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Waste pollution, wastewater and effluent treatment methods -An overview

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Waste pollution, wastewater and effluent treatment methods – An

overview
Sunday A. Afolalu a, Omolayo M. Ikumapayi a,⇑, Temitayo S. Ogedengbe b, Rasaq A. Kazeem c,
Adebayo T. Ogundipe d
a
Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, Afe Babalola University, Ado Ekiti 360101, Nigeria
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Elizade University Ilaramokin, Ondo State, Nigeria
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
d
Directorate of Information Communication Technology, Afe Babalola University, Ado Ekiti 360101, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Population increases with an increase in urban growth and unfortunately so does pollution. Pollution has
Available online xxxx therefore become n endemic universal problem resulting in depletion of ozone layer, resulting a rapid
spike in global warming, and adversely affecting human life. One major cause of this pollution is the poor
Keywords: disposal of industrial and municipal wastewater and effluent. These pollutants containing inorganic com-
Water pounds and heavy metals pose a serious threat to the lives of humans and other living organisms alike.
Wastewater This study therefore reviews the influence of wastewater pollution as well as the treatment methods used
Pollution
in recent times as a panacea in the society.
Water Quality
Effluent Treatment
Copyright Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Materials, Processing & Characterization.

1. Introduction 2. Pollution

Environmental pollution all over the globe is gradually reaching
an alarming stage with several countries beginning to develop
technologies to tackle this menance [1]. Water plays a prominent
role in human civilisation. It is the lifeblood of ecosystems, includ-
ing humans, as the provision of safe drinking water is one of the
major prerequisites for a healthy life [2]. Water occupies roughly
seventy-one per cent of the earth surface in the form of oceans,
seas, rivers and lakes [3]. However, only two and a half per cent
of the water on earth is fresh [4]. Even then, less than one per cent
of the freshwater is accessible for consumption, with a critical
amount (two-third) trapped in underground wells, glaciers and
ice caps [5]. In effect, only 0.007 per cent of the earth’s water is
available to fuel and feed its 6.8 billion people [5]. This study there-
fore reviews the influence of wastewater pollution as well as the
treatment methods used in recent times as a panacea in the
society.
Pollution can be defined as the introduction of any substance in
the form of solid, liquid, gas or energy (sound, heat, or radioactiv-
ity) to the environment at a rate faster than it can be dispersed,
diluted, decomposed, recycled, or stored in a harmless form [6].
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) defines pollution as the casting off of substances and heat
into environmental media (air, water or land) whose nature, loca-
tion, or quantity produces undesirable environmental effects [7].
Although there are different forms of pollution (such as air, water,
marine, land, nuclear, noise, chemical and thermal pollution) [8],
the primary focus of this study is water pollution as it relates to
undrinkable water and land pollution as it relates to agricultural
waste disposal.
2.1. Water pollution

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Ikumapayi.omolayo@abuad.edu.ng (O.M. Ikumapayi).
Water is the second most vital natural resource after air [9] and
is essential for the survival of all living things and food production
and economic development [10–11]. Today, several countries face
an acute shortage of water caused by pollution. According to Owa
[12], water is considered polluted if there is a degradation in its

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.231
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Materials, Processing & Characterization.

Please cite this article as: S.A. Afolalu, O.M. Ikumapayi, T.S. Ogedengbe et al., Waste pollution, wastewater and effluent treatment methods – An overview,
Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.04.231
S.A. Afolalu, O.M. Ikumapayi, T.S. Ogedengbe et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

quality caused by the direct or indirect introduction of substances
that alter its physicochemical and biological properties and inter-
fere with its regular use. These substances having either a solid,
liquid or gaseous origin have different effects on water depending
on their amount, potential danger and fragility of the environment
where they are released [13].
Water pollution can be of natural origin or introduced by
humans (anthropogenic sources) [14–15]. Pollution of surface
and groundwater by humans occurs due to actions and activities
carried on to better self, including domestic, industrial or commer-
cial activities and agricultural practices [12]. Thus, water pollution
is categorised as a point or nonpoint source [16]. Point sources of
pollution are locally identifiable sources of pollution, such as
wastewater effluent coming out from various factories, refineries,
power plants, mines and wastewater treatment facilities [15]. In
other words, point sources of pollution occur when the polluting
substances are emitted directly into waterways [17]. Non-point-
sources (NPS) or diffuse sources of pollution, on the other hand,
are difficult to be identified and are distributed over a wide geo-
graphic area [16]. For example, runoff from agricultural lands
[18] and urban areas [19].
2.2.3. Agricultural pollution
Agricultural pollution originates from intensive farming meth-
ods, manure from stables or feedlot drainage (drainage from poul-
try cultivation), and the introduction of pesticides (insecticides and
weed killers), chemical fertilizers (rich in phosphorus, potassium
and nitrogen) resulting from surface runoff or leaching may con-
taminate ground and surface waters [31]. The runoff of pesticides
poses the most threat because they are not fully biodegradable;
they deposit and concentrate in river flows, leading to dysfunction
of the ecological system and destruction of all life forms [32].
2.3. Water quality parameters
Water quality is determined by its physical, chemical, and
microbiological properties (see Table 2) [33]. According to its pur-
pose of use, these water quality parameters are characterized by
wide variabilities globally, such as for drinking, agriculture, or
industrial use [26]. Therefore, water required for a specific purpose
is compared against standards for that type of water [34]. Fig. 1
depicts water quality parameters.

2.2. Sources of water pollution 2.3.1. Physical parameters of water quality

The physical parameters of water relate to the appearance of
2.2.1. Domestic pollution water (colour, turbidity, taste, odour and temperature) [36]. In
Domestic wastewater, a by-product of life and the process of order to be fit for use, water must be free of all impurities that
living, refer to the discharge of urban sludge containing soaps are offensive to the sense of smell, sight and taste [26]. Such phys-
and organic substances (faeces, urine, oil and grease and food ical parameters include colour, turbidity, taste and odour, temper-
residuals) from households, commercial buildings, institutions ature e.t.c.
and similar facilities such as laundries, confectioneries and restau-
rants [16,20], which is generated mainly by activities such as cook-
2.3.2. Chemical parameters of water quality
ing, cleaning, laundry garbage disposal and personal hygiene [21].
The chemical parameters of water reflect the soil and rocks with
which it comes in contact. Also, industrial discharge, agricultural
2.2.2. Industrial/commercial pollution and urban runoff affect the quality of water [36]. Chemical param-
Wastewater of industrial or commercial origin refers to the dis- eters include hardness, acidity, alkalinity e.t.c.
charge of effluents or harmful and non-biodegradable substances
from industrial and manufacturing operations, medical centres,
and trade processes [22–23]. Examples include sulphur from coal 2.3.3. Biological parameters of water quality
mining (Pudasainee et al., 2020); arsenic, nitrates and phosphates Microbial contamination is one of the significant concerns of
originating from industries producing weed killers and pesticides water quality [36]. The major groups of microbes present in natural
[24], chromium from plating and tanning industries [25]; the dis- water include bacteria, parasites, protozoan, and viruses, which
charge of heated effluents into seas and rivers from power plants can cause waterborne diseases such as typhoid fever, cholera,
– increases the temperature of these water bodies causing alter- and dysentery [37].
ations of aquatic ecosystems and variation of vital processes [26–
27]; and dyes from textile, paper, leather, plastic, food and cos- Table 2
metic industries [28]. Table 1 presents a detailed description of Water quality parameters [35].
the different types of pollutants generated by the industrial sector.
Water Quality Parameters
S/ Physical Chemical Parameters Biological
Table 1 N Parameters Parameters
Water pollutants by the industrial sectors [24,27,29–30].
1 Colour Potential hydrogen (pH) Bacteria
S/ Industrial Sector Pollutant 2 Turbidity Acidity Algae
N 3 Taste and odour Alkalinity Viruses
4 Temperature Hardness Protozoa
1 Pulp and paper BOD, COD, chlorinated organic compounds, 5 Solids Nitrate
and SS 6 Electric Fluoride
2 Iron and steel BOD, COD, metals, phenols, acids, cyanide, conductivity
and oils 7 Chloride
3 Refineries and BOD, COD, phenols, chromium, and mineral 8 Sulphate
petrochemicals oils 9 Iron and manganese
4 Textiles and leather BOD, chromium, sulphates and SS 10 Copper and zinc
5 Microelectronics COD and organic chemicals 11 Dissolved oxygen (DO)
6 Chemicals COD, heavy metals, organic chemicals, 12 Biochemical oxygen demand
cyanide and SS (COD)
7 Non-ferrous metals Fluorine and organic chemicals 13 Chemical oxygen demand
8 Mining Metals, salts, acids, and SS (COD)
14 Toxic organic substances
Note: BOD – biochemical oxygen demand, COD – chemical oxygen demand, SS –
15 Toxic inorganic substances
sediments and suspended solids.

2
S.A. Afolalu, O.M. Ikumapayi, T.S. Ogedengbe et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 1. Water quality Assessment.

2.4. Water and wastewater treatment methods must be considered [38]. These wastewater treatment technologies
can be categorised under four fundamental techniques: prelimi-
The characteristics of water and its final intended use determi- nary treatment (mechanical methods), primary treatment (physi-
nes the degree of treatment and treatment method [26]. Therefore, cal methods), secondary treatment (biological methods) and
wastewater treatment refers to applying technologies to improve tertiary treatment (chemical methods) [21]. Fig. 4 depicts the
wastewater quality or convert it into an effluent that can be degrees of wastewater treatment.
returned to natural waterways or used directly [38–39]. In the
treatment process, wastewater is usually collected in an isolated
central area (the wastewater treatment plant) and undergoes var-
2.4.1. Mechanical water treatment methods
ious treatment processes (see Fig. 2) [40]. Various technologies are
Mechanical treatment systems or preliminary treatment are
available for wastewater treatment intended for reuse, many of
intended to eliminate granular particles with a diameter size
which can be used in combination [41] (See Fig. 3). However, in
greater than 0.1 mm, oils and fats, larger floating and dragged
selecting the appropriate combination of treatment options, factors
solids. This is achieved using a series of tanks, blowers, pumps
such as specific contaminants of interest, the intended use of the
screens, gates, and other mechanical components capable of trap-
water, expenses, energy consumption and waste disposal options
ping and separating solid materials from the bulk wastewater

Fig. 2. Wastewater treatment processes.

3
S.A. Afolalu, O.M. Ikumapayi, T.S. Ogedengbe et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 3. Wastewater treatment technologies.

Fig. 4. Degrees of wastewater treatment [26].

[42]. The mechanical treatment process includes screening and
flotation operations, as discussed below [21].
2.4.1.1. Screening. Screening is one of the oldest wastewater treat-
ment methods [43]. This mechanical process separates large non-
biodegradable solid contaminants such as cloths, hair, fibre, paper,
wood and faecal solids from wastewater to protect downstream
plants, equipment, and pipelines from damage or blockage; pre-
vent offensive suspended materials from entering primary settling
tanks and their interference with plant operations [43–44].
2.4.1.2. Flotation. Flotation is a unit operation used to remove fats,
oils, grease and finely suspended solids from fluids by introducing
4
an extremely fine gas, usually air bubbles that cause agglomeration
and transports the substances to the surface. The bubbles and sub-
stances can then be removed with a clearing device [44].
2.4.2. Physical water treatment methods
Physical methods termed primary treatment engage all natu-
rally occurring phenomena such as gravity, van der Waals forces,
and electrical attraction to treat wastewater. Processes such as sed-
imentation, screening, filtration, aeration, and flow equalisation
are utilised in removing contaminants [45]. Since no chemicals
are involved in this process, physical treatment methods do not
change the target substances’ chemical structure and biological
composition [40].
S.A. Afolalu, O.M. Ikumapayi, T.S. Ogedengbe et al.
2.4.2.1. Sedimentation (Clarification). Clarification is one of the most
widely used techniques in physical wastewater treatment pro-
cesses. The process involves the gravitational settling of insoluble
debris from the wastewater held in sedimentation tanks under qui-
escent conditions [40]. A sedimentation tank also called a clarifier,
is a flat, nearly current free tank designed explicitly for sedimenta-
tion processes. When designing a sedimentation tank, it is crucial
to bear in mind that the system must produce a clarified effluent
and a concentrated sludge [46].
2.4.2.2. Aeration. This water treatment process is used to treat
water bodies suffering from anoxic conditions caused by anthro-
pogenic activities such as urban and agricultural runoffs, excessive
batting in fishing lakes and sewage drainage. Aeration is achieved
by infusing air into the bottom of lakes, ponds or lakes or agitation
of the surface using a device such as a fountain or a spray, allowing
the exchange of oxygen at the surface and the release of harmful
gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) [40].
2.4.2.3. Filtration. In filtration systems, unique kinds of filters with
great capacities such as sand filters and cloth filters or physical
barriers (membranes) with pore sizes 0.1 to 0.5 lm are frequently
utilised to filter out fine impurities, and insoluble particles in the
wastewater such as dust, chemicals, bacteria and parasites
[26,44]. There are four membranes currently being used in this
method, namely: ultrafiltration (UF), microfiltration (MF), reverse
osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) [44].
2.4.2.4. Flow equalisation. Flow equalisation is applied to improve
the efficiency of secondary and advanced wastewater treatment
processes by levelling operating parameters such as temperature
over a specified period, flow, and pollutant levels [21]. This tech-
nique may be applied at several locations within a wastewater
treatment plant. For instance, it can be implemented close to the
end of the treatment operations, before discharge into waterways,
and before advanced wastewater treatment operations [43].
2.4.3. Biological water treatment methods
Biological treatment methods, also regarded as secondary treat-
ment, alter dissolved organic matter in wastewater into flocculent
or stable organic and inorganic solids [21]. The basic principle
behind this method is the ejection of pollutants by biological activ-
ities. Biological treatment is divided into aerobic treatment and
anaerobic treatment [41].
2.4.3.1. Aerobic treatment. The settled wastewater is introduced
into a specially designed bioreactor where biochemical decomposi-
tion of biodegradable organic matter occurs by microbes such as
bacteria, algae and fungi in the presence of oxygen [47]. Aerobic
treatment systems include rotating biological contractors, tradi-
tional trickling filters, and an activated sludge process. This treat-
ment method is suitable for treating low strength wastewater
and effectively removes BOD and COD, volatile, suspended and dis-
solved organic matter, nitrogenous matter, and phosphates [44].
Aerobic treatment can result in the formation of large amounts
of biosolids, requiring additional treatment. Oxidation ponds, aer-
ation lagoons are examples of aerobic treatment systems [48].
2.4.3.2. Anaerobic treatment systems. The anaerobic treatment sys-
tem uses microorganisms to convert rich, complex organic matter
into simple organic compounds without oxygen [44]. In anaerobic
treatment, organic contaminants are converted into biogas [49],
mainly consisting of 60–75% methane (CH4) and 25–40% carbon
dioxide (CO2) and traces of other gases: nitrogen (N2), hydrogen
(H2), and hydrogen sulphide (H2S) [50]. Although this treatment
5
Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx
method is time consuming compared to aerobic treatment, its
advantages include high organic removal efficiency, suitability to
handle high organic loads, production of small amounts of sludge
which is usually very stable, low energy requirement and forma-
tion of biogas (CH4) as an end-product [45,47].
2.4.4. Chemical water treatment methods
Chemical treatment methods or tertiary treatment are an
essential aspect of the treatment of dangerously obnoxious water.
These methods use various chemical reactions to improve water
quality and include processes such as disinfection, neutralization
and coagulation, [40].
2.4.4.1. Disinfection. Water disinfection is done following coliform
rules, which states that E. coli should not be present in random
water samples [51]. Thus, disinfection aims to immobilise or
reduce pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites [52].
The process of disinfection treatment method involves the addition
of a strong oxidising chemical (chlorine compounds, ozone, hydro-
gen peroxide, phenols and alcohols) to wastewater to destroy the
growth of microorganisms [53] and retard the rate of decomposi-
tion of the water: eliminating taste and odour problems [54]. How-
ever, the efficacy of disinfection is dependent on numerous factors
such as the quality of water to be treated, disinfectant type,
amount applied and duration, and other environmental factors.
2.4.4.2. Neutralization. The purpose of neutralization is to control
the pH value of wastewater to meet different processing units’
requirements within the wastewater treatment system [40]. Acids
or alkali are added as required: for instance, lime (a base) is some-
times used in the neutralization of acid wastewater. Neutralization
is significant in protecting downstream equipment from corrosion
attacks [51].
2.4.4.3. Coagulation. In wastewater treatment, the coagulation
method is one of the most critical physiochemical reactions [44].
This method is used to speed up the precipitation process of ions
(heavy metals), and colloidal-dispersed particles (organic and inor-
ganic) held mostly by electric charges in wastewater [40,51]. The
addition of ions of opposite charges destabilises the forces keeping
colloids apart. Coagulation also occurs under the influence of par-
ticular chemical substances called coagulant, such as alum: filter
alum [Al2(SO4)3
14H2O] or liquid alum [Al2(SO4)3
xH2O]. The
coagulation process is accompanied by a progressive coarsening
and aggregation of particles and a decrease in their total number
in the wastewater volume, resulting in large volumes of sludge
to be disposed of [49,51].
3. Conclusions
As established in this study, the importance of clean water can-
not be overemphasized. Wastewater and effluent cause a disrup-
tion in the food chain and results in global warming. The various
treatment methods adopted for solving this menace are mechani-
cal methods (screening & floatation), physical methods (filtration
& aeration), biological methods (aerobic and anaerobic treatments)
and chemical methods (disinfection, neutralization, and coagula-
tion). When these methods are applied and correctly, the detri-
mental effects of wastewater and effluent can be effectively
managed thereby making the world cleaner.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Sunday A. Afolalu: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodol-
ogy, Writing – original draft, Funding acquisition. Omolayo M.
S.A. Afolalu, O.M. Ikumapayi, T.S. Ogedengbe et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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ostp/documents/asset/cfans_asset_131281.pdf
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