Applied Acoustics 60 (2000) 187±199

www.elsevier.com/locate/apacoust

De®nition and measurement of

random-incidence scattering coecients
Michael VorlaÈnder a,*, Eckard Mommertz b
a
Institute of Technical Acoustics, Rheinisch-WestfaÈlische Technische Hochschule, Templergraben 55,
D-52056 Aachen, Germany
b
MuÈller-BBM GmbH, Robert-Koch-Str. 11, D-82152 Planegg, Germany

Received 11 January 1999; received in revised form and accepted 25 June 1999

Abstract
This paper describes the de®nition and two methods for measuring scattering coecients of
rough surfaces. In both cases, impulse responses are determined for various orientations of a
sample surface. After phase-locked superposition of a sucient number of impulse responses,
the coherent re¯ected sound energy is obtained. It is identical with the zero-order lobe of the
re¯ection pattern Ð the specularly re¯ected part. Considering the totally re¯ected sound
energy, the scattering coecients can be calculated. The results of the reverberation chamber
measurements are scattering coecients for random sound incidence. Both methods are dis-
cussed and experimental results, obtained by scale model measurements, are shown. # 2000
Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Some problems in acoustics require knowledge about scattering of sound at cor-

rugated surfaces. This is true, for instance, for characterisation of the sea¯oor, of
road barriers or in room acoustics. Particularly, in computer simulation of sound
propagation in rooms, realistic results are obtained when not only specular re¯ections
are considered but also di€use re¯ections. This is necessary since generally the irregu-
larities of wall surfaces are neither small nor large compared to the wavelengths.
Traditionally, the scattering properties are expressed in terms of the directivity
pattern. These can be measured or calculated for distinct angles of incidence and
frequencies (e.g. [1±4]). However, only in a few cases the detailed directivity pattern of

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-241-8079-85/86; fax: +49-241-8888-214.

E-mail address: mvo@akustik.rwth-aachen.de (M. VorlaÈnder).

0003-682X/00/$ - see front matter # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0003-682X(99)00056-0
188 M. VorlaÈnder, E. Mommertz / Applied Acoustics 60 (2000) 187±199

the scattered sound is of major interest. Instead, an adequate quantity for describing
rough surfaces is the scattering coecient . It is simply de®ned as the ratio of the
non-specularly re¯ected sound energy to the totally re¯ected energy (Fig. 1) and
does not include any information about the directivity of the scattered energy.
However, although generally not physically exact, in room acoustical prediction
methods the directional energy distribution may be expressed in terms of Lambert's
cosine law [5], if at least  is known.
The scattering coecient  generally depends on the frequency and on the angle of
sound incidence. However, analogue to the random-incidence absorption coecient
obtained in reverberation rooms, an angular average of the scattering coecient, i.e.
the random-incidence scattering coecient, can be de®ned as well.
The scattering coecients can be calculated from the directivity pattern (see also
[6], in this issue). However, in this paper two measurement methods are described
which allow determination of the scattering coecients directly, as presented earlier
in [7].

2. Fundamentals

The procedures are based on the idea presented already in [8,9]. The general
principle of the method can best be explained by looking at the e€ect of re¯ection
and scattering in the time domain. In Fig. 2 three bandpass ®ltered pulses are
shown, which were re¯ected from a corrugated surface for di€erent orientations of
the sample.
Obviously the initial parts of the re¯ections are highly correlated. In contrast, the
later parts (``tails'') are not in phase and depend strongly on the speci®c orientation.
This observation makes sense, because the ®rst part of each re¯ection took the path
with the shortest delay (Fermat's principle, see Fig. 3). This coherent part is identical
with the specular component of the re¯ection which can also be interpreted as the

Fig. 1. Scattering from rough surfaces.

 M. VorlaÈnder, E. Mommertz / Applied Acoustics 60 (2000) 187±199 189

Fig. 2. Exemplary re¯ected pulses (10 kHz, 1/3 octave band) obtained for di€erent sample orientations.

Fig. 3. Re¯ection paths: (. . .) specular according to Fermat's principle and (Ð) scattered. R…#1 ; '1 ; #2 ; '2 †
indicates that the re¯ection amplitude depends on the two incident angles and the two re¯ection angles in
the local polar coordinate system at the re¯ection point.

zero-order lobe of the directional pattern. The energy in the ``tail'' of the re¯ected
pulse contains thus the scattered part.
The energies (normalised with respect to a re¯ection from a rigid reference plane)
contained in the impulses in Fig. 2 are expressed in terms of (see also Fig. 1):
Espec ˆ …1 ÿ †…1 ÿ † ˆ …1 ÿ a†; Etotal ˆ …1 ÿ † …1†

The coecient a may be called ``specular absorption coecient''. From these equa-
tions the scattering coecient  can be determined by:
aÿ Espec
ˆ ˆ1ÿ …2†
1ÿ Etotal
190 M. VorlaÈnder, E. Mommertz / Applied Acoustics 60 (2000) 187±199

As can be easily seen, the ``specular absorption coecient'' directly corresponds to

the scattering coecient if   0.
The important idea of the approach is to extract the specular component Espec
from the re¯ected pulses. This is done by phase-locked averaging of the pulses
obtained for di€erent sample orientations: while the specular components add up in
phase the incoherent scattered sound interferes partly destructive. This principle is
applied and further explained in the two measurement methods described in the
following.

3. Free-®eld method

To demonstrate the method, simple model structures consisting of randomly dis-

tributed, parallel wooden hemi-cylinders and rectangular battens were used as test
samples. The measurement set-up is illustrated in Fig. 4.
Instead of using band-limited pulses as described above, the measurements were
performed with broadband MLS excitation using a PC-based measurement system.
The evaluation was done in the frequency domain after Fourier transform which is
equivalent to algorithms de®ned in the time domain.
In the ®rst step, the complex re¯ection factors Ri …f† are determined (see [10]) for
di€erent orientations of the sample. Each re¯ection factor Ri …f† may be expressed in
terms of a specular and a di€use component:

Ri …f† ˆ Rspec …f† ‡ Si …f†: …3†

The specular complex re¯ection factor is obtained by coherent addition of n com-

plex re¯ection coecients under variation of the orientation of the sample 'i . While
the energy of the specular component jRspec …f†j2 adds up coherently proportional to
n2 , the scattering components are incoherent. Their energy increases proportional to
n. With suciently large number of averages the incoherent part becomes su-
ciently small. We obtain the specular re¯ection factor:

Fig. 4. Experimental arrangement.

 M. VorlaÈnder, E. Mommertz / Applied Acoustics 60 (2000) 187±199 191

1X n
Rspec …f†  R …f† for n >> 1 …4†
n iˆ1 i

The specular absorption coecient a is calculated by the equation:

a…f† ˆ 1 ÿ jRspec …f†j2 …5†

Provided the energy losses can be neglected, the result of Eq. (5) is directly iden-
tical with the scattering coecient . Otherwise the absorption coecient must be
determined separately. In ®rst-order approximation this is achieved by quadratic
summation of the individual (angle-dependent) results:
1X n
… f †  1 ÿ jR …f†j2 : …6†
n iˆ1 i

It should be noted that in some cases it is necessary to perform additional measure-

ments with the microphone placed at a larger distance from the test object to avoid
near ®eld e€ects. This involved a check if the far-®eld impulse response contained no
components signi®cantly di€erent from those in the near-®eld situation.
In principle the method of averaging is possible for all angles in the complete
hemisphere above the sample. But it is also possible to average just over the azimuth
angles. In this case, since the samples are rotated between two measurements by
',
as indicated in Fig. 4, the scattering coecient …#† averaged over the horizontal
angles ' for one azimuth angle # is obtained. By applying Paris' formula [5] to the
absorption coecients collected for di€erent azimuth angles # it is possible to obtain
the random-incidence scattering coecient s .
Fig. 5 shows the results obtained for the two test structures in a scale model. To
illustrate the size of the e€ects, it should be noted that the wavelength at 10 kHz is
approximately equal to the average structure period d. Accordingly d=l equals 1
at 10 kHz. The measurements were performed at # ˆ 30 ; 45 ; 60 ; 75 and ' ˆ
0 ÿ 90 with
' ˆ 10 . Slightly more measurements at di€erent angles are useful to
increase the accuracy.
However, the absorption coecient of materials for random sound incidence is
not determined by tedious angle-dependent measurements and averaging, but
directly in the di€use ®eld of a reverberation chamber according to ISO 354. Exactly
the same approach can be applied in measurement of the scattering coecients, too,
as described in the next chapter.

4. Reverberation chamber method

4.1. Description of the method

Measurements of absorption coecients in the reverberation room according to

ISO 354 are performed by measurement of the reverberation time with (T2 ) and
without (T1 ) the test sample. By using the relation
192 M. VorlaÈnder, E. Mommertz / Applied Acoustics 60 (2000) 187±199

Fig. 5. Measurement result for rectangular and hemi-cylindrical battens placed on a re¯ecting surface.

 
V 1 1
S ˆ 55:3 ÿ …7†
cS T2 T1

one obtains the random-incidence absorption coecient S of the test sample. Here,
V is the room volume, c the speed of sound and S the area of the test sample.
The basic idea of measuring scattering coecients in the reverberation room is the
same as described in the previous chapter. However, the turntable with the sample is
now placed in a scale model reverberation room (Fig. 6). Source and receiver are
®xed, while the test sample is turned during the measurement stepwise by
'. If the
sample re¯ects purely specularly (and if the sample area is circular), the measure-
ment results are perfectly correlated. This is true for any shape and wall construction
of the reverberation chamber. Provided the sample introduces di€use re¯ections,
the room impulse response shows slight di€erences in the ®ne structure (Fig. 7).
These di€erences become larger at larger delays, since late re¯ections su€ered scat-
tering at the test sample more often. The average energy decay, however, remains
unchanged.
Once more, it is the aim to suppress the sound components scattered from the
sample by phase-locked averaging the room impulse responses obtained for di€erent
angles 'i . Assuming statistical independence between specular and scattered com-
ponents, it can be shown (see Appendix) that after addition of n room impulse
responses, the energy decay E…t† (modelled by an exponential decay) can be
approximately expressed in terms of (see Appendix):
 M. VorlaÈnder, E. Mommertz / Applied Acoustics 60 (2000) 187±199 193

Fig. 6. Scale model reverberation room (V=1 m3) and sample placed on turntable.

Fig. 7. Initial part and late part of room impulse responses. Upper diagrams: with ®xed sample, lower
diagrams with rotating sample.
194 M. VorlaÈnder, E. Mommertz / Applied Acoustics 60 (2000) 187±199

E…t†  …n ÿ 1†e…cS=4V† ln…1ÿa†
t ‡ e…cS=4V† ln…1ÿ†
t ;

1 ÿ
 …8†
aˆ S ÿ Ssample 0 ‡ SSample aSample
S

with 0 denoting the mean absorption coecient of the empty room. Hence, the
latter exponential function can be neglected with suciently large n as illustrated in
Fig. 8. Accordingly, by evaluation of the early part of E…t† we obtain a reduced
reverberation time T2 (see also Fig. 12 below).
Following the procedures described in ISO 354, the absorption coecients s and
as can be determined. Finally, the random-incidence scattering coecient S is cal-
culated according to Eq. (2).

4.2. Discussion of exemplary results

Examples of results obtained in the scale model reverberation chamber in com-

parison with the free-®eld method are shown in Fig. 9. At low and mid frequencies
the agreement between results from the free-®eld method and the reverberation
room method is very good indeed. At high frequencies some deviations are
observed.
The deviations at high frequencies can be explained by the fact that the sample
area was not circular but quadratic. This in¯uence is larger with the reverberation
room method, since the distance of the microphones to the sample was larger.
However, the e€ect of the base surface size and shape must be studied more inten-
sively in future.
In further tests with other exemplary samples the circular arrangement was used.
Fig. 10 shows results of wooden hemispheres distributed randomly on a wooden

Fig. 8. Impulse responses measured in the reverberation room (10 kHz, 1/3 octave band).
 M. VorlaÈnder, E. Mommertz / Applied Acoustics 60 (2000) 187±199 195

Fig. 9. Scattering coecients of the samples shown in Fig. 4, measured in the reverberation chamber (&)
and in the free ®eld (^).

Fig. 10. Scattering coecients of the circular plate covered with wooden hemispheres measured in the
reverberation chamber. Parameter is the density of the scatterer.

plate at various densities. Fig. 11 shows scattering coecients as well as the

absorption coecient of a scale modelled Schroeder di€user (circular sample). This
kind of material is particularly used in studio constructions for scattering purposes.
(The sample was granted by RPG Di€usors Inc. for the measurement series.)

4.3. Required number of averages

In the following it is discussed, how the number of averages a€ects the resulting
``integrated impulse responses''. For this purpose impulse responses were recorded
at subsequent angular steps of 10 . The systematic in¯uence of averaging was
investigated by using n=1, 4, 8, 18 and 36 of the total 36 separately obtained
impulse responses.
The curves in Fig. 12 clearly show di€erent decays contained in the average curve.
The late decay constant is related to the ®xed sample (and thus to the ``regular''
196 M. VorlaÈnder, E. Mommertz / Applied Acoustics 60 (2000) 187±199

Fig. 11. Scattering and absorption coecients of a RPG-Di€usor.

Fig. 12. Integrated impulse responses (Schroeder plots), obtained after phase-locked averaging of n room
impulse responses (10 kHz 1/3 octave band). Test sample: randomly distributed hemispheres (é=4 cm,
density 50%) on a rigid circular plate (é=60 cm).

average absorption coecient). The early decay, however, is much steeper. The
``bended'' decays indicate the superposition of two independent decays, similar to
that observed in coupled rooms. The initial level of the late decay decreases by 3 dB
per doubling the averages, and the time corresponding to the decay intersection
increases. Since we are interested in the rate of the early decay, it is reasonable to use
the reverberation time T10 or T20 (decay from ÿ5 to ÿ15 or ÿ25 dB, respectively).
Furthermore, in Fig. 12 the result with continuously turned sample is shown.
During one complete revolution, 94 periods of the test signal were radiated con-
tinuously, detected and averaged. This corresponds to a total measurement time of
80 s. Although the measurement technique (MLS) assumes time-invariance, mea-
surements of this kind can be performed since only the time-invariant components
of the room impulse response are to be determined. Additionally, this method is
 M. VorlaÈnder, E. Mommertz / Applied Acoustics 60 (2000) 187±199 197

advantageous because less data must be stored in the computer memory and the
measurement is performed much faster. The latter criterion is important in view of
time variances caused by temperature variations or similar e€ects [11].

5. Conclusions

It can be stated that the reverberation method is well suited for estimating a gen-
eral measure for the scattering properties of re¯ective surfaces Ð the scattering
coecient for random sound incidence. As has been mentioned, scattering coe-
cients can be used for instance as input data for room acoustical simulations. Fur-
thermore, they can characterise the scattering properties of architectural surfaces
which are an important factor in room acoustical design.
Only if deeper knowledge on the directional pattern of the scattered sound is
required, measurements or calculations of the polar response become necessary.
It is worth mentioning that this approach is one of the favourites for being stan-
dardised in ISO/TC43/SC2. A working group was mandated to develop a de®nition
and a measurement method for sound scattering.

Acknowledgements

Y.W. Lam is acknowledged for inviting us to publish a paper on our work. This
work was in part supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG.

Appendix: Expectation value of the average room impulse response

In order to explain the structure of the decay curve shown in Fig. 12, energy
impulse responses after coherent addition of n bandpass ®ltered impulse responses
are considered:
 2  2
X n   Xn 
   
 hi …t† ˆ nrspec …t† ‡ si …t† …A1†
 iˆ1   iˆ1


Here, rspec …t† corresponds to the coherent component in each measurement. Pro-
vided the scattered components of the sample si …t† are statistically independent, one
yields with Eq. (A1):
 2  2
X n   2 X n   2  2
   
 hi …t†  nrspec …t† ‡ si …t† ˆ n2
rspec …t† ‡n < s…t† >
 …A2†
 iˆ1   iˆ1 

with
198 M. VorlaÈnder, E. Mommertz / Applied Acoustics 60 (2000) 187±199

 2
 2 1X n  2 1 Xn 

 
< s…t† >ˆ  
si …t†   si …t† : …A3†
n iˆ1 n  iˆ1 

If jrspec …t†j2 is modelled by an exponential decay, as usually done in statistical

reverberation theory, the coherent component is

Espec …t† ˆ E0
eÿ13:8
t=T2 …A4†

while the scattered energy Escat …t† is identical with the di€erence between the totally
and the coherently re¯ected energy:

Escat …t† ˆ Etotal …t† ÿ Espec …t† ˆ E0
eÿ13:8
t=T1 ÿ E0
eÿ13:8
t=T2 : …A5†

Using Eqs. (A2), (A4) and (A5) we obtain the average energy±time curve after
addition of n room impulse responses:
 2
X n   
 
 hi …t† ˆ^ nE0 …n ÿ 1†
eÿ13:8
t=T2 ‡ eÿ13:8
t=T1 : …A6†
 iˆ1 

It is indeed the superposition of two decay curves with di€erent initial levels and
decay constants. Of course it must be taken into account that an increase of the
number of averages is corresponding to smaller angular steps. These, however, must
be suciently large in comparison of the wavelengths with the travelled distance of
surface elements, to ensure decorrelation of the scattered components from mea-
surement to measurement.

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