machine
Design I