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Temperature Belts
Heat is a form of energy; temperature shows how hot a thing is. In other words, heat refers to the quantity
of energy present in a substance, while temperature refers to its intensity, i.e. the degree of hotness. For
example, a glass of boiling water has the same temperature as a large can full of boiling water. Even
though the temperature of water in the two vessels is the same, the glass does not possess as much heat as
the can.
Subtraction or addition of heat is necessary to lower or to raise the temperature of a substance. Besides,
differences in temperature determine the direction of heat flow from one body to another. As we all know,
heat moves from a hotter body to a colder body. Therefore temperature has been defined as the property
which determines whether heat will flow out of or into an object when in contact with another object.
Factors Affecting Distribution of Temperature
Air temperature conditions many aspects of human life, from the clothing we wear to the fuel costs we
pay. Air temperature and air temperature cycles also act to select the plants and animals that make up
the biological landscape of a region. And air temperature, along with precipitation, is a key determiner
of climate. Thus, it is important to understand the variation in temperature found over the surface of the
earth. The following are some of the more important factors which determine the temperature of a particular
place on the earth's surface: latitude, altitude, distribution of land and water, ocean currents, prevailing winds,
cloudiness, mountain barriers, nature of the surface, relief and convection and turbulence.
1. Latitude: Intensity of insolation depends on the latitude. Since insolation is a prime factor in
determining the temperatures of the air, it is but natural the temperatures would vary with latitude.
Thus, the temperature of the atmosphere at a particular place near the earth's surface is a
function of the insolation received at that location. There is no doubt that of all the factors,
latitude is the most important. This is proved by the general east-west trend of the isotherms
drawn on the maps showing the mean annual temperature distribution on the earth. However, the
irregularities of the isotherms do suggest the influence of other factors on the distribution of
temperature on the surface of the earth.

2. Altitude: The temperature decreases with increasing altitudes from the earth's surface. This
vertical decrease in temperature of the atmosphere is limited to the troposphere only in which the
normal lapse rate is about 6.5°C per kilometer. Since the direct source of atmospheric heat lies at
the surface of the earth, the higher we ascend in the atmosphere, the lower the temperatures are.
The second factor which causes the lowering of temperature with elevation is the fact that the lower
layers of air at or near the surface are denser and contain more water vapour, more water particles
and more dust particles than the upper air. Since these substances absorb a large amount of
terrestrial radiation, the lower part of the atmosphere has higher temperatures than the less dense
and cleaner upper part.

3. Distribution of land and water : Land and water surfaces react differently to the incoming solar
radiation. That is why different surfaces such as land, water or ice heat up and cool down
differently. For example, land surface is heated more quickly and to a greater extent than the water
surface when subjected to an equal amount of insolation, and it also cools more rapidly. Because of
the great contrasts between land and water surfaces, their capacity for heating the atmosphere
varies. This arises from the fact that whereas water tends to store the heat it receives, land quickly
returns it to the atmosphere. Variations in air temperatures, therefore, are much greater over land
than over water. It is the differential heating of land and water that accounts for the distinct
types of marine and continental types of climates found on the surface of the earth.

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4. Ocean currents: Ocean currents move from one place to another in order to equalize
temperatures. There are large movements of ocean water usually from a place of warm temperatures
to one of colder temperatures or vice versa. In all the oceans cold currents move from the polar
regions equatorward and warm currents from the equatorial regions poleward. The effects of
ocean currents upon temperatures of the adjacent land areas are variable. The warm currents raise
the temperatures of the nearby coastal regions slightly above the mean values. Similarly, the cold
ocean currents tend to lower down the temperatures of the adjacent land areas. The effect of cold
currents are more pronounced in the tropics or during the summer months in the temperate regions.

5. Prevailing winds: It is obvious that neither oceans nor ocean currents can exert maximum
influence upon temperatures unless the direction of the prevailing winds is such as to carry the
moderating effects of the oceans to the adjacent land. On the contrary, off-shore winds take the
effects of warm or cold currents away from the coastal regions.

6. Cloudiness: The atmospheric depletion of insolation is relatively less in those regions that have
clear and cloudless skies. During the summer season the subtropical deserts are much warmer
than the equatorial regions, especially during the day time. It is mainly due to the fact that near
the equator thick cover of afternoon clouds does not allow the incoming solar radiation to reach
the earth's surface without a certain percentage of it being absorbed by the clouds. In humid regions,
because of the presence of a large amount of water vapour in the atmosphere, nights are relatively
warmer than those in arid regions. Thus, the amount of cloudiness affects the temperature of the
earth's surface and the atmosphere. This is so because a thick cloud cover reduces the amount of
insolation received at a particular place, thus lowering the daytime temperature. The general effect
of cloud cover is said to moderate temperature, lowering the potential maximum and raising the
potential minimum temperatures.

7. Mountain barriers: Landform barriers, particularly high mountain ranges, exert significant
influence on the temperature of a place. Mountain ranges block the movements of air from one
place to another and, thus, control the weather and climate of a locality. For example, the mighty
Himalayas do not allow the cold winter air masses from the central regions of Asia to enter into
the Indian subcontinent, so that the winter temperatures of the entire region to the south of the
mountains remain relatively higher than what they would have been in their absence. Similarly, the
Alps running east-west block the movement of cold polar winds towards the south, and the
southern states are thus protected from the invasion of extremely cold air masses. In the absence
of these high mountain ranges, the winter temperatures of, say, north Italy would have become
much lower than what they are. The Rockies and other mountain ranges of North America act
as barriers to the moisture-laden winds from the North Pacific Ocean, but allow the continental
polar air masses to move towards the equator. That is why areas in the southern United States are
subjected to unusual cold spells because of the incursions of polar air. The desert areas on the
leeward side of these mountain ranges owe their existence to their blocking effects. Thus, the
mountain ranges generally act as divides between different climatic regions.

8. Nature of the surface: The effect of the nature of surface and its colour on the distribution of
insolation has been discussed in an earlier chapter. Different kinds of surfaces reflect different
amounts of incoming solar radiation falling thereon. Dark-coloured surfaces absorb more
insolation than the light- coloured ones. Snow-covered surfaces reflect a larger part of the
incident solar radiation which is not available for heating the layers of air lying adjacent to the
surface. That is why the temperatures over snow-rcovered ground remain low even during the
daylight hours.

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9. Convection and turbulence: Intense daytime heating of the surface produces convection
currents in the atmosphere which transport heat to the upper layers. Thus, the convection
currents and eddy motions moderate the temperatures of a particular place. In winter, streams
of air cross the mountain barriers and descend on the leeward side. In the process they get
warmed up by compression and thus the air temperature is raised. Fohn and Chinook are such
local winds as cross the Alps and the Rockies respectively during winter and bring about
unprecedented rise in the temperatures of the localities affected by them.

In brief, it may be stated that the temperature of a particular place is affected not only by the latitude,
but also by a number of other general and local factors. Besides, the relationship between the earth and
the sun as well as the complex processes of heat exchange between the earth and its atmosphere also
exert a collective influence on the spatial variations of temperature on the earth's surface.

Temperature Belts
On maps, isotherms are commonly used to show the horizontal distribution of temperature. Isotherms
are lines connecting points with equal temperature values generally reduced to their sea level equivalents.
The temperature data are plotted on maps only after necessary corrections have been made. These
corrections eliminate the effect of altitude on the distribution of temperature and bring out in sharp
focus the effects of other factors thereon. If this is not done, the temperature distribution in
mountainous regions would be so complicated that it will be impossible to map it.

Mean Annual Temperature Distribution

While discussing the average annual temperature distribution over the globe, it should be kept in mind
that the mean value of the annual temperature of a place is of little significance climatologically,
because it is simply the mean of the seasonal extremes. The equatorial regions, however, are an
exception to this general rule, for there is little annual variation in temperature in these latitudes.

Mean Annual Temperature Distribution World

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Salient features: The following are the salient features of the average annual distribution of
temperature:

1. The highest temperatures are found in the tropics and subtropics which receive the largest
amounts of insolation all the year round. On the contrary, the lowest average temperatures are
recorded in the polar regions, where the amount of solar energy received in the course of a year
is very small.
2. The isotherms within much of the tropics are widely spaced. In other words, the northern-
south temperature gradients in the lower latitudes are rather insignificant.
3. The isothermal lines generally extend east-west giving an evidence of the dominant control
of latitude on the horizontal distribution of temperature. However, the isotherms are
relatively more irregular in the northern hemisphere than the southern hemisphere. The
dominant control of latitude on temperature is more clearly seen in the southern hemisphere
because of the preponderance of water over land.
4. The isotherms, while passing from continents to oceans, get distorted at their margins.
The magnitude of deviation in the east-west trend of the isotherms is larger in the
northern hemisphere where there is a larger percentage of land surface.
5. In the eastern part of the North Atlantic the isotherms show a larger amount
odd deviation toward north due to the combined effect of the warm ocean currents of the Gulf
Stream and the North Atlantic Drift, and the southerly winds. Similar bending of isobars towards
the pole is seen in the North Pacific, because of the presence of the Kuroshio warm ocean
current and the North Pacific Drift as well as the prevailing waterlines.
6. Wherever there are cold ocean currents, the isotherms bend towards the equator. The impact
of the cold currents like the Labrador cold currents, Benguela cold currents, Californian cold
current and Humboldt current, can be seen in the map.
7. The coldest temperatures in winter and the highest temperatures in summer are found over
the continents. This is obviously the result of differential heating of land and water. It may also
be noted that since temperatures do not fluctuate as much over water as over land, the north-south
migration of isotherms is greater over the continents than over the oceans, especially in the
middle latitudes. The western coastal regions of North America and North Europe are warmer
than their central regions. On the contrary, the tropical western coastal regions of Africa, Australia
and South America are colder than their middle parts.
8. The belt of high mean annual temperature (26.7°C and above) varies in width in the tropical
regions. It attains the maximum width over the continents. The northern hemisphere being the
land hemisphere is warmer than the southern hemisphere. The thermal equator is found north of
the geographical equator (0°).
9. The temperature gradient is very steep in the higher latitudes as well as along the eastern margins
of the continents.
10. The mountain ranges seem to exert great influence on the horizontal distribution of temperature.
The barrier effects of the Rockies in North America and the Andes in South America do not allow
the oceanic influences to penetrate far inland. Since the Himalayas in Asia are oriented in east -
west direction, there is a packing of isobars near them.

Seasonal Distribution of Temperature

Since January and July represent the seasonal extremes, the horizontal distribution of temperature in these
two months only is described below.

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Distribution of temperature in January

Distribution of temperature in January: Figure given above shows the horizontal distribution of mean
temperature in January.

1. Because of the preponderance of land in the northern hemisphere the isotherms are more irregular
and closely-spaced here. On the contrary, because of the larger percentage of water surface in
the southern hemisphere, the earth's surface is more homogeneous there. This results in greater
regularity in the east-west trend of the isothermal lines in that hemisphere. The isotherms are
relatively more symmetrical while passing from continents to oceans in the southern hemisphere.
The northern hemisphere has a larger number of isothermal lines than the southern hemisphere.

2. On the continents of the northern hemisphere, the isotherms for the month of January bend sharply
towards the equator. This clearly indicates that the cold polar winds lower down the temperatures
of even more southerly regions in this hemisphere. Because of the effect of continentally the winter
in the interior of the continents is more severe. On the other hand, the isothermal lines on the oceans
exhibit a poleward bend showing thereby that within the same latitudes the oceans in the
northern hemisphere are relatively warmer than the continents. This is quite natural, because the
land surfaces cool more rapidly and to a greater degree than the water surfaces.

3. In January, the coldest place on earth is found in north eastern Siberia. Another coldest region
lies in Greenland. In the middle-latitude regions, the western coastal regions of the continents
are warmer than their counter parts on the eastern side. This is primarily due to the fact that the
prevailing westerlies carry warmer temperatures from the oceans towards the coasts.

4. The isotherms in the vicinity of the north pole are conspicuous by their absence - a fact which
may be attributed to the paucity of climatic data in the northern polar region. It may be pointed out
that due to the severity of winter and permafrost in the polar regions, a large network of weather
observing stations is lacking there. Hence, the task of collecting weather data in this extremely cold
region becomes very difficult.

5. The close spacing of the January isotherms over the continents in the northern hemisphere
represents a steep temperature gradient. The temperature gradient on the eastern sides of North

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America and Asia has been calculated as 1.5°C per latitude, while on the western sides of these
continents the temperature gradient is reduced to the value of .44° to .55°C only.

6. The mean January heat equator is located to the south of equator. In this month the belt of highest
temperature on the earth's surface is located on the continents in the vicinity of latitude 30°S in the
southern hemisphere.

7. In January, the effect of warm ocean currents on the horizontal distribution of temperature is well-
marked over the oceans in the northern hemisphere. These warm currents cause the isotherms to
deflect more towards the pole. At this time of the year, there is larger contrast in temperature over
the continents and oceans in the northern hemisphere. January being the month of summer in the
southern hemisphere, the isotherms are rather straight in that hemisphere.

Distribution of temperature in July

Distribution of temperature in July. Figure given above shows the horizontal distribution of
temperature in July.

1. The isotherms in the northern hemisphere (where it is summer) are most irregular and zigzag.
On the contrary, the isotherms in the southern hemisphere (where it is winter) are relatively
more regular and straight, except at the edge of the continents where there is a slight bend towards
the equator.

2. An elongated and extensive belt of high temperature (about 32.2°C) is seen extending from North
Africa through Southwest Asia to the north western part of the Indian subcontinent. Another belt of
high temperatures is found in the southwestern part of the United States of America.

3. In July, the low temperature belt of the cold season now disappears from the north eastern part of
Siberia. This region, because of the effect of continentality, becomes warmer than other regions
within the same latitudes.

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4. In the northern hemisphere, the continents are much more warmer than the oceans which are
relatively cooler. The maximum amount of temperature contrast is found between the north
Pacific and the adjacent land areas. During the northern hemisphere summer, there are lesser
number of isotherms, and they are widely spaced.

5. With the apparent movement of the sun towards the Tropic of Cancer, all the isotherms are
displaced slightly towards the north, but there is little variation in their general tendency. In July
the thermal equator is displaced to the north of the equator.

6. Another noteworthy feature of the July isotherms is that over continents they bend towards the north
pole and over oceans towards the equator. Temperature gradient in the interior and the eastern
margins of the continents becomes weak. There is no substantial change in temperature gradient
along the western margins of the continents.

Annual Temperature Range

The difference between the warmest and coldest monthly means is called the annual range of temperature.
It varies greatly from place to place. There is a time-lag also. Usually the lowest monthly mean occurs a
month, or on occasions two months after the winter solstice, while the highest monthly mean generally
occurs a month or two after the summer solstice. January and July generally represent the extreme months.

Controlling factors: The following are the factors that affect and control the annual range of
temperature.

1. Latitude. The height of mid-day sun is never less than 661/2° at the equator. Twice in a year the sun's
rays are vertical at the equator. Thus, the temperature is uniformly high in the equatorial region, and
the annual range of temperature is negligible. But from the equator poleward, there is a progressive
decrease in temperature. It results in greater annual range of temperature. In the polar regions,
where the length of day and night is 6 months, one should expect the highest annual range of
temperature. But the fact is otherwise, because the low angle of incidence in the sun's rays does
not allow the temperatures to rise to higher values. Besides, a larger part of insolation received in
the polar regions is expended in melting the ground snow. This factor also checks any substantial
rise in the temperature in those regions. Therefore the mid-latitude regions, where the seasonal
variation in temperature is greatest, record the highest annual range of temperature.
2. Height above mean sea level. The annual range of temperature at a particular place is largely
controlled by the height at which the place is situated. At high elevations, the rarity of the air,
larger amount of precipitation and cloudiness combine together to lower down the average
temperature even during the warmer months of the year. But the mean values of temperature for the
colder part of the year are not affected by these factors to the same degree. Thus, places situated at
higher elevations have lower annual ranges of temperature.
3. Distance front the sea. Water is heated or cooled in a longer period of time than land. Because of
this peculiar characteristic of water, the coastal areas enjoy a moderate climate, and the difference
in temperature of the warmest and the coldest months is not very large. On the contrary, the interior
locations have extremely hot summers and cold winters. Thus, with increasing distance from the
sea-coast, there is a corresponding increase in the seasonal variation of temperatures. However, in
the vicinity of the equator the effect of distance from the sea on the annual range of temperature
is quite negligible. Its effect is more marked in the temperate regions. It may be pointed out that
since the coastal locations have larger amount of clouds and the resultant precipitation, the diurnal
range of temperature is also very small.
4. Ocean currents. The effect of ocean currents upon the temperature of adjacent land areas are
variable, depending on the direction of prevailing winds. Where the prevailing winds are onshore,

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they carry the moderating effect far inland. Under these conditions, the warm ocean currents
help to raise the temperatures of the adjoining regions. For example, the prevailing westerlies
keep the winter time temperatures in Great Britain and much of the western Europe warmer for
the latitude, because of the presence of the North Atlantic Drift, a warm ocean current, in the
nearby ocean. The effect of the warm ocean currents is more pronounced in winter. Hence the annual
range of temperature is relatively smaller. Another example is offered by the cold ocean
current of California because of which summer temperatures in the subtropical coastal Southern
California are lower by 6° Celsius. Thus, the difference between the average winter and summer
time temperatures in the coastal regions of California is never large resulting in the small annual
range of temperature.
5. Prevailing winds. Among the factors that have controlling influence over the annual range of
temperature, the prevailing winds are the most important. Off-shore winds bring about an increase
in the annual range of temperature of the adjacent land, while the on-shore winds carry the
moderating influence of the oceans far inland and impose a restriction on the annual range. The
effect of ocean currents is largely determined by the direction of the prevailing winds. Onshore
winds carry their influence to the coastal regions, while the off-shore winds deprive them of the
warming or cooling effects of ocean currents.
6. Precipitation and cloudiness. In those regions where the rains are falling or where the skies are
covered with clouds, the summer temperatures are relatively lower. But during the winter, the
clouds check the loss of heat by terrestrial radiation. Thus, in cloudy regions the winter time
temperatures are not allowed to fall much. Therefore in such regions the annual range of temperature
is relatively smaller than those regions where the weather is clear and dry.
7. Aspect of Land. Slope is one of the potent factors which affect the temperature of a place. The
slopes facing the sun have higher temperatures during summer months, and the slopes protected
from the sun have much lower temperatures during winter. Thus, this local factor also affects the
annual range of temperature.

The mean annual temperature range (°C) at the earth’s surface

Salient features of annual temperature range: The following are the salient features of the annual
range of temperature:-

1. The annual temperature range is characterized by variations over different parts of the globe.
The annual range is lower is low latitudes and higher in high latitudes. In the same latitudes it is
higher over the continents and lower over the oceans. But in the North Pacific Ocean the annual
range becomes larger as the distance from the equator increases. In North America and Asia the

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interior regions are characterised by higher annual range, while the coastal areas have smaller
range. In fact, the magnitude of the annual range of temperature depends on the size of the land
masses. Because of the vastness of the continent of Asia, Eastern Siberia has as much as 55.6°C
of annual temperature range. Verkhoyansk, situated in the vicinity of the Arctic Circle, is called
the cold pole of the earth. The annual range of temperature here is 65° (January - 50°C and July
15°C). This place has the distinction of having a high absolute range of 104.5°C.

2. Within the tropics, the continental interiors have larger annual ranges than the adjacent oceans.
This is evident when the July and January isotherms for the tropical deserts are compared.

3. In the middle-latitude, at latitude 60° N in Siberia the mean temperature for January is - 34.9°C,
while in the same latitude the mean temperature for the same month over the North Atlantic is
4.4°C. This is a typical example of the effect of differential heating of land and water. The
highest values of the annual temperature range are observed in the interior regions of the
land areas in temperate zone. The annual range of temperature over a large segment of the
Atlantic Ocean within the Arctic Circle is less than 11°C, while the interior regions of
Canada and Siberia have 44.5°C and 66.7°C respectively as their annual ranges. Winnipeg
and Paris, though almost in the same latitude belt, have the annual ranges of 38.9°C and 16°C
respectively. This is due to the fact that the prevailing westerlies bring in the moderating effect
of the Atlantic Ocean to Paris, but Winnipeg is deprived of any such oceanic influence.

4. In the southern hemisphere, where the land area is limited south of the Tropic of Capricorn, the
annual range of temperature over the oceans is only 5.5°C, whereas it is 16.7°C in the continents
of South America, South Africa and central Australia. This also shows the effect of oceans on
the annual range of temperature.

5. If we look at the mean temperature distribution maps for the months of January and July in
Eurasia, one more characteristic feature of the annual range is clearly discernible: the annual
range of temperature increases from west to east on this huge continental land mass.

Climatic significance of annual ranges: Annual range of temperature is said to have great
environmental significance, because it determines the magnitude of the thermal stress which human
beings as well as plants and animals are subjected to. Thermal stress is small in the equatorial region
where the annual range of temperature is insignificant. On the other hand, in the sub-Arctic zone it is severe
because of the higher annual range. Such climates as have small thermal stress are said to be equable
climatically.