Global Circulation

The atmosphere transfers heat around the Earth in a global circulation system. The
way this circulation system creates areas of low pressure and high pressure explains
why the Earth has areas with high rainfall (low pressure) and arid areas (high pressure).

The Earth’s heat comes from the sun. The angle of the sun’s
rays mean the heat is more intense at the equator and less
intense at the poles. The angle means the atmosphere is
‘thicker’ at the poles and the sun’s rays are spread over a
wider surface area.

Winds blow from areas of high to areas of low pressure. This

movement of air and winds creates an enormous circle of air
called a circulation cell. There are three circulation cells in
each hemisphere: Hadley, Ferrel and Polar.

Low pressure / High pressure The ITCZ (Inter Tropical

At the equator, the very warm air
ascends (rises), leading to low pressure
(depressions) at the surface. Low
pressure conditions have higher levels of
precipitation and unsettled weather.
Convergence Zone) is at the
Equator, at the boundary between
the two Hadley Cells. Here, there
is low pressure bringing high
rainfall.

As the air cools at 30° latitude north and

south, it descends (falls), leading to high
pressure at the surface. High pressure
conditions have clear skies and little
precipitation. These areas are often
called arid.

Ocean currents
Ocean currents redistribute heat around the globe. Surface
ocean currents are affected by wind blowing across the water.
Deep ocean currents are driven by differences in water
temperature.
Jet streams
Jet streams form at the boundaries of the main circulation
cells, where warm air meets colder air, and affect the
movement of weather systems.
Natural climate change
Although climate change is something humans have influenced, climate has changed
for natural reasons many times in the Earth’s history.

The graph shows how the Earth’s temperature has

cooled and warmed over 450,000 years. It
demonstrates long term temperature changes
due to natural causes.

Volcanic eruptions produce ash and

sulphur dioxide. Ash can block the sun and
Volcanic Asteroid sulphur dioxide reflects it, making
eruptions collisions temperatures cool.
Asteroid collisions can blast millions of
tonnes of ash and dust into the
atmosphere, blocking the incoming solar
radiation.. This would cool the climate.
Sunspots are black areas on the sun’s
surface. Sometimes the sun has many
spots, at other times they disappear. Lots
of spots mean more solar energy is being
fired from the sun towards Earth and can
increase temperatures.
Orbital geometry The Earth’s orbit changes
every 100,000 years – these are known as
Orbital
Sunspots Milankovitch cycles. Sometimes the orbit
geometry is circular and sometimes more of an
ellipse. When it is circular temperatures
are warmer.

How do we know how the Earth's climate has

changed in the past?
o Tree rings – Each ring is a year’s growth.
When weather is warmer/wetter, growth
is greater.
o Ice cores - Measuring CO₂ levels in the
bubbles of air trapped in ice cores helps
scientists reconstruct past temperatures.
o Historical sources - Old paintings and
texts can give evidence too.
 Humans and climate change
Most scientists agree that the Earth’s climate is warming and that the warming is in
large part caused by human activity.
The greenhouse effect The ENHANCED greenhouse effect
The temperature of the Earth is a balance Gases that trap heat are called
between the heat it gets from the Sun and the greenhouse gases – they include
heat it loses to space. Incoming energy from carbon dioxide and methane.
the Sun is short-wave radiation. Outgoing Human activity is leading to more of
energy from the Earth is long-wave radiation. these gases being emitted and is
Gases in the atmosphere naturally act like an contributing to a warming of
insulating layer – they let short-wave radiation temperatures.
in, but trap long-wave radiation, helping to
keep the Earth at the right temperature.

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) Methane (CH₄)

All living organisms release
Burning fossil fuels releases
methane. An increased,
CO₂ which is a greenhouse gas.
wealthier population
With more people and
means more rice and more
increasing wealth, the amount
demand for meat. It also
of fossil fuels burnt is
leads to more waste going
increasing.
to landfill.

Evidence for how human activity is causing climate change

• Global temperatures are rising – today, the average global
temperature is 1°C above the average temperature in
1900.
• CO₂ levels are rising – this is mostly due to human
activity.
• Sea levels rose globally by abut 14cm during the 20th
century.
• Extreme weather events have become more frequent.

Possible effects of global warming

• Coastal flooding from sea-level rises.
• Loss of biodiversity on land and in the oceans.
• More droughts.
• Loss of glaciers could mean water supply problems.
• More floods from more frequent, heaver precipitation.
 Tropical Cyclone Characteristics
Tropical cyclones (violent tropical storms) are known by different names around the
world – hurricanes, cyclones and typhoons. You need to know where and when they
occur and about their key characteristics.

Tropical cyclones form where sea

Formation
Warm air rises, creating low pressure -
rising air contains lots of water vapour that
forms clouds - Condensation releases heat
energy and adds power to the cyclone - The
Coriolis effect causes it to spin - Some air
cools and descends in the centre, creating
the cloudless eye - Reaching land removes
the energy source and the tropical cyclone
dissipates.
temperatures are above 26.5‫ﹾ‬C. This
determines their:
• geographical distribution: they occur in
the tropics, between 5‫ ﹾ‬and 30‫ ﹾ‬latitude.
• seasonal distribution: they only occur in
summer and autumn, when seawater
has been warmed (June-November in
the northern hemisphere; November –
April in the southern hemisphere).
Tropical cyclones intensify when:
• water temperatures are warm – over
26.5‫ﹾ‬C.
• wind shear (the difference in wind
speed between higher and lower parts
of the atmosphere) is low. I.e. it is calm!
• there is high humidity (lots of water
vapour in the air).
Tropical cyclones dissipate when they:
• reach land because they lose energy
(they are powered by warm water).
• move into areas of colder water.
• run into other weather systems where
winds are blowing in different
directions.

Features and Structure of Tropical Cyclones

• The centre of the tropical cyclone is called the eye.
It is caused by descending air (high pressure) and is
calm with no clouds and no rain.
• The eye is surrounded by the eye wall. Winds are
strongest here, with storm clouds and torrential
rain.
• Swirling around the tropical cyclone are rain bands.
These are high banks of cloud that can stretch out
1,000 km from the centre and produce heavy rain
and strong winds.
Tropical Cyclone Hazards
Tropical cyclones can be major natural hazards that can have devastating impacts on
people and places.

The Saffir-Simpson scale

Tropical cyclones are classified using the
Saffir--Simpson scale, which is based on
windspeed. Category 5 is the strongest
(winds over 250 km/hr and 1 is the
weakest (winds of 120-150 km/hr).

Physical hazards of tropical cyclones Impacts on people

When a tropical cyclone makes landfall, it
causes a number of physical hazards:
High winds – wind speeds in a tropical
cyclone can reach 250 km/hr.
Intense rainfall – trillions of litres of water
per day can be released as rain. The rain
gets heavier the closer you get to the eye.
Storm surges – a storm surge is a large rise in
sea level caused by low pressure and high
winds.
Coastal flooding – storm surges can flood
large areas of the coast if the land is low-
lying.
Landslides – heavy rain causes flash flooding
and can make hills unstable, causing
landslides. This is often linked to
deforestation.
• People may drown in the strong currents
created by floodwater and storm surges.
• Wind speeds can be strong enough to destroy
buildings, which means people are left
homeless.
• Damaged roads make it very difficult for aid and
emergency vehicles to get through.
Impacts on the environment
• Trees are uprooted by high winds, which can
destroy wooded habitats.
• Storm surges can erode beaches and damage
coastal habitats e.g. coral reefs.
• Landslides deposit sediment in rivers and lakes,
which can kill fish and other wildlife.

Different factors combine to make countries more / less vulnerable to the impacts of
tropical cyclones…

Physical Economic Social

• Low-lying coastlines • Developed countries have better • In developing countries,
are vulnerable to prediction, protection and buildings are often
storm surge evacuation technology. This poorer quality so more
flooding. makes them less vulnerable. easily damaged.
• Steep hillsides may • Many people in developing • Health care isn’t as good
increase the risk of countries depend on agriculture, so developing countries
landslides. which is often badly affected. can struggle to treat all
the casualties.
Preparation and Response
You need to be able to compare the effectiveness of preparations for, and responses
to, tropical cyclones in one developed country and one developing/emerging country.

When and where tropical

cyclones will hit land can be Warning strategies are used Defences such as
to alert people to a tropical sea walls can be built
predicted. Scientists can
cyclone. An alert will give along the coast to
use weather forecasting people enough time to leave prevent damage from
(e.g. buoys to monitor air their homes and get to a safe storm surges.
pressure) and satellite place. Governments can plan Buildings can also be
technology to monitor
tropical cyclones. evacuation routes to get built to withstand a
people away from storms storm surge – e.g.
Computer models are then
quickly. In Florida, evacuation they can be put on
used to calculate a
routes are signposted all along stilts so they’re safe
predicted path for the
the coast. from floodwater.
cyclone.

Hurricane Katrina – USA (Developed country)
In August 2005, Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast of the USA,
causing catastrophic damage from central Florida to eastern Texas.
The most significant damage was caused around the city of New
Orleans.
The hurricane rapidly intensified to a Category 5 hurricane over the
warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico and was classified as Category 3
when it made its second landfall over New Orleans three days later.
Forecasting
The National Hurricane Centre (NHC) in Florida tracks and predicts
hurricanes using satellite images and places that collect weather
data on approaching storms.
Warning and Evacuation
• The NHC issued a hurricane warning and continued to track the
hurricane, updating the government on when and where it
would hit.
• After the hurricane hit Florida, and two days before it made
landfall in Louisiana, President George W Bush declared a state
of emergency.
• The New Orleans Mayor ordered the first ever mandatory
evacuation of the city. To speed up evacuations, authorities
allowed cars to travel on the wrong side of the highway. 80% of
New Orleans residents were evacuated before the hurricane
reached land but many residents didn’t have their own
transportation and were unable to leave. Railways were
suspended.
• People who couldn’t leave the city were housed at the
Louisiana Superdome. This was designed to accommodate 800
people…but 26,000 arrived.
Defences
80% of New Orleans lies below sea level and is protected by a series
of levees (embankments) to prevent flooding.
Impacts
• Environment – The levees were quickly breached, resulting in
80% of New Orleans being flooded. Coastal habitats such as sea
turtle breeding beaches were damaged.
• People - More than 1,800 people were killed.
• People - 300,000 houses were destroyed and hundreds of
thousands of people were made homeless.
Typhoon Haiyan – Philippines (Developing country)
In November 2013, Typhoon Haiyan struck southeast Asia,
particularly the Philippines.
The typhoon was one of the strongest tropical cyclones ever
recorded. It originated in an area of low pressure in the Pacific
Ocean and rapidly intensified to a Category 5-equivalent super
typhoon. The eye of the typhoon made its first landfall in the
Philippines at peak strength and gradually weakened as it made five
additional landfalls in the country before being downgraded to a
tropical storm eight days after its formation.
Forecasting
• The Joint Typhoon Warning Centre (JTWC) based in Hawaii
issued a tropical cyclone alert in early November.
• The storm quickly intensified to a tropical storm and the Japan
Meteorological Agency named it ‘Haiyan’.
• PAGASA (the Philippine meteorological agency) declared ‘a state
of national calamity’ and broadcast warnings two days before
Haiyan made landfall. Initially, a level 1 warning (the lowest
level) was issued but warnings were quickly raised to level 4 (the
highest level).
Warning and Evacuation
• Originally, only a Level 1 warning (the lowest level of four) was
given for some eastern areas. As the typhoon moved closer to
the islands, the level of warning increased and more areas were
given warnings.
• People in areas at risk of flood and landslides were told to
evacuate to safer areas.
• The President requested the military to deploy planes and
helicopters to the region expected to be affected.
Defences
• Many coastal areas were declared ‘no build zones’ but this didn’t
stop many houses being built there.
• The government built brick typhoon shelters on higher ground.
Impacts
• Environment - Mangroves were destroyed along the coast, along
with 71,000 ha of farmland as a result of the 5-6 m storm
surges..
• People - 6,300 people were killed.
• People - 1.9 million people were made homeless and 6 million
more were displaced.
Tectonics
The structure of the earth and composition of its different layers helps explain why the
Earth is made of plates and why they move.
Earth’s structure

Crust
The crust is solid and rigid, and is made up of silicon-
based rocks. There are two types of crust –
continental and oceanic.
• Continental crust is thicker and less dense. It will
never subduct (sink).
• Oceanic crust is thinner and more dense.

Mantle
The mantle is made of silicon-based rocks. The lower part
of the mantle is quite rigid. The area above this, called the
asthenosphere, is semi-molten (it can flow). This is because
it is under such high pressure that the rock flows. The very,
very top of the mantle is rigid. Temperatures in the mantle
range from 1,000 – 3,700 ‫ﹾ‬C. It is hotter towards the core
and cooler towards the surface.

Core – the core is a ball of solid (inner) and liquid (outer)

iron and nickel. At the centre it is very dense and it
becomes less dense further out. Temperatures range from
4,400-6,0000 ‫ﹾ‬C.

Convection currents
Radioactive decay of some elements (e.g. uranium)
in the mantle and core generates a lot of heat.
When lower parts of the asthenosphere heat up
they become less dense and slowly rise. As they
move towards the top pf the asthenosphere they
cool down, become more dense, then slowly sink.
These circular movements of semi-molten rock are
called convection currents.

Convection currents in the asthenosphere create

drag on the base of the tectonic plates, causing
them to move.
Plate Boundaries
There are three types of plate boundary. They are linked to where volcanoes and
earthquakes occur.

Tectonic Plates
Convection currents in the mantle
move the Earth’s tectonic plates in
different directions. The points where
plates meet are called plate
boundaries. The movement of plates
creates three types of plate boundary
(convergent, divergent and
conservative). This map shows the
global distribution of plate boundaries.

Convergent plate boundary

(Oceanic / Continental)
Convection currents in the mantle cause
the plates to move towards each other (to converge).
The collision of the two plates causes the continental
crust to fold upwards, forming fold mountains. The
oceanic plate subducts (sinks) because it is heavier.
This subduction creates an ocean trench. Subduction is
not a smooth process, and creates lots of friction,
resulting in earthquakes. The subducted oceanic crust
melts due to the high temperature of the mantle,
creating a magma chamber. This new magma forces
its way to the surface as an explosive composite
volcano.
Convergent plate boundary
(Continental / Continental)
Convection currents in the mantle cause the
plates to move towards each other (to converge).
As both plates are made of continental crust,
neither will subduct. And so no volcanoes are
formed. The collision of the two plates causes
the continental crust to fold upwards, forming
fold mountains. The colliding plates also cause
rocks to ‘snap’ along the faults, causing
earthquakes.

Divergent plate boundary

Convection currents cause the plates to
move apart (to diverge). This movement generally
happens under the oceans. As the plates break apart,
rising heat causes the asthenosphere to melt, forming
magma. This magma rises to fill the gap between the
plates and cools to form new oceanic lithosphere.
Where the magma breaks through the surface of the
Earth, it forms a shield volcano. As this process
continues, chains of volcanoes build up to form a mid-
ocean ridge. Earthquakes can also occur at divergent
plate boundaries as the plates do not move apart
smoothly.
Conservative plate boundary
Convection currents in the mantle cause
the plates to slide past each other. This
movement is not smooth and the plates
tend to get stuck. As a result, pressure
builds along the boundary. Eventually,
one plate jerks past the other, causing an
earthquake.
Volcanic Hazards
Volcanic hazards vary and cause different types of damage and devastation, depending
on a range of factors.

Volcanoes are found at convergent and divergent

plate boundaries. At convergent plate boundaries,
the oceanic plate subducts beneath the
continental plate because it is more dense. At
divergent plate boundaries, the magma rises up
into the gap created by the plates moving apart,
forming a volcano.

When a volcano erupts, it emits lava and gases. Some

volcanoes emit lots of ah, which can cover land, block out
the sun and form pyroclastic flows (super-heated currents
of gas, ash and rock).

Hotspots
Hotspots are super-heated areas in the mantle,
which cause superheated rock to rise through the
mantle. Once this reaches the upper mantle, it
causes the asthenosphere and base of the
lithosphere to melt – creating magma. This
magma rises through weaknesses in the crust and
erupts at the Earth’s surface (a volcano).
Hotspots are fixed in place. As a plate moves over
them, a line of volcanoes is formed, called an
island arc. Oceanic hotspots erupt basaltic lava,
creating huge shield volcanoes. Continental
hotspots erupt viscous, granitic lava. They can be
very explosive.

Composite volcanoes are

formed along convergent
plate boundaries. They are
tall, steep-sided cones made
of alternate layers of lava and
ash. Lava is thick and sticky.
Eruptions tend to be
infrequent, but when they do
occur, they are violent.
Shield volcanoes are formed
along divergent plate boundaries
and over hotspots. They are low,
gently sloping domes with a very
wide base and are built from lava
only. Eruptions tend to be more
frequent and gentle.
 Earthquake Hazards
Earthquakes occur at all three types of plate boundary. Earthquake hazards vary and
cause different types of damage and devastation.

Earthquakes are caused by the tension

that builds up at all three types of plate
boundary. At convergent boundaries,
tension builds up when one plate gets
stuck as it’s moving down past the other
into the mantle. At divergent boundaries,
tension builds along cracks within the
plates as they move away from each other.
At conservative boundaries, tension builds
up when plates that are grinding past each
other get stuck.

Earthquakes occur at various depths. The focus of an earthquake is

the point in the Earth where the earthquake starts. Shallow-focus
earthquakes generally cause more damage at the surface than
deeper earthquakes. This is because shock waves from deeper
earthquakes have to travel through more rock to reach the surface,
which reduces their power when they teach the surface.
The epicentre is the point on the surface directly above the focus and
is where the greatest potential effects will be felt.

Tsunamis are caused by energy moving through water. They

originate underwater, from a volcanic eruption, submarine
landslide, or most commonly from an earthquake on the
ocean floor. This releases a massive amount of energy into
the water, which travels up to the surface, displacing the
water and sending it above the normal sea level. Gravity
pulls it back down, which makes the energy ripple outwards.
In deep water, these ripples are barely detectable, but when they reach shallower water
near the coast, the massive amount of energy is compressed and the wave’s speed slows
down causing its height to rise by as much as 100 feet.

The Richter Scale records the magnitude

(strength) of an earthquake. It is a logarithmic
sale, meaning an earthquake measured at 7 is
10x more powerful than one measured at 6.
Managing Earthquake Hazards
The way earthquakes are managed in developed countries can be different from how
they are managed in developing/emerging countries.

Prediction
Earthquakes cannot be reliably predicted, but
Short-term scientists can still monitor certain signs that
Prediction
relief could indicate that an earthquake is likely:
• Lasers can be used to detect the
movement of tectonic plates before an
earthquake.
• Vibrations in the Earth's crust can be
monitored using seismometers. If
vibrations increase, it could mean there’s
going to be an earthquake.
Long-term • Scientists can measure certain gases.
Preparation
planning Radon gas escapes from cracks in the crust
just before an earthquake.

Preparation
Long-term planning helps to prepare a country for
an earthquake:
• Emergency services can train and prepare for
disasters, e.g. by practising rescuing people
from collapsed buildings. This will reduce the
number of people killed n a real event.
• Buildings can be designed to withstand
earthquakes e.g. the Yokohama Landmark
Tower in Japan has counter-weights on the
roof, deep foundations and flexible outer
panels.
• People can be educated so that they now what
to do if an earthquake happened. E.g. Disaster
prevention Day on the 1st September each year
in Japan

Short-term relief
Short-term relief deals with the immediate impacts of a tectonic hazard. Well-
prepared countries are better able to provide food and drink and shelter to evacuated
people, treat people who have been injured to prevent more deaths, and rescue
people who have been trapped or cut-off by damaged roads or bridges.
Case Study – Tohoku Earthquake
You need to know a located example about managing earthquake hazards in both a
developed country and a developing/emerging country.

On Friday 11th March 2011 at 2:46pm, a

Developed country
magnitude 9.0 earthquake occurred in the
north-western Pacific Ocean off the east coast
of Japan.
The focus was relatively shallow (17 miles
deep). Its epicentre was approximately 45 miles
east of Tohoku (a peninsula). The earthquake
caused shaking at the Earth’s surface that lasted
six minutes
Less than an hour after the earthquake, the first
of many tsunami waves hit Japan’s coastline.
The waves had heights of up to 130 feet and
travelled inland as far as six miles.

Prediction
• Local governments monitor seismic activity all over the country. If an earthquake is
detected, people are warned immediately (e.g. via smartphones and social media).
• A smaller earthquake had been predicted, but scientists were not expecting one of this
magnitude in March 2011.
Preparation
• Strict building laws help prevent major damage. Buildings are reinforced with steel frames to
prevent them from collapsing. High-rise buildings have deep foundations with shock
absorbers to reduce vibrations.
• Early warning systems are in place to alert residents to earthquakes and tsunamis.
Planning
• Japan’s population is educated on being prepared for earthquakes. E.g. Disaster Prevention
Day takes place on 1st September each year where earthquake drills are practised.
• People living in coastal areas practise getting to higher ground or emergency bunkers in the
event of a tsunami.
Primary Effects
• Approximately 1,400 deaths occurred as a direct result of the earthquake (mostly de to
collapsed buildings).
• Reclaimed land suffered from liquefaction (the ground turned to liquid), causing many
buildings to tilt and sink.
Secondary Effects
• The vast majority of deaths (approx. 17,000) were due to people drowning in the tsunami.
• Tsunami waves caused a nuclear meltdown at Fukushima because cooling systems failed.
Relief
• International aid and search-rescue teams were brought in.
• Transport and communications were restored in the weeks following the earthquake.
Case Study – Haiti Earthquake
You need to know a located example about managing earthquake hazards in both a
developed country and a developing/emerging country.

On Tuesday 12th January 2010, at 4:53pm, Developing country

a magnitude 7.0 earthquake struck Haiti.
The focus was very shallow (6.2 miles
deep). Its epicentre was approximately 10
miles southwest of Port-au-Prince (the
capital city). The earthquake caused the
ground to shake for between 35 seconds
and a minute.
As the earthquake occurred on land, there
was no tsunami.

Prediction
• Haiti is the poorest country in the western hemisphere. As such, it has limited technology to
predict earthquakes or alert the public to any potential danger.
• The country hadn’t experienced an earthquake in over 100 years and there was no warning
that one would occur.
Preparation / Planning
• As a result of Haiti’s very low level of economic development, many people lived on steep
hillsides in self-made housing, which collapsed as soon as the earthquake struck. Decades of
deforestation on the hillsides around the capital city, Port-au-Prince had also caused them to
be particularly unstable.
• There were very few building regulations in place and so many buildings were not
adequately built to withstand an earthquake. Many buildings, for instance, had concrete
roofs.
• As no earthquake had taken place in over 100 years, there were no regular earthquake drills
before the earthquake struck.
Primary effects
• An estimated 316,000 people were killed.
• 1.5 million people were made homeless.
• All 8 hospitals in the capital city, Port-au-Prince were badly damaged.
Secondary effects
• A cholera epidemic began 10 months after the earthquake, killing over 8,000 people.
• Looting and crime increased as the government and police force collapsed.
Relief
• Transport delivering aid struggled to reach the areas affected because of the damage caused
to the roads.
• International aid (search and rescue teams) was flown into the country to help those
trapped by collapsed buildings.