Global pattern of air circulation Topic 1: Global Hazards Distribution of Tropical Storms.

Atmospheric circulation is the large- Causes of Drought: El Nino effect They are known by many names, including hurricanes
scale movement of air by which heat is (North America), cyclones (India) and typhoons (Japan and
distributed on the surface of the Earth. The El Nino effect is also associated with creating dry conditions. East Asia). They all occur in a band that lies roughly
In an El Niño year (every 2-7 years) Normally, warm ocean currents off between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
Hadley Largest cell which extends
cell from the Equator to the cycle reverses. Cooler water off the coast of Australia cause moist
the coast of Australia reverses the warm air to rise and condense Distribution of Droughts
between 30° to 40° north &
south. wind direction leading to dry, sinking causing storms and rain over Drought can occur anywhere throughout the world but
air over Australia causing hot weather Australia. they are more frequent between the tropics of Cancer and
Ferrel Middle cell where air flows and a lack of rainfall. Capricorn. Many countries in Africa suffer from severe
cell polewards between 60° & drought, such as Ethiopia but Australia also suffer.
70° latitude. Types of precipitation

Polar Smallest & weakness cell Convectional Rainfall When the land warms up, it heats the air enough to Formation of Tropical Storms
cell that occurs from the poles expand and rise. As the air rises it cools and condenses. 1
The sun’s heats large areas of ocean in the summer
to the Ferrel cell. If this process continues then rain will fall.
and autumn. This causes warm, moist air to rise
Frontal Rainfall When warm air meets cool air an front is formed. As the over the particular spots
High and Low Pressure warm air rises over the cool air, clouds are produced. 2
Once the temperature is 27⁰, the rising warm moist
High Pressure Low Pressure Eventually steady rain is produced. air leads to a low pressure. This eventually turns
Relief Rainfall When wind meets mountains, the warm air is forced to into a thunderstorm. This causes air to be sucked in
Caused by cold Caused by hot air
rise quickly and cool. This leads condensation and from the trade winds.
air sinking. rising. Causes
Causes clear and stormy, cloudy eventually rainfall. When the air descend however, little 3
With trade winds blowing in the opposite direction
calm weather weather. very rainfall falls, creating a rain shadow. and the rotation of earth involved (Coriolis effect),
the thunderstorm will eventually start to spin.
Types of wind Changing pattern of these Hazards 4
When the storm begins to spin faster than 74mph,
Katabatic Winds that carry air from the high Tropical Storms Scientist believe that global warming is a tropical storm (such as a hurricane) is officially
Winds ground down a slope due to gravity. having an impact on the frequency and born.
e.g. Antarctic. strength of tropical storms. This may be due 5
With the tropical storm growing in power, more
to an increase in ocean temperatures. cool air sinks in the centre of the storm, creating
Trade Winds Wind that blow from high pressure
belts to low pressure belts. calm, clear condition called the eye of the storm.
Droughts The severity of droughts have increase since
6
Jet Streams These are winds that are high in the the 1940s. This may be due to changing When the tropical storm hit land, it loses its energy
atmosphere travelling at speeds of rainfall and evaporation patterns related to source (the warm ocean) and it begins to lose
225km/h. gradual climate change. strength. Eventually it will ‘blow itself out’.
 Convection Currents Types of volcanoes Managing Volcanic Eruptions
Warning signs Monitoring techniques
The Lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates Shield Made of basaltic rock and form gently sloping Small earthquakes are caused as Seismometers are used to detect
which are moving due to convection currents in the cones from layers of runny lava. magma rises up. earthquakes.
asthenosphere. Location: hot spots and constructive margins. Thermal imaging and satellite
Eruptions: gentle and predictable Temperatures around the volcano
1 Radioactive decay of some of the elements in cameras can be used to detect heat
rise as activity increases.
the core and mantle generate a lot of heat. Composi Most common type found on land. Created by around a volcano.
te layers of ash and lava. Gas samples may be taken and
2 When lower parts asthenosphere heat up they When a volcano is close to erupting
Location: Destructive margins chemical sensors used to measure
become less dense and slowly rise. it starts to release gases.
Eruptions: explosive and unpredictable due to the sulphur levels.
3 As they move towards the top they cool down, build of pressure within the magma chamber. Preparation
become more dense and slowly sink. Creating an exclusion zone around Being ready and able to evacuate
Hotspots These happen away from any plate boundaries. the volcano. residents.
4 These circular movements of semi-molten rock They occur because a plume of magma rises to Having an emergency supply of Trained emergency services and a
are convection currents eat into the plate above. Where lava breaks basic provisions, such as food good communication system.
5 Convection currents create drag on the base of through to the surface, active volcanoes can
the tectonic plates and this causes them to occur above the hot spot. E.g. Hawaii.
Earthquake Management
move.
Types of Plate Margins PREDICTING
Destructive Plate Margin Methods include:
When the denser oceanic plate subducts beneath the less dense continental plate, friction causes it to melt • Satellite surveying (tracks changes in the earth’s surface)
and become molten magma. The magma forces its ways up to the surface to form a volcano. This margin is also • Laser reflector (surveys movement across fault lines)
responsible for devastating earthquakes. • Radon gas sensor (radon gas is released when plates move so this
finds that)
Constructive Plate Margin • Seismometer
Here two plates are moving apart causing new magma to reach the surface through the gap. Volcanoes formed • Water table level (water levels fluctuate before an earthquake).
along this crack cause a submarine mountain range such as those in the Mid Atlantic Ridge. • Scientists also use seismic records to predict when the next event
will occur.
Conservative Plate Margin
PROTECTION
A conservative plate boundary occurs where plates slide past each other in opposite directions, or in the same
direction but at different speeds. This is responsible for earthquakes such as the ones that happening along the You can’t stop earthquakes, so earthquake-prone regions follow
San Andreas Fault, USA. these three methods to reduce potential damage:
• Building earthquake-resistant buildings
Collision Zones • Raising public awareness
Collision zones form when two continental plates collide. Neither plate is forced under the other, and so both • Improving earthquake prediction
are forced up and form fold mountains. These zones are responsible for shallow earthquakes in the Himalayas.
Quaternary geological period Topic 2: Climate Change Greenhouse Gases
The quaternary period is the last 2.6 million years.
Carbon Accounts for 60% of the enhanced greenhouse
During this period temperatures have always Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
dioxide gases. It is produced by burning fossil fuels through
fluctuated. The cold ‘spikes’ are the glacial periods,
Recently, there has been an increase in producing electricity, industry, cars and
whereas the warm points are the interglacial periods.
humans burning fossil fuels for energy. deforestation.
Today’s temperature is higher than the rest of the These fuels (gas, coal and oil) emit extra
Methane Accounts for 15% of the enhanced greenhouse
period. Despite alternate cold and warm moments greenhouse gases. This is making the
gases. 25x more efficient than Carbon dioxide.
within this period, global temperatures have Earth’s atmosphere thicker, therefore
Produce from landfills, rice and farm animals.
increased above average in the past 100 years. This trapping more solar radiation but causing
current trend is what's become know as global less to be reflected. As a result, our Earth is Halocarbons Human made and makes a tidy proportion of all
warming. becoming warmer. greenhouse gases. 15000x more efficient at
trapping radiation than Carbon dioxide. Produced
Evidence for climate change from air-conditioning, refrigerators and aerosols.
Earth’s temperature has changed over the last 2.6 million years. Scientist know this Nitrous Oxide Accounts for 6% of the enhanced greenhouse
by collecting a range of evidence that is trapped or stored in the environment around effect. 250x more efficient than Carbon dioxide.
us. Produced from fertilisers and car exhausts.
Geological fossil Plants and animals fossils/remains which favour certain
evidence environmental conditions have been found in contractionary Recent Evidence for climate change.
conditions, thus suggesting periods of a warmer and colder
In the past 100 years, scientists have become pretty good at collecting
time. E.g. Mastodon in USA.
accurate measurements from around the world. These measurements have
Ocean Sediment Layers of sediment that has built up over time have suggested a trend that the climate is yet again changing.
provided scientist trapped oxygen isotopes. Scientist have
Global Evidence collected by NASA suggests average global
used them to calculate and understand that atmospheric
temperature data temperatures have increased by more than 0.6°C since
temperature have indeed changed.
1950.
Ice Cores Ice cores are made up from different layers that each
Ice sheets and Evidence from maps and photos have shown many of the
represents a different historical time. By exploring the water
glaciers world’s glaciers and ice sheets are melting. E.g. the Arctic
molecules of these cores, scientist have calculated
sea ice has declined by 10% in 30 years.
fluctuating temperatures of the atmosphere.
Sea Level Evidence from the IPCC has shown that the average
Historical records Historical records from ancient cave paintings, diaries and
Change global sea level has risen by 10-20cms in the past 100
written observations have provide evidence of climate
years. This is due to the additional water from fresh water
change through personal accounts from the people through
ice and thermal expansion of the ocean due to higher
them.
temperatures.
Global impacts of climate change
Climate change management: Paris Agreement 2015
Extreme Weather Climate is causing more unpredictable and severe weather events. This
includes more frequent and powerful tropical storms; more extreme Paris climate conference involved 195 countries making a legally
heatwaves and lasting droughts. E.g. Typhoon Haiyan 2013 binding global climate deal. This agreement objective is to limit
global warming to below 2°C. The aims of this objective are…
• Limit emissions to pre-industrial levels.
Rising sea levels Sea levels have risen by 20 cm since 1901. due to thermal expansion, • Meet every 5 years to set new targets.
melting glaciers and ice caps. Some coastal countries are now • Communicate plans to the public.
disappearing such as the Maldives in the Indian Ocean. • Provide support to developing countries at reducing emissions.

Food supply Warmer temperatures and changing rainfall will make it harder to produce
a reliable source of food to sustain a rising global population. E.g. In
2011, Russia banned crop exports after a incline in yield. Not what is seems

Although China is responsible for the highest amount of carbon

Plants and Animals About a quarter of animals and plants on Earth could become extinct. emission, 1.4 billion people do live there. However, per person,
With warmer temperatures and changing rainfall environments will no the USA (320 million) actually contributes far more CO2
longer be able to provide for the world’s fragile ecosystems. emissions.

Disease and Health Warmer temperatures will increase the spread of infectious diseases like
Whose responsible?
malaria. In addition, more frequent floods could cause more waterborne
disease such as dysentery. LIDCs Countries in Africa, such as Kenya, emit low levels
of carbon dioxide. This is due to these countries
not being industrialised or having a population
Water Supply People need freshwater to drink but with 1 billion people predicted to not
wealthy enough to consume lots of energy
have excess to enough water by 2025 due to climate change, this might
cause several social, economic and environmental problems. E.g. EDCs Countries such as China and India are increasingly
fishing, irrigation and sanitation. more industrialised and therefore are emitting
more carbon dioxide. These increasing population
sizes and steadily increasing wealth mean more
Climate refugees Climate refugees are people who are forced to leave their home due to energy is being consumed.
the impact of climate change. This can be due to sea level rises or
extreme weather conditions such as drought. ACs Countries such as the USA and UK are
industrialised with a wealthier population that enjoy
lifestyles which required a large consumption of
energy.
What is a landscape?
A landscape has visible features that make up the
Topic 3 Distinctive Landscapes Relief of the UK

surface of the land. Landscapes can be broken Human activity on Landscape Relief of the UK can be divide into uplands
down into four ‘elements’. and lowlands. Each have their own
Farming has changed Much of the rural Infrastructure such as characteristics.
Landscape Elements the vegetation which landscape has been roads and pylons
Physical Biological grows there. replaced by urban cover most of the UK.
• Mountains • Vegetation sprawls.
• Coastlines • Habitats
• Rivers • Wildlife Over thousands of Increasing population UK’s marshes and
Human Variable years, much of the of the UK means moorlands are
• Buildings • Weather UK’s woodlands have more houses are heavily managed by
• Infrastructure • Smells gone. needed. people.
• Structures • Sounds/Sights
Mass Movement

A large movement of soil and rock debris that

moves down slopes in response to the pull of
Glaciation in the UK gravity in a vertical direction.
Climate and Weather in the UK
Over many thousands of years, glaciation has made an The variations of climate and weather means there are different Rain saturates the permeable rock above
impression on the UK’s landscape. Today, much of upland influences on the UK’s landscape. 1 the impermeable rock making it heavy.
Britain is covered in u-shaped valleys and eroded steep
mountain peaks. Climate Weathering
Waves or a river will erode the base of the
The rainfall map of the UK Mechanical 2 slope making it unstable.
shows variations in average rain. Caused by the physical action of
During the ice age • Less precipitation occurs in rain, frost and wind.
Eventually the weight of the permeable
low land areas. East England
Chemical rock above the impermeable rock weakens
Ice covered areas eroded and weathered landscapes to • Most precipitation occurs in 3
Action of chemicals within rain and collapses.
create dramatic mountain scenery. upland areas. Scotland.
dissolving the rock.
These differences mean… Biological The debris at the base of the cliff is then
After the ice age
Uplands experience more Rocks that have been broken removed and transported by waves or
4
weathering, erosion and mass down by living organisms. river.
Deep valleys and deposition of sediment revealed
movement.
 Formation of Ox-bow Lakes
Formation of Coastal Stack
Formation of Bays and Headlands Step 1 Step 2

1) Waves attack the coastline. Erosion of outer bank Further hydraulic action
forms river cliff. and abrasion of outer
2) Softer rock is eroded by the sea quicker forming Deposition inner bank banks, neck gets smaller.
a bay, calm area cases deposition. forms slip off slope.
1) Hydraulic action widens cracks in the cliff face
3) More resistant rock is left jutting out into the
Step 3 Step 4
over time. sea. This is a headland and is now more
2) Abrasion forms a wave cut notch between HT and vulnerable to erosion. Erosion breaks through Evaporation and
LT. neck, so river takes the deposition cuts off main
3) Further abrasion widens the wave cut notch to fastest route, redirecting channel leaving an oxbow
from a cave. flow lake.
4) Caves from both sides of the headland break Formation of Coastal Spits - Deposition
through to form an arch.
5) Weather above/erosion below –arch collapses
River Management Schemes
leaving stack.
6) Further weathering and erosion eaves a stump.
Soft Engineering Hard Engineering
Upper Course of a River
Near the source, the river is flows over steep Afforestation – plat trees Straightening Channel –
gradient from the hill/mountains. This gives sock up rainwater, increases velocity to
the river a lot of energy, so it will erode the reduces flood risk. remove flood water.
riverbed vertically to form narrow valleys. Demountable Flood Artificial Levees –
Middle Course of a River 1) Swash moves up the beach at the angle of the prevailing Barriers put in place heightens river so flood
wind. when warning raised. water is contained.
Here the gradient get gentler, so the water 2) Backwash moves down the beach at 90° to coastline, due to Managed Flooding – Deepening or widening
has less energy and moves more slowly. The gravity. naturally let areas flood, river to increase capacity
river will begin to erode laterally making the 3) Zigzag movement (Longshore Drift) transports material along protect settlements. for a flood.
river wider. beach.
Lower Course of a River 4) Deposition causes beach to extend, until reaching a river
estuary.
Near the river’s mouth, the river widens 5) Change in prevailing wind direction forms a hook.
further and becomes flatter. Material 6) Sheltered area behind spit encourages deposition, salt marsh
transported is deposited. forms.
Coastal Defences

Hard Engineering Defences

Groynes Wood barriers prevent longshore Beach still accessible.

drift, so the beach can build up. No deposition further down coast = erodes faster.

Sea Walls Concrete walls break up the energy of Long life span
the wave . Has a lip to stop waves Protects from flooding
going over. Curved shape encourages erosion of beach deposits.

Gabions or Rip Rap Cages of rocks/boulders absorb the Cheap

waves energy, protection the cliff Local material can be used to look less strange.
behind. Will need replacing.

Soft Engineering Defences

Beach Nourishment Beaches built up with sand, so waves Cheap

have to travel further before eroding Beach for tourists.
cliffs. Storms = need replacing.
Offshore dredging damages seabed.

Managed Retreat Low value areas of the coast are left to Reduce flood risk
flood and erode naturally. Creates wildlife habitats.
Compensation for land.
 Topic 4 Sustaining Distribution of Tropical Rainforests Climate of Tropical Rainforests
What is an Ecosystem?
Ecosystems Tropical rainforests are centred along the • Evening temperatures rarely fall
An ecosystem is a system in which organisms interact with
Equator between the Tropic of Cancer and below 22°C
each other and with their environment.
Food Chains Capricorn. Rainforests can be found in • Due to the presence of clouds,
Food chains are useful in South America, central Africa and South- temperatures rarely rise above 32°C
Ecosystem’s Components East Asia. The Amazon is the world’s largest • Most afternoons have heavy
explaining the basic principles
Abiotic These are non-living, such as air, water, heat, behind ecosystems. They rainforest and takes up the majority of showers
rock. show only one species at a northern South America, encompassing • At night with no clouds insulating
particular level from where countries such as Brazil and Peru. temperature drops
Biotic These are living, such as plants, insects, and
energy is transferred up to the
animals.
next.
is plant life occurring in a particular Biome’s climate and plants
Flora
region or time.
Biome Location Temperature Rainfall Flora Fauna
Fauna is all animal life of any particular region
or time. Centred along the Hot all year (25- Very high (over Tall trees forming a Greatest range of
Topical
Equator. 30°C) 200mm/year) canopy; wide variety of different animal species.
rainforest
Biomes species. Most live in canopy layer
A biome is a large geographical area of distinctive plant and animal Between latitudes Warm all year (20- Wet + dry Grasslands with widely Large hoofed herbivores
groups, which are adapted to that particular environment. The climate Tropical
5°- 30° north & 30°C) season (500- spaced trees. and carnivores dominate.
and geography of a region determines what type of biome can exist in grasslands
south of Equator. 1500mm/year)
that region.
Coniferous
Found along the Hot by day (over Very low (below Lack of plants and few Many animals are small
Hot desert
forest tropics of Cancer 30°C) Cold by night 300mm/year) species; adapted to and nocturnal: except for
and Capricorn. drought. the camel.
Deciduous
forest Between latitudes Warm summers + Variable rainfall Mainly deciduous trees; a Animals adapt to colder
Temperate
Tropical 40°-60° north of mild winters (5- (500-1500m variety of species. and warmer climates.
forest
rainforests Equator. 20°C) /year) Some migrate.
Tundra Far Latitudes of Cold winter + cool Low rainfall Small plants grow close Low number of species.
Tundra
65° north and summers (below (below 500mm/ to the ground and only in Most animals found
Temperate south of Equator 10°C) year) summer. along coast.
grasslands
Found within 30° Warm water all Wet + dry Small range of plant life Dominated by polyps and
Tropical
grasslands north – south of year round with seasons. which includes algae and a diverse range of fish
Coral Reefs Equator in tropical temperatures of Rainfall varies sea grasses that shelters species.
Hot
waters. 18°C greatly due to reef animals.
deserts.
location.
 Tropical Rainforest Biome Benefits of the rainforest
Adaptations to the rainforest Rainforest inhabitants Raw Materials Commonly used materials such as timber and rubber
are found here.
Sloths Are camouflaged to forest Many tribes have developed
environment. sustainable ways of survival, Water Controls the flow of water to prevent floods/droughts
such as shifting cultivation. regions..
Buttress Support tall trees & absorb The forest provides inhabitants Food Important foods such as Bananas, pineapples and
Roots nutrients. with… coffee are grown there.
• Food through hunting and
Drip Tips Allows heavy rain to run off gathering. Health 25% of modern medicines are sourced from
leaves easily • Natural medicines from rainforest ingredients.
forest plants. Energy Large dams generate 2/3 of Brazil’s energy needs.
Lianas & Climbs trees to reach • Homes and boats from
Vines sunlight at canopy. forest wood.
Climate Acts as carbon sinks by storing 15% of carbon
emissions.

Effects of Human Activity on the Rainforest

Logging Agriculture
• Most widely reported cause of destructions to • Large scale ‘slash and burn’ of land for ranches and
biodiversity. palm oil.
• Timber is harvested to create commercial items such • Increases carbon emission.
as furniture and paper. • River saltation and soil erosion increasing due to the
• Has lead to violent confrontation between large areas of exposed land
indigenous tribes and logging companies. • Increase in palm oil is making the soil infertile.
Mineral Extraction Tourism
• Precious metals are found in the rainforest. • Mass tourism is resulting in the building of hotels in
• Areas mined can experience soil and water extremely vulnerable areas.
contamination. • Lead to negative relationship between the
• Indigenous people are becoming displaced from government and indigenous tribes
their land due to roads being built to transport • Tourism has effected wildlife (apes) by exposing
products. them to human diseases.
 Polar/Tundra Regions Biome

Distribution of Polar Regions Climate Change on Polar Regions Arctic soil profile
Arctic Antarctic Scientific reports outline the effect global Thaws in the summer.
Is the region north of latitude A continent south of latitude warming is having on these regions. Ice sheets Active Layer Becomes deeper towards
60°N around the North Pole. 60°S around the South Pole. and glaciers are melting at an alarming rate pole.
leading to fears of rising sea levels. Thawing of
Climate permafrost is increasing methane emissions Permanently frozen all year.
Permafrost
Polar areas are very cold with temperatures rarely reaching above 0 °C. and the decline of arctic ice is creating waves Layer Increases further north.
Winters average below -40 °C with summers a maximum of only 10 °C. that are capable of causing unseen coastal Bed Rock Low temperatures weathers
Rainfall is low throughout the year. erosion. rock slowly = less nutrients.
Land & Sea Features
Arctic Antarctic
Large areas are permafrost. At Large and thick ice sheets. A
Effects of Human Activity in Polar Regions
sea, most of the region is frozen mountain range crosses the
over. continent. Oil & Gas exploration Whaling
Flora (Plants) Fauna (Animals) • Arctic holds a large amount of • Hunting of whales is a major industry
untapped oil and gas. – this led to a rapid decline in whale
There are very few plants in polar Relatively few species of animals.
• Oil spills would threaten ecosystems populations.
areas – some lichens, mosses and Polar Bears, Penguins and marine
as clean up operations would be slow. • Many countries have banned whaling,
grasses along the coastal areas. mammals like whales, seals and
but some still continue
walrus are examples.
Fishing Tourism
• Has made area possible to fish large • The tourism industry is steadily
untapped stocks. growing within polar regions.
• The polar areas are difficult to police • Travel by tourist increase emissions
due to harsh conditions. further.
• Collapse of the fish stocks there might • Wildlife may become disturbed by
damage ecosystems. tourists getting up close.
 What is Urbanisation? Causes of Urbanisation
This is an increase in the amount of people living in urban The movement of people from rural to urban areas.
areas such as towns or cities. In 2007, the UN announced
Push Pull
that for the first time, more than 50 % of the world’s
population live in urban areas. • Natural disasters • More Jobs
• War and Conflict • Better education &
Settlement Hierarchies
• Mechanisation healthcare
If we group and classify a number of settlements according to • Drought • Increased quality of life.
their size and shape, the result is settlement hierarchy. • Following family members.
Key Characteristics of Settlement Hierarchy.
Consequences of Rapid Urbanisation in LIDCs
• The number of services that a settlement provides
increases with settlement size. Social Consequences
• Small settlements will only provide low-order services Although there are lots of • Little official housing
such as a post offices. opportunities in urban areas, available.
• Larger settlements and conurbations have a much larger the rapid growth can place • Infrastructure struggles to
sphere of influence than smaller ones. many pressures that causes support growing
• The range of a service or product is the maximum distance various problems. population.
people are prepared to travel to purchase it.
• Increase in crime rates.
Types of Cities Environmental Consequences Economic Consequences
Megacity An urban area which over 10 million • Rubbish may not be • May not be enough jobs –
people living there. collected. increased unemployment.
More that two thirds of current megacities are located in • Sewage and toxic waste • Informal sector increases
either EDCs and LIDCs). The amount of megacities are pollutes river environments. Little access to education
predicted to increase from 28 to 41 by 2030. • Increased congestion and healthcare.
produces more pollution.
Cities that are centres for trade and
World City
business. They hold global influence.

Key ‘world cities’ include London, New York, Tokyo and

Paris. Most are located within ACs but are now gradually
expanding into EDCs, for example Moscow.
 Counter-Urbanisation in ACs Suburbanisation Re-urbanisation in ACs
This is the movement of people from city centres to This is the movement of people from city centres to This is the movement of people back into urban areas.
the outskirts. the outskirts.
Push Pull
Push Pull Push Pull
• Lack of jobs in rural and • Redevelopment of brownfield
• Overcrowding and • Green spaces & family • Overcrowding and • Green spaces & family suburban areas. sites with improved housing.
pollution. friendly. pollution. friendly. • Less leisure and • Young people are attracted to
• Unemployment • New modern housing • Unemployment • New modern housing entertainment in rural areas. the Universities.
increases. estates. increases. estates. • Counter-urbanisation may • People are attracted to
• Deindustrialisation of • Improved public • Deindustrialisation of • Improved public have increased house prices. entertainment facilities
centre. transport. centre. transport. available.
• Traffic congestion • Rents cheaper on • Traffic congestion. • Rents cheaper on
increases CO². outskirts. outskirts.

Consequences of Suburbanisation Consequences of Re-urbanisation

Consequences of Counter Urbanisation
Environmental Economic Social Social Consequences
Environmental Economic Social
Consequences Consequences Consequences • Shops and services benefit from the additional residents.
Consequences Consequences Consequences
• New housing • People • Offices and • Increase in tension between new and older residents.
damages leaves businesses • House prices in redeveloped areas increase.
countryside centres and are • Schools benefit from the increase of students.
and habitats. they become abandoned. • More jobs and less employment within the area.
• Increase of deserted. • Economic Environmental Consequences Economic Consequences
cars adds air • Unemployme and ethnic
pollution. nt increases, segregation. • Redevelopment of brownfield • New shops and services will
which leads sites improves old industrial improve local economy.
to poverty. and polluted areas • Jobs available may not be
• Decreases pressures on accessible to original
greenfield areas. residents.
• Could destroy urban wildlife. • Urban tourism may increase.
 Topic 6 Human factors affecting development
What is development?
Development is an improvement in living standards through
Dynamic Development Politics Trade

better use of resources. • Aid can help some • Countries that export more
Uneven development countries develop key than they import have a
Economic This is progress in economic growth Development is globally uneven with most services and infrastructure trade surplus. This can
through levels of industrialisation and use ACs located in Europe, North America and faster. improve the national
of technology. Oceania. Most EDCs are in Asia and South • Aid can improve projects economy.
Social This is an improvement in people’s America, whilst most LIDCs are in Africa. such as schools, hospitals • Having good trade
standard of living. For example, clean water Remember, development can also vary and roads. relationships.
and electricity. within countries too. • Too much reliance on aid • Trading goods and services
might stop other trade links is more profitable than raw
Environmental This is advances in the management and becoming established. materials.
protection of the environment.
Education Health
Measuring development • Education creates a skilled • Lack of clean water and
There are used to compare and understand a country’s level of development. workforce meaning more poor healthcare means a
goods and services are large number of people
Economic indictors examples produced. suffer from diseases.
Employment type The proportion of the population working in primary, secondary, tertiary • Educated people earn more • People who are ill cannot
and quaternary industries. money, meaning they also work so there is little
pay more taxes. This money contribution to the
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per This is the total value of goods and services produced in a country per can help develop the economy.
capita person, per year. country in the future. • More money on healthcare
Gross National Income (GNI) per capita An average of gross national income per person, per year in US dollars. means less spent on
development.
Social indicators examples Aid History
Infant mortality The number of children who die before reaching 1, per 1000 babies born. • Corruption in local and • Colonialism has helped
national governments. Europe develop, but
Literacy rate The percentage of population over the age of 15 who can read and write. • The stability of the slowed down development
Life expectancy The average lifespan of someone born in that country. government can effects the in many other countries.
country’s ability to trade. • Countries that went
Mixed indicators • Ability of the country to through industrialisation a
invest into services and while ago, have now
Human Development Index (HDI) A number that uses life expectancy, education level and income per
infrastructure. develop further.
person.
 Barriers to ending Poverty
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Debt Many LIDCs have huge national debts from burrowing Five stages of economic Traditional Preconditio Take-off Drive to Mass
from wealthy countries and organisations. With high development. society ns for take- maturity Consumpti
interest rates, these debts are difficult to wipe out and off ons
can lead to a spiral of decline. This situation makes it
difficult for these countries to invest in services and Rostow’s model predicts Subsistence Manufactur Rapid Economy Lots of
infrastructure. how a country’s level of based. i.e. ing starts to growth with grows so trade with
economic development farming, develop large-scale people get a high level
Trade Countries with a negative balance of trade, import changes over time. The fishing and with better industrialisat wealthier & of
more than they export make development difficult. Also model also shows how little trade. infrastructu ion. have higher consumptio
ACs have TNCs that operate in LIDCs. These companies people's standard of living re. standards n.
take profits away from LIDCs to ACs where their improves. of living
headquarters are.
Physical factors affecting development
Political unrest Widespread dissatisfaction with the government can be
caused by political unrest, corruption and a lack of
investment and attention into services (i.e. education Natural Resources Natural Hazards
and healthcare).
• Fuel sources such • Risk of tectonic
Breaking out of Poverty as oil. hazards.
Countries can try various ways to reduce poverty and increase development. These often involve different types of aid that can • Minerals and • Benefits from
either be short term or long term strategies. metals for fuel. volcanic material
• Availability for and floodwater.
These are large scaled, government led and expensive schemes involving money borrowed from timber. • Frequent hazards
Top Down wealthier countries. Their is little community involvement but instead large scale projects. • Access to safe undermines
water. redevelopment.
These are small scaled, local led and less expensive schemes. They involve communities and
Bottom Up
charities developing local businesses and housing. Climate Location/Terrain

Short term This aid is sent to help countries cope with emergencies such as natural disasters.
• Reliability of • Landlocked
This is aid given over a long period to help countries develop through investing in projects such rainfall to benefit countries may find
Long term farming. trade difficult.
as education and healthcare.
• Extreme climates • Mountainous
Fair trade can allow for fair wages. Also grouping with other countries in the form of trading limit industry and terrain makes
Trade
blocs can increase links and increase the economy. affects health. farming difficult.
Wealthier countries can cut or partly cut debt to countries that have burrowed money. This • Climate can attract • Attractive scenery
Debt Relief tourists. attracts tourists.
allows for money to be reinvested in development.
 UK Physical Characteristics Topic 7 UK in the 21st Century
• Most mountains are located in the north and west, Land use in the UK
such as Wales and Scotland.
Land use varies throughout Arable farmland (20%) UK Population Distribution
• These areas have few roads and settlements but
beautiful scenery. – Sparsely populated. the UK. However our land dominates because of the Low
• South and east of the UK is flat with a few hilly areas. is always changing. warm, sunny and dry
Nonetheless, the vast climate. Crops such as Much of Northern Scotland is sparse due to a mountainous landscape
• These areas are suited for settlements, roads and and difficult climate.
railways – Densely populated. majority of the UK is cereals and vegetables are
• Rivers flow from mountainous areas down to the sea. farmland. found in the South and East. High
UK mountain areas Coniferous woodland Rest of the UK because of the gentle hills, moderate climate and good
UK Rainfall Patterns (Scotland) have rough (12%) are found in northern transport routes.
pastures and moorlands. England, Wales and Very High
• Highest rainfall is in the north and west where The climate is harsh and soil Scotland. There areas have
average rainfall is 2500mm. is poor for crops poor soils and are remote. Population is concentrated around the South East of England, in cities
such as London, due to attractions of employment, shops and
• Lowest rainfall is in the south and east with average Urban areas (14%) are entertainment.
Grasslands (52%) are found
rainfall of 500 – 625mm. growing. This outward
in the west. It is ideal for
growth or sprawling urban
cattle and sheep because of
Water stress in the UK developments is cased by
the mild and wet climate.
population growth.
Water stress is when areas have limited water supply.
UK Housing Shortage
Population in the UK
Problems Solutions
Problem and Reasons
The UK population is 65 million and still rising. It is
• Most rainfall occurs in • Water can be
predicted to reach 70 million by 2030. • The UK population is rising and therefore more houses are
North & West but least transferred from the
needed.
rainfall in South & East. wetter west to drier Reasons for growth Future of growth
• UK needs to build 240,000 homes a year, but only half that are
• South & East UK east by pipelines or
Natural increase – the The UK’s population built.
therefore have High rivers.
difference between deaths pyramid shows that the • As a result, house prices are rising and becoming too expensive.
demands. • Construct new
and births. country’s birth rate is fairly
• Demands involve reservoirs in the east to • Planning permission for new houses leads to local opposition.
Net migration – the low and death rate is also
domestic, industrial & capture/store more • Green belt areas prevents urban areas becoming bigger.
difference between low meaning there are
agricultural uses. water. • The price of lands keeps rising due to demand.
immigration to the UK and more elderly people.
• Greater water
emigration from the UK. Population pyramids are
conservation.
Life expectancy – the useful to help plan for the
average age someone will future.
live up to.
 UK Employment Sector
Ethnic Diversity in the UK The UK’s Role in the World
Key changes since 2001
• 13% of the population in the UK where born in another NATO UN G7
country. • The quaternary industry has increased, whilst
Is made up of 193
• In London, this value is about 37%. This has increased secondary has decreased. Involves seven of
A group of 28 member states with
between 2001 and the present day. • Number of people employed in primary and the wealthiest
countries who work the aim of
• The change was driven by an increase in white non- tertiary industry has stayed the steady. western countries
militarily and maintaining peace
British, Black African and Asian people. • Big increase in professional and technical jobs. to discuss relevant
politically to and resolving
• Employment in manufacturing has decreased the issues and come to
resolve conflict as a issues. UK is part of
most due to cheap labour abroad. economic
last resort. the Security
agreements.
UK Ageing Population Council.
Around 18% of the population are over 65. The distribution of older people is high in coastal areas, especially in
east and south-west England. However, it is lower in Northern Ireland and Scotland and generally in big cities. Multicultural UK
• Large number of people were born after the WW2 and are now moving into old age – Baby boomers. The UK is a multicultural country due to many ethic minorities
Causes

• Improved healthcare and new treatments to prolong life. moving here from India, Pakistan, Caribbean and parts of Africa.
• Greater awareness of the benefits of a good diet and exercise. These groups have shared there culture and have influenced the
UK in many ways.
• Healthcare cost are very high and will increase with an increasing ageing population.
Effects

• Shortage of places in care homes, many of which are becoming increasingly expensive. Fashion Media Food
• Many older people join clubs and spend on travel therefore helping to boast the economy – the grey • Many shops sell
pound. • Food that has
traditional • Many ethnic
originated from
• Government pension bonds to encourage older people to save money for the future. clothing. minorities have
Response

other countries
• Pensioners receive support in care, transport and heating allowance to make life more comfortable. • As these influenced music
have become
• Allowing more immigration will provide the demand needed of a younger workforce needed for the traditional (i.e. dubstep) and
very established
economy. clothing become television (i.e.
(i.e. Curry and
more common, Bollywood).
Pizza).
UK’s Changing Economy other cultures • With greater
• Many
have started to influence,
• UK has one of the largest economies in the world. mainstream
wear them too. greater
• The last few decades, heavy manufacturing industries have declined due to competition from aboard. supermarkets
i.e. Saris understanding
• Now the UK is moving into the service industry such as finances, technology and media. sell a great range
• Hair styles from from other
of ingredients
• Between 1997-2007, the UK economy grew strongly & unemployment decreased. This was due to other cultures ethnic groups
and ready made
Changes
Political

increase investment in education & technology. such as have been

foods from other
dreadlocks from established.
• In 2008 the UK entered a recession and unemployment increased. Recession ended in 2009, creating a cultures.
the Jamaica.
strong focus for decreasing the national debt occurred in 2010 elections.
 What is Resource Reliance? Topic 8 Demand outstripping supply
Resources are things that humans require for life or to make
our lives easier. Humans are becoming increasingly dependent
Resource Reliance The demand for resources like food, water and energy is
rising so quickly that supply cannot always keep up.
on exploiting these resources, and as a result they are in high Reasons for NOT Meeting Modern Resource Demands. Importantly, access to these resources vary dramatically
demand. in different locations
• Global warming effects cycles and
Resource Required seasons and therefore farming. 1. Population Growth 2. Economic Development
Climate • Rainfall patterns are changing and are
FOOD WATER ENERGY • Currently the global • As LIDCs and EDCs
becoming unpredictable. This is a
population is 7.3 billion. develop further, they
Without enough A good supply of problem for farming.
People need a • Global population has require more energy for
nutritious food, energy is needed • Not all countries have access to fossil risen exponentially this industry.
supply of clean and
people can become for a basic standard fuels or suitable landscape for century. • LIDCs and EDCs want
safe water for
malnourished. This of living. People renewables. • Global population is similar lifestyles to ACs,
drinking, cooking
can make them ill . need light and heat • Many minerals are finite and therefore expected to reach 9 therefore they will need
and washing. Water Geology
This can prevent for cooking or to once used will reduce the resources billion by 2050. to consume more
is also needed for
people working or stay warm. It is also available. • With more people, the resources.
food, clothes and
receiving needed for • Rock types might limit the availability to demand for food, water, • Development means
other products.
education. industry. store water. energy, jobs and space more water is required
Environment and Water: Reservoirs and Water Transfer will increase. for food production as
• War can disrupt transport of resources by
Conflict diets improve.
damaging roads and water pipes.
Methods Environmental and Ecosystems 3. Changing Technology
• LIDCs are unable to afford technology to
and Employment
Increasing storage • Can flood a large area of land and Poverty effectively exploit the natural resources
to hold more water damage habitats and natural available. • The demand for Consumption – The act of
and constructing landscapes. resources has driven using up resources or
• Increase in hazard events due to climate
Reservoirs

more dams to • Dams can be a barrier for certain the need for new purchasing goods and
change.
control river flow species to migrate upstream. technology to reach or produce.
Natural • Prime agricultural regions in Asia and
can provide a • Natural flow of sediment is gain more resources. Carry Capacity – A
Hazards Africa and are also in hazard zones.
reliable source of disrupted, which then reduces • More people in the maximum number of
• Has the ability to destroy infrastructure
water. fertility of land further down. secondary and tertiary species that can be
needed to transport resources.
industry has increased supported.
Constructing pipes • Large-scale engineering works can
the demand for
Water Transfer

and canals to divert damage ecosystems along the

resources required for
water surplus to route.
electronics and robotics.
areas in need of a • Lots of energy is required to pump
water supply. water over long distances.
 Measuring Food Security
Food Security
Food security varies around the world. Some people and places are more food
secure than others. This can often depend on how much a country can grow and is ‘Food Security’ is when people at all times need to have physical & economic access to
able to afford. food to meet their dietary needs for an active & healthy life. This is the opposite to
‘Food Insecurity’ which is when someone is unsure when they might next eat.
The Global Hunger Index Daily Calorie Intake

Human Physical

• Poverty prevents people affording food • Temperature needs to be ideal for

and farmers buying modern equipment. certain crops to grow.
• Poor infrastructure makes food difficult • The quality of soil is important to
to transport fresh food. ensure crops have the necessary
• Conflict disrupts farming and prevents nutrients.
supplies. • Water supply needs to be reliable to
• Food waste due to poor transport and allow food to grow.
storage. • Pest, diseases and parasites can
• This shows how many people are • This shows how many calories per
suffering from hunger or illness person that are consumed on average
• Climate Change is affecting rainfall destroy vast amounts of crops that are
caused by lack of food. for each country. patterns making food production necessary to feed large populations.
• The index gives a value for each • This can indicate the global difficult. • Extreme weather events can damage
country from 0 (no hunger) to 100 distribution of available food and crops (i.e. floods).
(extreme hunger). food inequality,

Malthus and Boserup’s Theories about Food Supply

Malthus Theory Boserup Theory
• Believed that population would increase faster than food supply. • Believed that however big the population grew, people would find
• This would lead to a lack of food being available. ways to manage.
• Malthus believed this would cause large scale famine, illness and • If food supplies became limited, people would find new ways to
war increase production.
• This would occur until population returned to level that can be • These solutions would often involve creating new technologies.
supported.