Discrete-time Signals and Linear Systems 1.19 ‘A system is defined as a physical device that performs i ; Psarpl. afilter used to reduce the noise comply a desired iforsene nee cjgal is called a system. siti Signal processing is any operation that changes the characteristics of a sign a trese characteristics include the amplitude, shape, phase and frequency comecr, ea nt of Most ofthe signals encountered in science and engineering are analog in natu These signals are functions of a continuous variable, such as time or space. To = cesssuch signals, devices such as amplifiers, filters, frequency analyzers are vem that will respond to the continuous variation of the input signal's instantaneous ary- plitude. These devices change the characteristics of the signal or extract some desired information from the signal. In such a case we say that the analog signal has been processed. The system that processes the analog signal is known as analog signal processing system. The block diagram of an analog processing system is as shown in Fig. 1.22 Analog Analog input signal ‘output signal 0 0) Fig. 1.22 Analog Signal Processing System Fig. 1.23 presents the block diagram of a typical digital signal processing system, where 2(t) is the analog input signal and y(t) is the analog processed output. The system is divided into six sections. x9] Ant Sample ie png —] 2 a se pa Lf feos Lo ‘te pag | [Converter inverter || "uo Fig. 1.23 Digital Signal Processing System The source of the input signal is from a transducer or a communication signal and Signal may be an EEG or an ECG. The input signal is applied to an antialiasing ne is « lowpass filter used to remove the high frequency noise and to i iteage etal In addition to the lowpass filter, it may also be advantageous ‘salar : Hz notch filter that can remove the power-frequency component. ZS ring Pat of external noise, The amplifier (not shown in F 23) may fe we iital oaunal Upto the voltage range that is required by the input es ie ee Vil pe Netsion unit, The sample and hold device provides the inputte he A Veign ited ifthe input signal must remain relatively constant oo The ou, tM analog signal to digital format. : ie cite SUput of age the sample-and-hold circuit serves asthe input (0 Og 1 C is an N-bit binary number depending on the va OY ding amplifier al at its j i , . Mmput. The ADC input signal is limited to a range of elt "and ~5V to +45 V if bipolar (e.g., AD 571). ‘The prece1.20 Digital Signal Processing provides a signal in this range. Once converted to digital form, the si processed using digital techniques. The digital signal processor may be a large programmable digital compu, a microprocessor (e.g, Intel's 80xx, Motorola's 68 xxx, and Zilog's Z-80 xxx, grammed to perform the desired operations on the input signal. It may be a y signal processing hardware (¢.g., ADSP2100, Motorola DSP 56000, TMS325, configured to perform a specified set of operations on the input signal. inal cas, 0) x0) Fig. 1.24 (a) DAC Output (b) Reconstruction filter output The digital signal from the processor is applied to the input of a DAC. Theo: of DAC is continuous but not smooth, as shown in Fig, 1.24a. The signal con unwanted high frequency components. To eliminate high frequency components, the output of DAC is applied to construction filter. The output of reconstruction filter is a smooth continuous i as shown in Fig. 1.24b. 1.9 Advantages and Limitations of Digital Signal Process 19.1 Advantages Digital Signal Processing possesses several advantages over analog signal proce: They are + Greater accuracy. The tolerance of the circuit components used to desi analog filters affects the accuracy, whereas the DSP provides superior © of accuracy. Cheaper. In many applications, digital realization is comparatively than its analog counterpart. Ease of Data Storage. Digital signals can be easily stored on magnetit " without loss of fidelity and can be processed off-line in a remote labor Implementation of sophisticated algorithms. ‘The DSP allows 10 im?” Sophisticated algorithms when compared to its analog counterpart. . Flexibility in configuration.“ DSP system can be easily reconfem - changing the program. Reconfiguration of an analog system involves " of system hardware. melanin - Applicabiliy of VLF Signals. The very low frequency sighs St, occuring in seismic application can be easily processed using @ PoP w*SeTete. tin : Si, Processor w} compa, Boal a Linear g Capacitors ed Woulg ae Time Sharin, Dsp allow, PhYsicaly lary ne Te inductor! Signals by time sharin, Teh OF a ose . ing th : Ba ny Imbe, 192° Limitations er ~ 1. System Co, ve : analog USC of decry incre 0 the di asec of d uehas A/D ann Dyq bial mai rath lir pling rate. Bang li Three" information ios i he Sampling rnd sign ma in stnals nan a then ice the bandvidin ri > Conve: and fas igital I 8 “ i the : ning ‘Mitation ji the g i : dagen — Peed of operation of AD converters an 3. Power Cons te digital signal umption. A Variety of analog Processin, it n A vari 5 algorithms can be imple. Mented Using Passive Circuit elements like inductors, Capacitors and resists i tot much power, Whereas a Dgp chip Containing over 4 lakh tran. Sistors dissipates More power (1 watt), 110 Applications of DSP / 1, Telecommunication, Echo cancel! alling application, Modem: CTyption, Video Conferencij Consumer Electronics, Dj tional toys, FM g 3. Instrumentation and Cont Benerator, Servo Control, - Image Processin ee, id ition, mputeri 4 5. Ment" Medieal diagnostic instrumentation aaa Sean aly “aphy (CT), X-ray Scanning, Magnetic Pees in heart and brain, ~ Of ECG and EEG signals to detect the various diso % tient monitoring, fe used in » Speech Proce Speech analysis bank idennifeation. rechenton, speaker verification and rn text ino speech a epoaon hnigues include conversion of splays inthe geoph eke 9 . Seismology, DSP techniques are ‘nd nuclear explosion Bh * Oil and gas, detection of undergrou : Navigation, toring, lation in telephone network S, Line repeaters, Channel multipl ng, Cellular phone, FAX, ; ; gital Audio/TVeelectronic music synthes ications, sound recording applications, 7 me Spee analysis, Digital filter, PLL, function .ob 1. : trol, process control on Take ane fling enhancement, Image analys 8. 1 ts s, Telephone di- 7 exing, Data en- 2. izer, educa- automatic speech Speech syathes sepure ings ; ignal process! 8. Military. Radar signal processing, Sonar sign communications,Discrete-time Signals and Linear Syst ar Systems | AT Causal and Noncausal Signals ) is said to be causal if its value is zer0 for n = 0. Otherwise th jerwise the signal 1.15.4 ‘A signal (7 js noncausal. Examples for causal signals: y(n) = a"n(n) alm) = (1,2, 1,2) Examples for noncausal signals: a(n) = a"u(—n 4 1) a2(n) = {1,=2,1,4,3) {A signal that is zero for all n > 0 is called an anticausal signal, 1.16 Operation on Signals plied to an input signal resulting Signal processing is a group of basic operations apj ansformation from one signal to in another signal as the output. The mathematical tr another is represented as y(n) = T[x(n)] (1.76) The basic set of operations are 1. Shifting 3. Time scaling 5 Signal multiplier 6. 2. Time reversal 4. Scalar multiplication Signal addition 1161 Shifting The shift operation takes the input sequence and shifts the values by an integer NT delay or advance the sequences men ofthe independent variable, ‘The shifting may ime, Mathematically this can be represented as y(n) = 2(n - &) ii wi : re 2(n) isthe input and y(n) is the output. If k is positive, the shifting delays the Heme. If is negative, the shifting advances the sequence ‘nin Fi signal (7) is shown in Fig. 1.440. The signal z(n ~ 3) is obtained BY 0) fe Sigh Et by Sunits of ime, ‘The result is shown in Fig: 1 4ab, On the other hat (142) is obtained by shifting (1) left by two units of time (986 FS1.44 Digital Signal Processing ao SOO es eas Pera 20 2 x(a—3) x(a +2) rio ra OMt- 2S 4° 6 Ia e @) Qtzaa i Fig. 1.44 (a) Discrete time signal (b) delayed versi ion (c) advanced version ‘The time reversal of seque: n = 0. Itis denoted as x( given in Fig. =(—-n — z(—n— nce x(n) can be obtained by folding the sequence about 1.4da, the x(—n) is two units of time and ‘The graphical representation of ig. 1.46a and Fig. 1.46b respectively. 2 2 —n). For the signal <(n) shown in Fig. 1.45. The signal x(—n + 2)is 2(—n) delayed by 2) is z(—n) advanced by two unit its of time. 2) and 2(—n + 2) are shown in Fi a ee ae Fig. 1.45 Timely reversal of Signal x(n) 2 2 ‘x(-n-2) TSE. “sae © ase Paiy0? Ang 5 © Fig. 1.46 (a)Shifted version of the signal z(—n) (a) advance (b) delayDiscrete-time Signals and Linear. Systems 1.45 ~ 4163 - Time Scaling ‘nis is accomplished by replacing n by An in the sequence «(n). Let a(n) is a sequence shown in Fig. 1.47a, If = 2 we get a new sequence y(n) = 2(2n). We can plot the sequence y(n) by substituting different values for n. For n= —1,y(-1) = 2(-2) =3 Similarly y(0) = (0) =5 y(1) = 2(2) =3 y(2) = 2(4) =1 and so on. 95 x(n) eds a B36 3432701 @ 75 y(a)=x(2n) 4 3 2 ' 0-0 00 + ae ATES T Saag rasa se 7h “9S y(n) =x(n2) ' Mate 3 2 1 ils seals Atos4gat012345678 © “Fig. 1.47 Graphical illustration of time scaling1.46 Digital Signal Processing From the above result we can cor 44-numbered samples in x(n) Sequence is shown in Fig, .47b, ‘The original sequence (n) The signal 2(2n) is obtained by signal by a factor of 2. This pro down sampling or decimation, Let us consider another type of sequence nnclude that, to plot y(n) we have to'skip the ‘and retain even-numbered samples, The Tesulting is obtained by sampling a continuous signal x(t), reducing the sampling rate on the continuous-time ess of reducing sampling rate is often referred ag Von)=2(5) where w= 2, Then y/(n) = 2 (3) From the above result we find y(n) is not defined for odd values of n. Thete- fore, we assume ¥(n) = 0 for odd values ot 1. The resulting sequence-is shown in Fig, 147c, This sequence can be obiained by upsampling, which is a of down sampling, To up sample the Sequence 2(n) Ik = 1 in Eg, ( sample. Ifthe inputs signal is x(n) is stored in memory the output is a(n attimen © 2). Infact the sample x(n 1) ~ Tanditis recalled from memory at time 4 to form u(n) = 2(n-1) (1.78) Thus this basic buildin 8 block requires memory, The block diagram of a un t delay clement is 2 2 unit advance element, The block diagram ¢ 148, shown in Fig. 1.48a. If k Fa unit =-lwe advance element is shown in‘scale factor @ Discrete-time Signals and Linear Systems 1.47 / 1.16.4 Scalar Multiplication 1 selar muitiplier is shown in the Fig. 1.49. Here the signal .r(1) is multiplied by a xn) a y(n) ax(n) Fig. 1.49 A scale multiplier For example if a(n) = {1,2,1,-1} and a = 2. Then the signal ax(n) = {2,4:2,-2) 1,165 Signal Multiplier 50 illustrates the multiplication of two signal sequences to form another se- Fig. 1. quence. x,(n) © y(n) = x\(n) x20) x00) | Fig. 1.50 A Signal multiplier For example, if 21(n) = {-1,2,-3,-2} and 22(n) = {1,-1,-2,1} then, y(n) -29(n) = {-1.1)2. — 1-3. - 2,24} = {-1,-2,6,-2} 116.6 Addition Operation Two signals can be added by using an adder shown as in the Fig. 1.51. y(n) = xy(n) + X29), xi) x(n) Fig. 1.51 An adder For example, it y(n) = {1,2,3,4} and then, a(n) = {4,3,2,1} 21(n) + a9(n) = (144,243,3+24+ 1h = {5,5,5,5}1.48 Digital Signal Processing 1.17 Sampling and Aliasing In practice, sampling is performed by applying a continuous-time si whose output isa series of digital values. ‘The primary concern i select the sampling rate (number of samples per second) that preserv contained in the continuous-time signal, If is the time interval between successive sam; can be represented by the relation ignal to an Ay in sampling i , e the informati, les then the discrete-time spy, a(n) = 2( co 50 100 ue FOND NaI aloes eee aa te cide BE Dhak CORT agen th Biss. = Bp o Dee? Woeg Tax) = lotr Teg nr Arve Sop Kall) = 1 SAE 490 5H emt : OVX AS a wt pidot ths Naapiid aad of Pomp ; ri rsh Kory. Chie Pan oo a, a ath w Yall) = losm 2M 50% + 90 Sm 2M bot — Cov2t ast oman & Fse 2 Fay & - +k = F SE BOO Ha fe alae 4 a >a, Ao fo a Kall) oA SHE) oA Sm amet Pee mr fe, ‘ BR) = AIR = Asm otf | BOY. spl oy Tomy. :Ada ihe ors “a ' w mad Rint Sy oe cay Mid Shaod. Sapo odes y °lr Lb l ips =) IDE sie > ete, Kine Xep8d L- ne y e= rou) 07 Kal) 34 PPE ’ cele Code ais sa unig aay sqptilingclin ck fot daly 2 sti Sn ino forded Sey, ‘ou th Te coat ee: be te ess, Nee | t $i 5 Seay. SA + | wb a 4 fe Nott a Oa Spl oe MIF jae a Se bee tod io. Ne (wi WV TO. fee ON bo\Dirgibel Spel “Paieceet 1 Psp wa Wogual Saves Sool paper i tombtralin 4a qparche’ or edged tet Bin! ealiilee repent eas Racy yettvele | ALG aay t eae : ee Ita inthe cite Stet on _(Fte! aiditatad wins foto iz ie “ee roe open