1
JOURNALISM & Dead line-The final time limit after which no news can be
MASS COMMUNICATION TERMS
ABC- Audit Bureau of Circulation - a body that certifies the
Newspapers’ circulation
Ad- Short form for advertisement.
Add- Any kind of addition in already prepared news story.
Angle-Perception / approach of a journalist or his/her choice
to start a story from a particular aspect of an event of hap-
pening. A glass half filled with water may also be described
as half empty.
Assignment-The work assigned to journalist, his duty to
cover an event.
Banner-Headline running across the front page in all col-
umns.
Beat-A particular area or field assigned to a reporter.
Body-The running text of a news item that follows the Intro.
Box-The news item enclosed with border or lines from all
four sides.
Bleed-Photograph running beyond the print area of a page
in a newspaper or magazine.
Blurb-Publicity material
Border-Lines used to make a box.
Break-Something new happened is called a newsbreak. In
Radio & TV a break between two segments of programmes
or news. The duration in which a radio station identifies
itself.
Bulletin-As in Radio bulletin, carrying a set of news hap-
penings on that hour. A brief dispatch in newspaper con-
taining major news.
By line-The line (following the heading) in a news item where
the name of the reporter is given.
Caption-The description accompanying a news item or pic-
ture/ photograph. The headline of a news item.
Centre spread-The two pages of the centre fold of a news-
paper or magazine. A picture or photograph spread across
the centre fold is also called centre spread.
Clippings-Items collected for reference from newspaper or
magazine.
Coppy-A news item. A piece written by a journalist or re-
leased by an agency.
Coppy editors-Another name for sub-editor. The man who
edits the item written by a journalist.
Copy holders-During proofreading a person holds the copy
to be corrected while the compositor corrects the copy
manually or on computer.
Correspondent-A reporter usually away from headquarters
and files his/her report through means of communication.
Cover-To collect the news; cover pager of a magazine.
Coverage-Reporting an event.
Credit-line-The line below the printed picture/photograph
in which the source of a picture/photo (e.g. photographer or
agency) is given.
Crop-Cutting out the unnecessary portion from a photo or
picture.
Cross-heading Headline(s) in smaller type than main head-
line of a news item and set beneath it or within the set
matter.
Cub-A trainee journalist (cub-reporter).
Date line-The line usually at the beginning of a news item
in which date, place and source of the news item is given,
e.g. “New Delhi, March 11 (PTI)...”
sent to the press.
Dope-An ‘inside’ information from a source.
Drop- A proofreading instruction meant for enlarging the
first letter of the first paragraph for effective display.
Dummy- Sketch of page, defining the position of text, illus-
trations advertisements and Dhotoaraohs.
Ears- Boxes on either side of the name plate on front page
of a newspaper.
Edition- Revised or remade copy of a newspaper sepa-
rately for city, or rural area. There may be many editions of
a newspaper like city edition, dak edition, late city edition
etc.
Embargo- The mandatory date or time limit for a news
story, prior to which it could not be published/broadcast.
Exclusive- A story that has been fetched by a newspaper
or reporter through its solitary effort and no other has got it.
File- Submitting a story for printing (filing a story), as in file
item or photograph, the item or photograph preserved for
future use. File of a newspaper -collection of old newspa-
pers.
Filler- Pre-composed items, kept for filling the space if any,
on a given page. Usually items like information regarding
forthcoming issues or pointers are given as fillers.
Follow-up- To follow an earlier story. Further development
in an event occurred earlier.
Feature- A colourful in-depth story written in an interesting
style and easy-to-grasp language.
Font- Types of one size and style.
Hand out- Written publicity or background material usually
distributed to media persons during the press meet.
H.O- Hold over. A mandatory instruction from editorial de-
partment to hold a prepared story till further orders.
Human Interest- Stories having human angle, some inter-
esting off-beat stories that may have less news value but a
greater degree of human values or creates lighter mood.
Intro- The beginning of a story that tells the gist of the
news.
Italics- The type faces that are slanted to right.
Jump- Continuation of a story on another page.
Jump line- The line at the beginning or end of the story
carrying description that the story is “continued from
page...”;” or continued on page...”
Lay out- A page plan. Arrangement of text, illustrations
etc.according to available material.
Lead- Another name of intro. The beginning paragraph of a
story. Lead news item is the most important news of the
day. A Lead article or Leader is an article that is published
on editorial page.
Late news- The news arrived after the newspaper is ‘put
on bed’ i.e. its printing started. Such items usually pub-
lished as “Stop Press” items.
Leader- Another name for editorial.
Make up-The finishing touch given by an artist after the
dummy of a page is made. It is aimed at making the page
attractive.
Masthead-The nameplate of the newspaper on its front
page. The logo and description about the newspaper on top
left corner of editorial page is also called masthead.
Morgue-News library where newspaper files of same pub-
lication and of rivals are kept for reference.
Must-A mandatory instruction from editorial department to
carry the news item which has been marked as “must”.

Name plate-Name of newspaper on top of the Page 1
Page proof-First copy of composed matter ready for cor-
rection.
Pica-Type of 12 point size, also called an “em”.
Piece-Another name for a news item/story/article or fea-
ture.
Point- Measuring unit of types. A point is equal to 72n part
of an inch i.e. a font size of 72 points is equal to one inch.
Print area- The area of paper on which printing is done.
Print line-The line which has descriptions of ownership of
newspaper, press, editor, place of publication and ad-
dresses. It is mandatory to publish these informations in
accordance with PRB act.
Proof reader-The person who corrects the errors in the
copy and sends it back to press for revision.
Round-up-A comprehensive story covering all the happen-
ings on the same subject received from different places or
sources.
Rush-Instruction to compose an important news story
quickly.
Scoop-The exclusive news that a reporter has got by his/
her individual efforts. Usually unearthing a sensational news.
Shoulder- A short headline set above the main headline of a
news item to give reference, e.g. “Nithari episode
COURT SETS JAN 12 FOR NEXT HEARING”
Slug-Short name given to a story for convenience of news
processing.
Standing Matter-Previously composed matter ready for
use as filler or as leftover of previous edition.
Stringer-A Part time correspondent who is not getting sal-
ary but gets paid on the basis of news published. Also called
retainer.
Syndicate-An agency or cartel of writers that sells the fea-
tures/ articles on behalf of writer(s) to many papers.
Tailpiece-The happy ending of an article/column, usually
interesting instance or joke is given to enliven the piece.
Tip-Tidbit of information that could be a source of
news.Yellow Journalism Writing sensational, exaggerated
news that are beyond fact and aimed at maligning the im-
age of an individual or Institution.
BROADCAST TERMINOLOGY
A.B.U.-Asian Broadcasting Union
Acoustics- Resonance quality of sound recording studio.
Ad. lib. A.M‘-ad libitum’ (Latin- “at pleasure”) speaking in
microphone without rehearsal/speaking without preparation
in microphone is called ad-libbing.
A.M.-Amplitude modulation, audio transmission on frequen-
cies from 550 to 1600 kilohertz. (medium wave in India).
Anchorman-News/programme presenter.
Bleed-Making all or part of the television picture go out of
frame.
Break-“time out” in rehearsal or production. Programme
section set apart for spots or advertisements; duration be-
tween two segments of news/ programme in which the
broadcasting organisation broadcasts its name.
CATV-Community Antenna Television; Cable connection.
CBA-Commonwealth Broadcasting Association
Clip-Short section of a longer film.
CCTV-Close Circuit TV
Cold-Without preparation. Also Bluish or greenish picture
tone.
Compere-Show host or programme presenter.
Console-Control room switching desk. Announcer’s con-
2
sole isconsists of switch controls like volume, pitch etc.
Credits- Opening or closing list of programme production
personnel. I common man’s language it is called ‘casting’.
The personnel who have helped in making the programme
like Producer, anchor, presenter, production assistant, cam-
eraman, sound recordist etc.
Cue sheet- A sheet having details of programmes to be
broadcast.
Cue track-Auxiliary audio recording area on video tape.
Cyclorama- large J-profiled piece of background scenery,
usually white, eliminating any visual frame of reference.
DA-Directional antenna.
Diary-Self-reporting audience survey technique.
Digital-Translation of information into mathematical bits,
providing easy signal regeneration without noise, drift or
distortion.
Disc jockey or dj-A host entertaining listener through disc/
record playing.
Dope sheet-camera operator’s take-by-take record; also a
reference sheet.
ECU-Extra/extreme close-up.
Eye light-Low-level illumination (usually from camera
mounted light)
Eye line-Direction of performer’s gaze.
Facts sheet-Copy points for announcers’ ad lib use.
Fader-Volume control also called pot from potentiometer.
Fade in-Come slowly out of black picture to an image or
come slowly out of silence to a sound.
Fade out-l-Go slowly from an image to black or go slowly
from a sound to silence.
Fishbowl-Studio observation booth.
Fisheye-Extreme wide angle lens.
Fishing rod-Long held microphone
Floor-Shooting set in a television studio or stage.
Floor manager-Director’s representative on floor, usually
connected to control room by headphones.
Floor men- Helping hands, assistants on floor.
Footage- Standard film length measurement. Scenes shot
on film.
Frame- Individual motion picture film photograph. Usually
there are 24 frames in one second when projected.
Freelance- Creative artists, script writers who are not on
payroll.
Frequency- Rate at which electronic impulse or sound or
light is repeated in a specific time period; measured in hertz.
Gain- Audio amplification usually measured in decibels.
Gobo- Sound-absorbing material or screen. A small black
screen to keep stray light from striking camera lens.
Handheld- Camera without stand or tripod, microphone
without stand; instrument that can be carried in hand.
Hardware -Equipment and machinery used to broadcast/
transmit programme.
Headphones- Tiny speakers worn over each ear; also called
headset.
Jingle- Musical broadcast advertisement, usually sung.
LED- Light Emitting Diode
Live- Broadcast of something actually happening.
Location- Non-studio broadcasting/shooting site.
MATV- Master antenna television system; cable TV.
MC- Master of Ceremony, host, anchor, compere.
MCU- Medium Close-up

JOURNALISM &
MASS COMMUNICATION
IMPORTANT POINTS
NEWSPAPER READERS
The circulation of newspapers in the world increased strongly
in 2004, the World Association of Newspapers (WAN) an-
nounced in Seoul, Korea, on 30 May 2005. At the same
time, newspaper advertising revenues made significant
gains. WAN said that global newspaper sales were up 2.1
percent over the year. Unlike previous years, growth was
not only driven by gains in developing markets, but increases
in sales in many mature markets.
“It has been an extraordinarily positive 12 months for the
global newspaper industry,” said Timothy Balding, Director
General of the Paris-based WAN. “We have come to ex-
pect big circulation gains in developing countries, but it has
been a very long time since we saw such a revival in so
many mature markets. Newspapers are clearly undergoing
a renaissance through new products, new formats, new
titles, new editorial approaches, better distribution and bet-
ter marketing.”
The new data, from WAN’s annual survey of world press
trends, was released to more than 1,300 publishers, edi-
tors and other senior newspaper executives from 81 coun-
tries attending the 58th World Newspaper Congress and
12th World Editors Forum in Seoul, Korea. The main fig-
ures showed:
• Circulation grew 2.1 percent worldwide in 2004, taking
global sales to a new high of 395 million daily.
• The total number of daily titles was up 2 percent in the
world in 2004 and up 4.6 percent since 2000.
• 2004 saw the best advertising performance in four years,
with a revenue increase of 5.3 percent.
• The audience for newspaper web sites grew 32 percent in
2004 and 350 percent over five years.
The total circulation of dailies in the world climbed 2.1 per-
cent in 2004. Over five years, it is up 4.8 percent. Sales of
newspapers increased in 44 percent of the countries sur-
veyed and were stable in a further 12 percent. 31 percent of
those markets show a rise over five years.More than 395
million people buy a newspaper every day, up from 374
million in 1999. Average readership is estimated to be more
than one billion people each day. Three-quarters of the world’s
100 best selling dailies are now published in Asia. China
has overtaken Japan as the country with the highest num-
ber of publications in the top 100.
The range of the top 100 goes from the Yomiuri Shimbun of
Japan with its 14,067,000 copies daily to six newspapers -
two in each country - in China, Thailand and Taiwan, with
600,000 daily sales.
• The five largest markets for newspapers are: China, with
93.5 million copies sold daily; India, with 78.8 million cop-
ies daily; Japan, with 70.4 million copies daily; the United
States, with 48.3 million; and Germany, 22.1 million. Sales
increased in China, India, and Japan in 2004 and declined
in the U.S. and Germany.
• Circulation sales were up 4.1 percent in Asia in 2004 over
the previous year, up 6.3 percent in South America, up 6
3
percent in Africa, down 1.4 percent in Europe, down 0.2
percent in North America and down 1 percent in Australia
and Oceania.
• Newspapers in the European Union saw a slight 0.7 per-
cent drop in circulation in 2004, but sales were only 0.4
percent less (or 360,000 copies) than five years ago.
NEWSPAPERS : A BRIEF HISTORY
59 B.C.: Acta Diurna is published in Rome. Julius Caesar
orders the major political and social events of the day to be
made available to his citizenry. State appointed reporters,
called “actuarii”, gather information on everything from wars
and legal decisions to births, deaths, and marriages.
713 Mixed News in Kaiyuan is first newspaper published in
China. “Kaiyuan” is the name given to the year in which the
paper is published.
1040 In China, Pi Sheng invents printing from movable
woodblocks.
1392 Movable copper type is invented in Korea.
1447 Johann Gutenberg invents letterpress printing, a pro-
cess that will enable the mass production of the printed
word.
1501 Pope Alexander VI decreed that printed material must
be submitted to clerical authority prior to publication in or-
der to prevent heresy. Failure to do so could result in fines
or excommunication.
1556 Venetian government publishes Notizie scritte, a
monthly newspaper for which readers pay a “gazetta”, or
small coin.
1588 In Cologne, Germany, Michael Entzinger publishes a
24 page newsbook reporting on the defeat of the Spanish
Armada. The newsbook’s front page shows a woodcut rep-
resenting the Spanish Armada sailing off the coast of En-
gland. Although the report came months after the actual
event occurred, this is one of the earliest “first reports” of a
significant historical event.
1605 Johann Carolus publishes the first printed newspaper,
Relation, in Strasbourg, now in France but at the time a
part of the so-called ‘Deutsches Reich’.
1621 In London, the newspaper Corante is published.
1631 The Gazette, the first French newspaper, is founded.
1639 First American colonial printing press
1645 World’s oldest newspaper still in circulation, Post-
och Inrikes Tidningar, is published in Sweden
1690 Publick Occurrences is the first newspaper published
in America when it appears in Boston. The editor, Benjamin
Harris, stated he would issue the paper “once a month, or,
if any Glut of Occurrences happen, oftener.” The royal au-
thority, wary of publications printed without its express con-
sent, suppresses the newspaper after only one issue.
1704 Daniel Defoe, the author of Robinson Crusoe and of-
ten recognized as the world’s first journalist, begins to pub-
lish the Review, a periodical covering European affairs.
1798 Alois Sedenfelder Invents Lithography. Although in-
vented over two centuries ago, offest lithography first gained
popularity in the 1960’s, and is now the industry standard.
1803 Australia’s military government publishes the Sydney
Gazette and. New South Wales Advertiser, the country’s
first newspaper. This is only fifteen years after the colony of
convicts had been established in Sydney Cove.
1812 Friedrich Koenig invents of the Steam Powered Cylin-
der Press. In 1814, John Walter, publisher of The Times in
London, began to assemble the new press in secrecy, fear-
ing that his pressmen might riot if they discovered his plans.

On the night of November 28, 1814, Walter took his press-
men away from their hand presses with the excuse that he
was expecting important news from the continent. He then
used Koenig’s presses to produce the entire print run of
The Times — at an output of 1,100 sheets per hour.
1844 Telegraph is invented
1851 Reuters is established
1870s Charles Stewart Parnell uses the Freeman’s Journal
to promote the causes of his Irish Nationalist Party.
1880 First photographs appear in a newspaper
1900 Vladimir Lenin founds Iskra, in Leipzig, Germany. This
revolutionary newspaper is to become a major tool for Com-
munist propoganda.
1903 Alfred Harmsworth (later Lord Northcliffe) develops the
first tabloid newspaper, the Daily Mirror, in London. The Daily
Mirror introduced the concept of the “exclusive” interview. The
first was with Lord Minto, the new Viceroy of India, in 1905.
1966 Behram “Busybee” Contractor begins publishing his
column ‘Round and About” in the Evening News of India.
Running until 2001, the satirical column became the long-
est running column in the history of newspaper journalism.
1994 First independent on-line daily appears on the World
Wide Web.
CHRONOLOGY OF THE DEVELOPMENT
OF RADIO BROADCAST IN INDIA
1923 : November, Radio Club of Bengal started its trans-
mission.
1924 : May 16, Madras Presidency Radio Club established.
June, Bombay Radio Club started its broadcast.
July 31, Madras Presidency Radio Club started daily Trans
mission.
1927 : July 23, Indian Broadcasting Company estab-
lished.
1930 : March 01, IBC goes bankrupt.
April, Government took over the company and renamed it
as Indian State Broadcasting Service (ISBS).
1931 : October 09, The government announced to close
down ISBS, but decided to continue it succumbing to
public’s pressure.
1935 : March 01, A separate post of Controller of Broad-
casting created under the department of Labour and Indus-
tries.
August 30, Lionel Fielden Joined as India’s first Con-
troller of Broadcasting.
September 10, a Radio Station established by the Nizam
of Hyderabad started functioning.
Akashvani - radio station of the Mysore state started func-
tioning. December 22, The name of ISBS’s magazine ‘In-
dian Radio Times’ was changed to Indian Listener.
1936 :January 01, The Delhi station of ISBS started. Publi-
cation of Radio magazine in Hindi and Urdu “Awaz” started.
June 08, name of ISBS changed to All India Radio (AIR).
June 09, the Director of AIR, Delhi A.S.Bukhari appointed
as Deputy Controller of Broadcasting.
1938 : April, 02, Lucknow station started functioning.
October 03, regular educational broadcast for school chil-
dren started. October 16, Rural Radio Broadcast started
for Delhi province.
1939 : January 18, first relay programme between Delhi
and Bombay stations started.
1940 : July, A.S Bukhari became Controller of Broadcast-
ing.
4
1941 : October 24, Department of Information and Broad-
casting established.
1942 : October, Mr. A.A. Hamid, ICS, appointed as Deputy
Controller of Broadcasting.
September 03, Congress, with the help of Usha Mehta,
Chandrakant Zaveri and Vitthal Das Khakkar started
radiobroadcast on a small transmitter. It was aimed at pro-
viding a forum for freedom fighters. The British soon discov-
ered and closed it down.
1943 : February, The headquarter of All India Radio shifted
to red brick building of “Broadcasting House” at Parliament
Street.
The designation of AIR’s head changed from Controller of
Broadcasting to Director General. March 20, the AIR was
declared as a permanent organisation.
1947 : August 14-15, AIR did the live coverage of the func-
tion of transferring power from the central hall of the Parlia-
ment. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru’s famous speech “A tryst with
destiny” was heard across the nation.
November 12, Mahatma Gandhi comes to the Broadcast-
ing House. His first broadcast on AIR.
1948 : January 26, Patna Station started.
September 15, News and External Services were separated.
1950 :December, R.R. Diwaker became Information and
Broadcasting minister.
1951 :May, Dr. B.V. Keskar made Information and Broad-
casting minister.
1953 :April 15, Regional News Bulletin Started from Lucknow
and Nagpur.
1954 :December, C.B. Rao, ICS, became Director General
of AIR.
1955 : June 29, J.C. Mathur, ICS, became Director General
of AIR.
1956 :February 19, Agriculture project started by AIR, Pune.
1957 :October 03, ‘Vividh Bharti’ (All India Variety
Programme) started.
The name All India Radio changed to Akashwani. In En-
glish it is still called All India Radio.
1959 : December 17, Radio Rural Forums were estab-
lished in all stations of AIR.
1960 : February 21, B.P. Bhatt appointed DG, AIR.
February 22, ‘Urdu Majlis’ programme started from AIR Delhi.
1962 :April, B. Gopala Reddy became Information and
Broadcasting minister.
1963 : September 02, Satya Narain Sinha appointed as
Information and Broadcasting minister.
1964 : Indira Gandhi appointed as Information and
Broadcasting Minister.
December 04, Chanda Committee on broadcasting ap-
pointed under the chairmanship of Ashok K. Chanda. Melvil
D’Mello gets Italia Prize for his feature “La// and the Lions
of Gir”.
1965 : April 22, Y.N. Verma IAS, appointed DG AIR.
Urdu service of 30 minutes’ duration started by External
Services Division (ESD) June 24, Dr. V.K. Narain Menon
appointed DG AIR.
1966 : April 18, Chanda Committee gave its report.
Among other things, it recommended starting of Commer-
cial Broadcast.
September 07, University of the AIR programme started from
Delhi and Madras. Indira Gandhi resigned as I & B Minister
to become Prime Minister after the death of Lal Bahadur
Shastri.

UNIT—V
COMMUNICATION AND THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
ROLE OF MEDIA IN SOCIAL CHANGE—
DOMINANT PARADIGMS
CRITIQUE OF THE DOMINANT PARADIGM AND ALTER-
NATIVE CONCEPTION
DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVES—
STATE MARKET AND THE THIRD FORCE
(NGO SECTOR)
PARTICIPATORYAPPROACHESAND COMMUNITY MEDIA
OWNERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES
5
COMMUNICATION AND
THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
According to Jones, social change is a term used to de-
scribe variations in, or modification of, any aspect of social
processes, social patterns, social interactions or social
organisation.
Change is the law of nature. What is today shall be differ-
ent tomorrow. The social structure is subject to incessant
change. Twenty-five years hence the government is bound
to make important changes. Family and religion will not
remain the same. Society, in brief, is an everchanging phe-
nomenon, growing, decaying, renewing and accommoda-
tion itself to changing conditions and suffering vast modifi-
cations in the course of time.
According to Kingsley Davis, by social change is meant
only such alterations as occur in social organisation, that
is, structure and function of society.
Anderson and Parker observe social change to involve al-
teration in the structure or functioning of societal forms or
processes themselves.
SOCIAL CHANGE
Social and Cultural Change
There is a distinction between .social change, changes in
the social structure and social relationships of a society
and cultural change or changes in the culture of a society.
Cultural change might include such things as the invention
and popularisation of the automobile; the addition of new
words to our language; changing concepts of propriety and
morality; new forms of music, art or dance; or the general
trend toward sex equality. There is an important distinction
between social change and progress. The term ‘progress’,
carries a value judgement. Progress means change in a
desirable direction. Since progress is an evaluative term,
social scientists prefer-the neutrally descriptive term,
‘change’.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
The main characteristics of social change are:
1. social change is a universal phenomenon;
2. social change shows chain reaction sequence;
3. social change involves change in community;
4. social change results from the interaction of a number of
factors; and
5. speed of social change is not uniform;
6. nature and speed of social change are affected by and
related to time factor;
7. social changes are chiefly those of modifications or re-
placement;
8. social change occurs as an essential law; .
9. definite predictions of social change are not possible.
FUNCTIONAL STEPS OF MASS MEDIA
Among the numerous function information, education, pos-
session, entertainment, motivation cultural promotion and
integration etc., are they not important one? According to
Herald Loss well, these functions are depending as sur-
veillance of the environment correlation of the components
of society in responding to the environment and transmis-
sion of social heritage. On the other hand Wilbur Schramm
has depended is in simple terms watcher form and teacher.
A. Hypodermic or Bullet Theory:
The name of the theory reflects fear of mass media. This
theory suggests that the messages were thought to be
magic bullets, which were shot directly into the receiver.
Receivers of the messages are around passive and defense-

less thus taking whatever is shot at them. It means that
media has extreme power but their communes are mal-
leable. But the validity of bullet theory has been jeopar-
dized on the grounds that the mass of humanity is not un-
differentiated in their views. It is never that each member of
the audience would have the same reaction on the mass
mediate messages.
B. Psychological and Individual Difference Theory:
According to this theory, to the particular stimuli different
personalities have different reaction. The two important con-
cepts of selective exposure and spectra perception have
rerun from the psychological studies.
C. Selective Exposure:
Selective exposure is noting but the exposure of the people
selectively to the communication, which are in general ac-
cordance of communications that challenge their beliefs.
D. Selective Perception:
After selectively exposing themselves to these messages,
which are in accordance with their properness, people have
tendency to read into the message whatever suits their
needs. This is known as concept of selective perception.
E. Personal Influence Theory :
A classic study of the 1940 Presidential Elections in the
United States by Paul Lazars Field and other in the both
“The people’s choice” resulted in a theory of mass commu-
nication normally “Personal Influence Theory”. According
to it, not the mass media but the inter-personal relation-
ships lead an enormous influence on voters. This further
led to two-step flow of influence of mass communication as
a result of informal communication network. In this network,
audience talking to one another and sought advice from
opinion leaders.
F. Two-step flow:
“Opinion leaders” are those, who have first hand access to
mass media information. Thus, in the above mentioned
study the information received by the votes was second
hand and could be different from the original as the opinion
leaders might add their views interpretations to it before
conveying it to the other people.
G. Multi-Step Flow :
Multi step flow is a medication over the two-step flow be-
cause of multi-directional influence of opinion leaders when
they presented the interpretation of the messages to the
audience.
H.Normative Theories of Mass Communication :
The normative theories of mass media explain the expected
operator of media under the prevailing set of political eco-
nomic circumstances. There are six normative theories. In
1950, Siebert et al. mentioned four theories, in 1980, two
more were added there by MC Quail. The six of the men-
tioned theories based on the clarification of the national
media system into four categories. Further are as follows
(a) Authoritarian Theory:
This theory rapes to the arrangement in which press is sub-
ordinated to state power and the interests of a ruling class.
This theory is easily identified in a dictatorial repressive
society. According to this theory, press and other media
ought to subordinate to the established authority and should
not do anything to undermine it. It also gives justification for
the censorship and punishment for any kind of deviation
from set rules and guidelines.
(b) Free Press Theory
The fundamental right of an individual freedom of empori-
6
ums makes a base of this theory, which is also called Lib-
eration Theory. This theory precipice that any individual is
free to publish whatever he likes, can hold opinions fully, to
empress them, to assemble and organize with the other.
(c) Social Responsibility Theory:
The commission on freedom of the press was appointed in
the United States. This commission gave origination to the
theory of Social Responsibility. According to it, the press
has not meet the informational sound and normal needs of
the society. But
in reality it has given rise to the power of a single class. As
this theory is based on the assumption that media sense
the essential function of the society, so it should accept
and fulfill the substation to the society that are meet by
setting up of high probationer stand and in communication
of information in truth accuracy, objectivity and balance.
(d) Communist Media Theory:
The theory has mainly been derived from the main tenets of
mark and angels. That is why; it is also called as Soviet
Media Theory. It gives the justification for the media under
the control of working class whom they sense. And, so the
private ownership of the press is out of the scene.
MC Quail’s Theories
(a) Democratic Participant Theory:
The main features of the democratic participant theory have
relations with the needs and aspirations of the active people
in political society. This theory favours various sources of
communication multipliable of media smallness of scale of
operation and horizontally of communication at all levels it
oppress centralized high cost, highly proportionality and
state-controlled media.
(b) Development Communication Theory:
Where the communication is used for carrying out the de-
velopment works in line with national policy, this theory
applies. Four established theories had limited application
to the Third World countries and rapidly charging economic
political conditions, therefore, this approach came into ex-
istence.
J. Sociological Theories:
This approach towards mass communication assumes the
existence of a definite relationship between social changes
and mass communication from sociological theory of mass
communication are there that are as follows:
(a) Agenda Setting Theory:
This theory maintain that the media is enjoying more suc-
cess in telling people- “what is to think about” instead of
telling “what to think”. This term was coined by Marcell
McCourts and Donald C. Show (1972) in content of elec-
tion campaigns.
(b) Cultivations Theory
was coined by George Gerbner in the year 1967. The theory
is based on the subtlety of audiences. Who unknowingly,
get used to the symbols messages and images. Gerbner
and his aerostats have the view that the repeated exposure
to such distortion develops particular beliefs about the world
in people’s mind.
 7
THEORIES OF MEDIA EFFECTS AND USES The underlined theory was that individual select media
Joseph Klapper on basis of his longitudinal research con- programme which satisfies his motive and needs.
cluded that media succeed only in reinforcing old habits, George Geerbner’s Cultural indicator theory finds its origin
beliefs and attitudes. However majority of media theories in the extensive research of American television. George
mean by effect the contents of programmes and their im- and his team did the content analysis of TV programmes
pact on opinions, attitudes, perceptions, belief and social for behaviour patterns of gender violence, the family, minori-
behaviour. Conflicting findings and interpretations of vari- ties and tallied them with the actual life situation of
ous research studies have led to considerable confusion behaviours and attitudes in American society. He concluded
concerning the effects of the violence depicted in movies that viewers ‘adopted the perceptions of values, which were
and television well as of the increasing frankness in dealing consistently portrayed in different programmes’. Thus me-
with aberrant ‘sexual behaviour’ and other ‘adult’ themes. dia was seen as an agent of social control.
Marshall McLuhan saw media as having technological ef-
fect. The “electronic media” he stated, “was transforming
every aspect of man’s life and restructuring civilization not
so much by the content of their messages as by the nature
itself of television movies computers and other media. “ Thus
“media is the message. No matter what the contents of
Though this model describes only the elements in commu-
programme, people will watch it. “
nication and not their interrelationship its real value lies in
Inter-media and intra-media effects are called ‘reflex effects’
research. The model identifies five key areas of analysis as
or ‘bandwagon effects’. The tendency is copy the other media
shown below :
with vengeance.
Model Area of Analysis
EFFECTS OF MEDIA AND EDUCATION
What? Source analysis
A two-sided argument is more effective in changing opin-
Says what? Content analysis
ions of better-educated men whereas one-sided arguments
In which Channel? Media analysis
are more effective for less-educated men. The Honeland
To whom? Audience analysis
Lumsdaine and Sheffield experiment revealed that the per-
With what effect Effects analysis
suasiveness of sided arguments varied with the educational
Effects analysis is concerned with audience impact. In
level of their subjects. One explanation of this phenomenon
psychology, the law of effects states that a person tends to
is that better-educated men are capable of seeing both sides
repeat behaviour that is accompanied with favourable con-
of an argument.
sequences and tends not to repeat behaviour that is ac-
Children and Media : Three kinds of Social Control are :
companied with unfavourable consequences. However,
(1) Tradition orientation: Social control based on tradition.
Lazarsfeld and Merton believed that mass media cannot
(2) Inner orientation : Social control achieved through stan-
be relied upon to work for changes even minor changes in
dards, guidelines or values present in each individual.
the social structure.’
(3) External or other orientation : Social control achieved by
Lazarsfeld, Merton and Winn state that ‘media have narcotiz-
conformity to standards existing in other persons and groups.
ing dysfunction’ that distracts audiences from real problems
SOCIAL GROUP AND MEDIA
and in fact prevents their doing anything about them’. The
Social Groups provide guidance to individuals in many di-
bulk of information will dull the senses of an average viewer.
verse situations. Individual behaviour influenced and moti-
Seymour Feshback feels that media has ‘a cathartic ef-
vated by family, religious affiliation, professional groups, and
fect’ indirectly. It helps to eliminate the anti-social the un-
even groups an individual does not belong to, but wishes to
fulfilled desires, frustration and feelings of hostility seeing it
belong to. A Social Group mm bo defined as collection of
happen to others. Catharsis often enables us to gain in-
people who interact on a regular basis, affecting each other
sight into the ways an emotional trauma has been affecting
psychologically, and who collectively have a distinct per-
our behaviour. We began to see why we feel the way we do
sonality. All college students in India may be considered a
Catharsis is gaining emotional relief through putting one’s
‘group’ but not a Social Group, because its members do
feelings into words.
not interact or affect each other in any way. A family, on the
Both Narcosis and Catharsis may present extreme view.
other hand, has members who do interact with one another.
Ernest Van Den Hag states ‘mass communications taken
In general, Social Groups are collections of people who
together are demeaning debasing and de-personalizing in-
interact; who share values, needs, and attitudes, and who
struments of manipulation at worst; middle class hedonism
depend upon other members in the group for the achieve-
at best’. A wide angle view of media theory is given by
ment of common goals and satisfaction of common needs.
Frederic Wertham which says media is corruptive in gen-
This section focusses upon two groups of primary impor-
eral and specifically teaches materialism, brutality anti-so-
tance to marketeers—the family and the reference group.
cial behaviour and callousness towards other humans.
THE FAMILY
The incidental effect theory was put forward by Aldous
The importance of a family’s influence upon its members
Huxley. The incidental effect shows in facts like fashions,
cannot be overstressed. The family unit has been the sub-
mannerisms, mating habits and food habits. A lot of impor-
ject of much study of the past several decades. The entire
tance cannot be attached to these facets however in child-
marketing mix is strongly influenced by the characteristics
hood learning its importance cannot be under estimated.
of family purchasing units. The following discussion analyzes
Uses and gratification theory was founded by Elihu Katz
the importance of family members in the purchase decision.
Denis McQuail and Michae Gurevitch in 1950’s and 1960’s.
CLASS DIFFERENCES : Interaction among family mem-
Its basis was the need fulfillment of fantasy educational
bers upon any given issue, whether it be concerned with
and other gratification satisfaction by media to audiences.
 8
political issue, a purchase decision about a car, varies ers classified family purchase decision-making for twenty-
across social and socio-economic classes. Mina five products into four categories: husband-dominant, wife-
Komarovsky finds empirical support for her hypothesis that: dominant, syncratic, and autonomic. The husband and wife-
1. there is greater autonomy in the spending behaviour of dominant categories are categories in which one or the other
families at the lower and upper socio-economic hierarchy of the spouses were ‘highly’ influential in the final purchase
than in the behaviour of families in the middle class. decision for a given product. The researchers used arbi-
2. for low-income families, the wife will exercise greater trary cutoff points on a rating scale for classifying the deci-
autonomy for most expenditure than the wife belonging to a sion as either husband dominant or wife dominant. In both
higher economic class. cases, the percentage of families that make their decisions
3. young people will exhibit more joint involvement than older jointly must be less than 50 percent by definition. Where
people in deciding among economic alternatives. more than 50 percent of the families decide jointly on a
In explanation of the first hypothesis, one would expect purchase decision, the decision is considered to be
less family debate (greater autonomy) at the lower-income syncratic. And when the decision is arrived at jointly by
level because income must be allocated to routine and nec- less than 50 percent of the families and one spouse only
essary purchases. At the upper income level, greater au- slightly dominates the decision, the decision is called au-
tonomy is expected because of greater ‘economic lee-way*. tonomic. From the finding researchers suggest:
And in the middle classes, where families have some dis- The need for various communication strategies. When a
cretionary income, but not vast amounts, alternative pur- decision is husband or wife dominant, message have to be
chase decisions require greater consideration and, thus designed in reference to a particular spouse. In the case of
greater consultation between husband and wife. a syncratic decision, the message has to be tailored for
In support of second hypothesis Komarovsky points to evi- the couple as an entity showing, for example, group deci-
dence that lower-class families are more matriarchal. Com- sion and activities, or the way in which the purchase of a
bining this evidence with the fact that the large majority of particular brand or service can resolve certain decision con-
lower-class family purchase is routine and necessary, she flicts within the family. What is often overlooked is that for
concludes that the wife is the more likely person to make decision at or near the autonomic range, a different strat-
purchase decisions. egy is required. Remember that decisions in this area are
Finally, younger couples would be expected to make more within families most often wife dominant or husband domi-
joint decisions than other couples because they have not nant Thus, what appears to be one audience to a commu-
yet had time to develop specialized areas of competence. nicator in terms of relative influence of husbands and wives
That is, both are relatively inexperienced in making pur- is in reality, two audiences. So in the case of advertising for
chasing decisions for the household. Each has had par- alcoholic beverages, it will be justifiable to develop two cam-
ents make major household decisions for them before their paigns—one stressing husband-oriented appeals and the
marriage. Now, for the first time, young couple is faced with other wife-oriented appeals—rather than to employ one
making important economic decisions on their own. As a campaign that tries to ‘mix’ the two.
result, they are somewhat uncertain of themselves, cau-
tious, and deliberate, and more likely to consults each
other’s opinions.
ROLE DIFFERENTIATION : Within the family, certain pur-
chase decisions are made predominantly by the husband,
some predominantly by the wife, and still others are made
more or less on an equal basis. “The father tends to take
the lead in buying decisions when the product is primarily
instrumental, and the mother when the product has impor-
tant expressive values. In the purchase of the family auto-
mobile, the husband is primarily interested in horsepower
rating, type of braking system, and other mechanical and
functional aspects of the car. The wife, on the other hand,
is more interested in the aesthetics of the upholstery and
other interior features. The experienced sales representa-
tive knows.
In a recent study, researchers ‘Ferber and Lee’ found that
most joint purchase decisions were made by recently mar-
ried couples. About half of these couples acted jointly dur-
ing the first months of their marriage, with the figure declin-
ing to 37 percent after one year. Another finding was that
the wife was more likely to carry the main responsibility of
family finances if she was more quality-minded, more
economy-minded, or more bargain-minded. Where the hus-
band was considered to be primary decision maker on fam-
ily finances, the family was more likely to save a greater
portion of their income and tended to purchase automo-
biles less frequently.
In a well-conceived study by Davis and Rigaux, the research-
 9

JOURNALISM & MASS COMM. (a) 1973

(c) 1975
(b) 1974
(d) 1976

MODAL TEST-PAPERS
18. Metro Entertainment Channel (DD-2) was introduced
in:
(a) early 1980s (b) mid 1980s
1. ‘Deccan Herald’ was started in the year : (c) 1988 (d) 1990
(a) 1948 (b) 1949 19. Which committee strongly recommended granting
(c) 1950 (d) 1951 franchisees to education institutes?
2. ‘National Call’ was started by : (a) The Verghese Committee
(a) Rusi Karanjia (b) J.N. Sahni (b) The Malabari Committee
(c) Pothan Joseph (d) K.N. Guruswami (c) The Hunter Committee
3. Which paper was started by Chitranjan Das in Bangal? (d) The Bachhawat Committee
(a) Swarajya (b) Free Press Journal 20. What has made it possible to beam programme across
(c) Foreword (d) Forward frontiers to different parts of the world?
4. Gandhiji started ‘Harijan’ in : (a) Shortwave (b) Medium wave
(a) 1929 (b) 1930 (c) Only long wave
(c) 1931 (d) 1932 (d) Short wave and Long wave broadcasting
5. ‘Independent’ was started by : 21. In India, the first newspapers started by :
(a) Motilal Nehru (b) Lal Bahadur Shastri (a) N.W. Ayer (b) James Hicky
(c) Jawahar Lal Nehru (d) Gandhiji (c) L.A. Stronach (d) None of the above
6. ‘Navjivan’ was started by : 22. Which of the following was the first newspaper of India?
(a) Moti Lal Nehru (b) Jawahar Lal Nehru (a) The Times of India (b) Maratha, Kesari
(c) Gandhiji (d) Kalanath Shastri (c) Bengal Gazette (d) The Hindu
7. Young India’ was later renamed as : 23.Bengal Journal’ was first published in the year :
(a) Kalyan (b) Navjivan (a) 1776 (b) 1832
(c) Harijan (d) None of the above (c) 1785 (d) 1792
8. ‘Leader’was launched in 1909 in Allahabad by : 24. First modern ‘advertising agency was started by:
(a) Pt. M.M. Malviya (b) Pt. J.L. Nehru (a) N.W. Ayer (b) J. Walter Thompson
(c) Moti Lal Nehru (d) Gandhiji (c) D.J. Keymer (d) James Hicky
9. ‘Morning Post’ belonged to : 25. The ‘Statesman’ was published from :
(a) India (b) London (a) Calcutta (b) Bombay
(c) America (d) Mumbai (c) Madras (d) Delhi
10. Kalinath Roy was arrested and jailed for two years, he 26.When did the discounts in advertising begin to be of-
was the editor of: fered?
(a) Mid-Day (b) Tribune (a) Mid of eighteenth century
(c) Bombay Chronicle (d) Pioneer (b) Dawn of nineteenth century
11. Frequency Modulation (FM) channel was launched in (c) Mid of nineteenth century
Bombay on : (d) Beginning of nineteenth century
(a) August 15, 1993 (b) August 15, 1994 27. First rotary linotype machine installed by :
(c) September 27, 1993 (d) November 27, 1994 (a) The Hindu (b) The Statesman
12. Which Committee recommended a franchise system (c) The Times of India (d) Hindustan Times
for promoting local radio for education and development? 28. When did the ‘Calcutta Advertising Agency’ start
(a) The Chanda Committee (1978) operating?
(b) The Verghese Committee (1978) (a) 1897 (b) 1907
(c) The Heeraman Committee (1978) (c) 1909 (d) 1904
(d) None of the above 29. When was the ‘Indian and Eastern Newspapers Soci-
13. The first experiment in local/community experiment with ety (IENS) set up?
FM facility was conducted in : (a) 1938 (b) 1939
(a) Mumbai (b) Chennai (c) 1930 (d) 1953
(c) Delhi (d) Nagercoil 30. In which stage of Interpersonal Communication lowers
14. The Prasar Bharti Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha our social guard a little?
in the year : (a) The Personal Stage (b) The Intimate Stage
(a) 1976 (b) 1977 (c) The Phatic Stage (d) The Intermediate Stage
(c) 1978 (d) 1979 31. The lead (news) should answer :
15. The Government’s monopoly on broadcasting rests in (a) Who & what (b) When & where
which Article of the Indian Constitution? (c) Why & how (d) All of these
(a) Article 236 (b) Article 336 32. Which is the quality of a news?
(c) Article 264 (d) Article 246 (a) Clarity (b) Balance
16. The name of the first communication satellite was : (c) Objectivity (d) Accuracy
(a) Blue Bird (b) Early Bird (e) All of these
(c) Peacock (d) New Galaxy 33. Janet Cooke was awarded for :
17. Television and All India Radio were separated in the (a) Pulitzer Prize (b) Noble Prize
year: (c) Gandhi Peace Prize (d) Bharat Ratna
 10
34. Which reporting goes behind the news and brings out (a) Classified (b) Service
the truth? (c) Corporate (d) Industrial
(a) Objective (b) Interpretative 50. The ‘Public Society of India’ was set up in the year of:
(c) Investigative (d) Crime (a) 1923 (b) 1926
35. According to one eminent writer which kind of reporting (c) 1939 (d) 1942
is like drilling for oil in India? 51.Who was the last Governor-General of India?
(a) Objective (b) Interpretative (a) C. Rajgopalachari (b) Bhim Rao Ambedkar
(c) Investigative (d) Crime (c) Ravindra Nath Tagore (d) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
36.‘Reporting’ which deals with the subject-matter where 52.Find out the name of the rishi who always carry Veena’
an attempt is being made to hide the truth from the people with him :
is : (a) Shukracharya (b) Kanwa
(a) investigative (b) objective (c) Narada (d) Durvasa
(c) interpretative (d) crime 53. What is the name of that continent which first pub-
37.what does ‘a nose for news’ mean? lished the newspaper in the world?
(a) Space for news (b) Senses material for news (a) Europe (b)Africa
(c) Publish crime reports (d) None of these (c) Asia (d) Australia
38.Which is not the quality of a reporter? 54. First of all which country made the paper?
(a) Team spirit (b) Outgoing nature (a) China (b) England
(c) A nose for news (d) Editing Interviews for use (c) India (d) America
39. which is the responsibility of the reporters? 55. What was made from the mixture of campblack and
(a) Responsibility towards news organization resin or gum ?
(b) Responsibility towards reader and society (a) Pen (b) Rubber
(c) Responsibility towards sources (c) Ink (d) Scale
(d) Responsibility towards research departments 56.The second stage consisted of a series of ‘Relations’
(e) All a, b and c published in the form of :
40. in which year was the contempt of Court Act enacted? (a) The Diurnals (b) Relation
(a) 1971 (b) 1970 (c) Coranto (d) Bhaskar
(c) 1972 (d) 1973 57.who printed the greatest number of corants ?
41.The establishment year of the ‘Audit Bureau of circula- (a) Germanese (b) Duch
tion’ was : (c) Italian (d) Greek
(a) 1945 (b) 1939 58. On March 11, 1702, the first daily newspaper appeared
(c) 1951 (d) 1948 in London called :
42. The ‘Advertising Agencies Association of India’ was (a) Hindustan Times (b) The Times of India
established in : (c) Indian Express (d) Daily Current
(a) 1945 (b) 1942 59. Who is the eighteenth century’s country’s most impor-
(c) 1950 (d) 1939 tant journalist?
43. Readership surveys were firstly conducted by : (a) John Milton (b) Abraham Lincoln
(a) The Times of India (b) The Hindu (c) Dafoe (d) Alexander
(c) Reader’s Digest (d) All of the above 60. who started the ‘Father’ and ‘Spectator’ ?
44.The British Government in India set up the ‘Central Bu- (a) Steele and Addison (b) Henry
reau of Public Information’ in : (c) John Milton (d) Jamesford
(a) 1942 (b) 1923 61. Which one is not among the following ideal purposes of
(c) 1932 (d) 1930 International broadcasting according to UNESCO?
45. Advertising agency with highest Gross Income in India (a) To present the best culture and ideals of the
is : broadcasting country
(a) Mudra Communication Ltd. (b) To present world news objectively
(b) Hindustan Thompson Associate Ltd. (c) To present regional co-operation
(c) Ogilvy and Mother Ltd. (d) To promote international understanding
(d) None of the above 62. Who called for the establishment of ‘National Broad-
46. ‘Development’ advertising is the form of : casting Trust’ in Feburary 1978?
(a) Classified Advertising (a) The Kelkar Committee
(b) Institutional Advertising (b) The Chanda Committee
(c) Public Service Advertising (c) The Verghese Committee
(d) Product Advertising (d) None of the above
47. Which of the following is the tool for Public Relation? 63. The current broadcasting policy is based on:
(a) Press Conferences (b) Welfare activities (a) The AIR code of 1969 (b) The AIR code of 1968
(c) Brouchers (d) All of the above (c) The AIR code of 1970 (d) None of the above
48.The large Disklay of the ‘achievements’ of the State 64.The Code and other restriction on broadcasting are based
Government is the type of advertising: on:
(a) Institutional (b) Public service (a) Clause 3
(c) Industrial (d) Classified (b) Clause 2 of Article 19 of the Indian constitution
49. In which type of advertising descrisption is precise and (c) Clause 4
technical? (d) Clause 5