Solar and Earth Radiation

Solar radiation, the earth’s chief energy source, determines weather and climate. Earth and sun
radiate essentially as blackbodies; i.e., they emit almost the theoretical maximum amount of radiation for
every wavelength for their temperature.

The rate at which solar radiation reaches the upper limits of earth’s atmosphere on a surface
normal to the incident radiation and at earth's mean distance from the sun is called the solar constant.
Solar constant ranges from 1.89 to 2.05 calories/cm 2/min with an average of 1.95 calories/cm2-min (or
langley/min).
[1 langley = 1 cal/cm2]

Solar radiation that reaches Earth is known as insolation (for incoming solar radiation), and is
spread over a band of wavelengths known as the solar spectrum. Radiation wavelengths are usually given
in micrometers (µm) (10-6 m) or in angstroms (A) (10-10 m). About 45 percent is visible in the range of 0.4
to 0.8 μm as sunlight; the remainder consists of infrared (46 percent) and ultraviolet (9 percent). Ultraviolet
radiation represents a relatively small fraction of the total insolation and most of this is absorbed in the
stratosphere so only a very small amount reaches the Earth's surface. This small amount, however, is
responsible for sunburning and can cause serious skin damage. Earth radiation is longwave infrared (about
10 μm).

[Angstrom (Å), unit of length, equal to 10 −10 meter, or 0.1 nanometer. It is used chiefly in
measuring wavelengths of light. (Visible light stretches from 4000 to 7000 Å.) It is named for
the 19th-century Swedish physicist Anders Jonas Ångström.]

Heat Balance of Earth's Surface and Atmosphere

Since the surface area of a sphere is 4 times that of a circle, solar radiation intercepted by the
planet earth average one-fourth the solar constant, or about 0.5 cal/cm 2-min. Figure 1.5 shows the estimated
percentage of the solar constant of the various components of earth's heat balance. Twenty six percent
(26%) of the incoming solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere are reflected back to space by the
atmosphere (including clouds, dust, water vapor, etc.) and 4% by the earth's surface. Of the remaining 70%,
19 are absorbed by the atmosphere, and 51 by the earth's surface. Thus, 0.51 of 0.5 or 0.25 cal/cm 2-min is
actually absorbed when average over the earth's surface.

Applying the radiation law formula (R=KT 4, where R is in cal/cm 2-min, K the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant equivalent to 8.132 x 10-11 cal/cm2-K4-min and T in Kelvins), the heat absorbed would be
equivalent to a temperature of about -38 °C. But the observed average temperature of the earth is 15°C.
This temperature, 53 °C warmer than the calculated radiation temperature, is the result of the greenhouse
effect of the atmosphere, primarily due to heat absorption by water in the air and secondarily due to heat
absorption by CO2.

Figure 1.5 shows the upward radiation emission from earth's surface to be 21% more than the
downward emission from the atmosphere. Fifteen of these 21% are absorbed by the atmosphere, make a
total of 70% of infrared radiation lost to space. The 30% difference between the 51% of solar radiation
absorbed and the 21% of infrared radiation emitted by the surface is balanced by 7% of turbulent heat
transfer (the process of heat transfer due to a combination of conduction and convection in heating the air)
and 23% of latent heat transfer (evaporation).

1
 Figure 1.5. Disposal of solar radiation on the surface of the earth.

In meteorology, a distinction is made between short-wave solar radiation and long-wave

terrestrial radiation. The shorter the wavelength, the higher the transported energy. The visible
light is part of the short-wave radiation. Examples of long-wave radiation are infrared or thermal
radiation or radio and microwaves.

Irregular Heating of the Atmosphere

Most of the changes and weather phenomena of the atmosphere result from the fact that the earth's
surface and overlying atmosphere are heated quite irregularly. As described earlier the irregularity is caused
by:
1) systematic factors affecting the amount of insolation available for absorption at the earth's surface,
and
2) variations in the nature of the surface itself, causing different amounts of heat to be absorbed.

Amount of Insolation. Several factors contribute to the varying amounts of insolation reaching the earth's
surface.
1. Because of the earth's curvature, inclination of its axis of rotation, and motion about the sun, the
sun's rays strike the earth's surface at an angle that varies with the time of the year and the latitude.
The higher the angle of incidence, the greater the concentration of energy on the surface.

2
 2. The thickness of the atmosphere traversed by the sun's rays varies widely, also as a consequence
of the variation in the angle of incidence. Solar energy coming in at a low altitude is filtered out to
a much greater extent by the air and the foreign particles present than when approaching from near
the zenith. Consider the weakness of the sun at sunset compared to the blazing noontime sun.
Actually, about thirty-eight times more air is traversed by the tangential rays.

3. Foreign particles such as dust and clouds show pronounced variation in the atmosphere with
locality and time. The dust in the air over mid-ocean is minimal, whereas the industrial city
atmosphere exhibits a maximum dust count. The dust and water particles are of great importance
in filtering out much of the sun's energy by absorption, reflection, and scattering.

4. The period of insolation is rarely constant at any one place. Aside from protracted periods of
cloudiness, which of course obscure the sun, the length of the daylight period shows great seasonal
change. Summer days are twice (or more, depending on the latitude) the duration of winter days
and greatly affect the amount of energy reaching any one area.

Composition of the Earth's Surface. The second basic factor concerning irregular absorption of
insolation by the earth is the result of the differing composition of the earth's surface. Even if the sun's
energy were equally received at the earth's surface, the great variation in composition of the earth would
cause considerable differences in the amount absorbed (which later heats the air). This difference of the
earth's composition is of extreme importance in determining weather and climate.

The most notable difference is that between land and water. Of the two, water is very conservative
thermally. It always lags behind temperature changes on land, therefore being cooler in summer and
warmer in winter. There are several reasons for this.

1. Water is relatively transparent to sunlight, being penetrable to about 30 meters. Hence, while the
opaque land surface concentrates all of the absorbed energy in a very shallow layer, producing a
relatively large temperature increases, the transparent water spreads the warming effect over a
much thicker layer. In the reverse process, the shallow land layer can radiate and conduct its heat
more rapidly than the deeper water.

2. Water has a much higher specific heat than rock or soil. For water the specific heat is 1 cal/g - °C,
which is among the highest of all such values. Thus, compared with land temperatures, water
temperatures rise slowly as water is heated and then fall slowly because much more heat must be
lost before a decrease in temperature occurs.

The specific heat of water is 1 calorie per gram per Celsius degree (or 4.186 Joules/kg-K).

3. Water is very mobile, being a fluid. Convection, plus the effects of waves and currents, distributes
temperature differences to great depths so that surface temperatures tend to fluctuate slowly
compared to those on the static land surface.

4. In the evaporation process described earlier, a large amount of energy is utilized in the conversion
of liquid water to water vapor without any temperature increase occurring. This process, which is
more important under the warm summer sun, tends to slow the rate of increase of temperature in
all large bodies of water.

3
 5. Ocean currents tend to equalize horizontal differences in temperature, thereby minimizing the
extremes that might otherwise occur. For example, currents like the Gulf Stream off eastern North
America and the Kuroshio off eastern Asia transport huge quantities of warm water to higher
latitudes. As part of this ocean circulation process, cooler water from high latitudes flows toward
lower latitudes. This redistribution of heat by ocean currents is of great significance in the heat
budget of the entire earth.

Measurement of Radiation
The amount of radiation (or intensity of solar radiation) absorbed in a body is expressed in
calories/cm2-min, watts/m2, joules/cm2-min or equivalent depth in mm of water vaporized. One cal/cm 2-min
= 1 langley/min = 697.6 watts/m2 = 4.186 J/cm2-min. The amount of radiation absorbed in equivalent depth
in mm of water vaporized (EW) is given by,

EW = 10 Q/(ρW HV)

where Q is the total radiation in calories/cm 2, ρW the density of water (≈ 1 g/cc), and H V, the latent heat of
vaporation in calories per gram of water which can be approximated by H V = 597.3-0.564 T, where T is the
surface water temperature in °C.

Actinometer and radiometer are general names for instruments used to measure intensity of radiant
energy. There are five types:

1. Pyranometer. For measuring hemispherical shortwave

radiation, i.e., the combined intensity of direct solar
radiation and diffuse sky radiation (radiation reaching
earth's surface after being scattered from direct solar
beam by molecules and suspensoids in the
atmosphere). A typical example of this instrument is
found in the PAGASA-BISU Agromet Station
(Figure 1.6). A common type operates on a
thermoelectric principle. The incidence of radiation
upon black and white surfaces of equal area produces
Figure 1.6. A pyranometer.
differential heating that generates an electromotive
force proportional to the intensity of radiation. The
instrument is coupled electrically to indicating and
recording devices.

2. Pyrheliometer. For measuring intensity of direct solar radiation. It is a specialized pyranometer,

shielded to intercept only direct solar radiation and oriented so that receiving surfaces are perpendicular to
the solar beam.

4
 Phyrheliometer

3. Pyrgeometer. For measuring hemispherical longwave radiation, used face up to

measure atmospheric radiation or inverted to measure terrestrial and reflected
atmospheric radiation.

A pyrgeometer is a device that measures near-surface infra-red (IR) radiation,Pyrgeometer

approximately
from 4.5 μm to 100 μm on the electromagnetic spectrum (thereby excluding solar radiation).
It measures the resistance/voltage changes in a material that is sensitive to the net energy
transfer by radiation that occurs between itself and its surroundings (which can be either in
or out). By also measuring its own temperature and making some assumptions about the
nature of its surroundings it can infer a temperature of the local atmosphere with which it is
exchanging radiation.

4. Pyrradiometer, or total hemispherical radiometer.

For measuring all-wave radiation flux, used face up to
measure hemispherical longwave radiation plus global
radiation or inverted to measure terrestrial and
reflected atmospheric radiation plus reflected solar
radiation.

5. Net Pyrradiometer, or net radiometer. For measuring net all-wave radiation flux.

Net radiation is the sum of short-wave

radiation and long-wave radiation. It can be5
determined either by direct measurement or
by calculation. For the direct measurement,
net radiometer is usually used after
Sample Problem: During a cloudless dry day, a pyranometer installed near a 10-ha lake recorded 2200
joules/cm2. Assume the water surface temperature to be constant at 25°C and that the reflectivity of water is
5%. Determine the equivalent depth of water vaporized if all the heat were absorbed, and the expected
evaporation from the lake expressed in mm of water, in m3 and in ha-m.

Given: Q=2200 joules/cm2 = 525.56 cal/cm2

T = 25°C, R = 5%, A = 10 ha = 100,000 m2

Required: Ev, EL

Solution: At 25°C the latent heat of vaporization (Hv) of water would be

Hv = 597.3 - 0.564T = 597.3 - 0.564 (25) = 583.2 cal/g

a) Ev = Qs/(ρHv) = 525.56/(1 g/cm3) (583.2 cal/g) = 0.9 cm = 9 mm

b) EL = EV (1-R) = 9 (1 - 0.05) = 8.56 mm
VEL = EL (A) = 0.00856 (100,000) = 856 m3
= 8.56 mm (10 ha) = 85.6 ha-mm

Length of Sunshine
It is also important to know how long Sunshine
strikes a point on the surface of the earth. The duration of
sunlight of the day depends on how long clouds cast
shadow on that particular point. Clear and cloudless day
provides 100% of total possible sunshine of the day, while
overcast sky gives no sunlight on the surface. Duration of
sunlight is measured by a sunshine recorder as shown in
Figure 1.7. The recorder has a glass sphere mounted on
the bowl support to focus incident sunlight to a point on
the card. The focused sunlight burns the card and the
length of burn determines the duration of Sunshine
expressed in hours and minutes. Duration of sunlight can
also be expressed in terms of ratio of actual length of
sunlight to possible sunshine duration of the day. The
possible sunshine of the day is from sunrise to sunset and
this duration depends on the latitude position of the area Figure 1.7. A sunshine recorder
on the surface.

Figure 1.8 shows 3 types of cards used for recording the length of sunlight and the card is inserted
in the grove of the bowl holder (top of Figure 1.8) directly below the glass sphere. The bottom (straight)
card in the figure is an example of recorded card showing the length of burn representing the total length of
actual sunshine hours (5.8 hr) for the day on September 16. If the total possible sunshine on September 16
was 11.6 hr, the percent actual sunshine for the day would be 100(5.8/11.6) = 50%.

6
 Figure 1.8 Cards used in sunshine
recorder. At the top of the figure is
the mounting support of the card. At
the bottom is an example of recorded
card (length of burn represents the
total actual hours of sunshine in one
day).
Questions and Problems (assignment # 2)
1. Define the following terms: meteorology, climate, weather, agrometeorological station, synoptic station,
insolation, short-wave infrared radiation, long-wave infrared radiation, albedo, zenith, horizon, tropic of
cancer, tropic of capricorn, summer solstice, winter solstice, vernal equinox, autumnal equinox,
pyranometer, sunshine recorder.

2. What are the standard instruments found in the agromet station and give their function(s)?

3. Explain the irregular heating on the earth surface and its atmosphere.

4. Describe the operating principle of a) actinometer, and b) sunshine recorder.

5. Assuming that our earth is approximately sphere having a radius of 6380 km and its distance from the
sun is 1.5 x 108 km, a) find the linear speed of the earth in km/hr around its own orbit. Approximate the
linear speed of the earth surface (in km/hr) about its own axis of rotation at b) Baybay, c) California,
USA and d) North or south pole.
Ans. 107,588.8 km/hr, 1644.9 km/hr, 1368.2 km/hr, 0

6. On July 23 in BISU, the Interim Reference Sunshine Recorder recorded an actual sunshine duration of 6
hr and 30 min based on the length of burn on the sunshine card. On this day sunrise was at 5:45 and
sunset at 18.15. Determine for this day: a) the total possible sunshine hours and b) the percent actual
daylight. Ans. 12.5 hr, 52%.

7
WEATHER ELEMENTS
The word weather refers to the short-period, usually daily, variations in the atmosphere. There are
certain observed properties of the atmosphere that are subject to constant change, their state at any time
determine the state of the weather. These variables are:
1.Temperature
2. Humidity
3. Horizontal visibility (fog, etc.)
4.Clouds and state of the sky
5.Kind and amount of precipitation
6.Atmospheric pressure
7.Winds

Weather elements should not be considered as separate entities. On the contrary, they are closely
interrelated. Of the seven mentioned, temperature is the most basic and fundamental, and its variations
cause changes in the other elements, the results of which we know as weather.

It is well known that warm air hold more water vapor than cold air. In many drying processes
blowing hot air on the object greatly expedites evaporation of moisture. If warm air is cooled sufficiently,
excess water vapor comes out as liquid water droplets. Thus, temperature changes in the air are the
direct cause of humidity variations, which in turn yield clouds, fog, and precipitation.

The temperature variations are also responsible for pressure differences. If a part of the air
becomes warmer than the surrounding air, it will expand, become lighter, and tend to rise from the earth.
Cold air surrounding the warmer air will be relatively heavy. Consequently, the warm air will have less
weight and show less downward pressure than the surrounding cold air and will therefore (other things
being equal) show lower barometer readings.

Now, whenever such a condition arises, there will be a heaping up of air in one locality and a
lessening in a neighboring area. A flow of air tends to start along the earth's surface from the region of
higher pressure (heavier air) to the region of lower pressure (lighter air). This horizontal movement of air is
called wind. These simple descriptions will be discussed more in details in the next topics.

AIR TEMPERATURE

The amount of heat in a body is difficult to measure. However, heat in a body is a direct
function of temperature, which can easily be measured and understood.

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coolness of an object. It is a fundamental weather

element. In response to the irregular disposal of the sun's energy (insolation) the air temperatures show
wide variations. This variations in turn cause other significant weather changes.

Temperature change is one of the principal causes in changes of other basic weather elements.
Temperature variations over lands and ocean result to a range of weather conditions from the gentlest
breeze to the most violent storms. Temperature also affects the development and formation of clouds, the
source of our precious water, when these clouds eventually fall as rain. It is, then, imperative that variations
in temperature be considered in weather forecasting as they play an important part in the improvement or
deterioration of weather conditions.

8
Measuring Temperature.
Air is three-dimensional, and conditions aloft play a major role in weather forecasting.
Measurement of temperature aloft requires remote sensing techniques. For now, discussion is confined to
direct-measurement devices, those used to ascertain the temperature at the earth's surface.

The temperature of an object is measured by a thermometer. It operates on the

principle of thermal expansion of the materials used, e.g., liquids like mercury and
alcohol, metallic materials, etc. Mercury is one of the liquids very sensitive to changes in
temperature. When the substance to be measured is warm, mercury expands and rises in
the capillary tube. When it cools, mercury contracts.
1. Standard Thermometers.- A standard thermometer is a sealed glass tube having
a very small opening- the bore- running through the center from top' to bottom.
The bore is greatly enlarged into a bulb-shaped opening at the bottom, as
indicated in Figure 1.9. The bulb is filled with a liquid, usually mercury or
alcohol, which rises into the narrow bore. The space above the liquid is a
vacuum. Warming temperatures cause expansion of the liquid up the tube;
cooling causes contraction and a falling of the level of the liquid.

The outer glass surface of the thermometer is etched in the form of a

graduated temperature scale. Hence, the height of the upper surface of the liquid
in the bore of the thermometer indicates the existing temperature.
Figure 1.9. A
2. Maximum Thermometers - It is often necessary to determine not only the Standard
current temperature, but also the highest temperature reached during a Thermometer
given period. For this purpose a maximum thermometer is used. This is
almost identical to the standard thermometer, with one exception. Just
above the bulb shown in Figure 1.10 (lower one), the bore is constricted to a very thin channel.
When the temperature rises, the mercury in the bulb expands. The force of the expansion is
sufficient to force the mercury through the constriction, causing it to rise higher in the tube. When
the temperature decreases, the mercury below the constriction contracts within the bulb, but the
narrowness of the constriction prevents the mercury above from falling through from its weight
alone and it remains in the position it took at the highest temperature; the top of the column of
liquid indicates the maximum temperature reached.

A clinical thermometer is a common example of the maximum-registering type. To reset the

thermometer after it is read, it is generally whirled around rapidly, and the effect of whirling or shaking
forces the mercury back through the constriction and into the bulb of the thermometer.

The upper one in Figure 1.10 is another type in which maximum temperatures can be recorded by
the horizontally-placed thermometer in which the mercury thread pushes along a small metal index which
remains at the highest temperature attained. The left side of the Index indicates the maximum reading. To
reset this type of thermometer after the reading is taken it is done by holding it in upright position until the
index falls to the surface of the mercury before it is set in a horizontal position.

9
 Figure 1.10. Two types of maximum thermometers

3. Minimum thermometers- Minimum thermometers are used to register the lowest temperature reached
during a given period. The minimum thermometer resembles the regular thermometer, except that it
always contains liquid of low density, such as (colored) alcohol (because of its low freezing point),
instead of mercury. In addition, within the liquid in the tube, there is a thin glass rod, shaped somewhat
like a dumb-bell, called the index as shown in Figure 1.11. When the temperature decreases, the liquid
contracts so that its upper surface pulls the index down from the effect of surface tension.

When the temperature rises again, the alcohol flows around the index and rises in the tube, leaving the
index at the lowest point to which the liquid surface descended. Hence, the upper surface of the glass index
marks the lowest or the minimum temperature reached, at the same time that the alcohol surface itself
indicates the current temperature. Obviously, the minimum thermometer should always be kept horizontal,
or the glass index will fall through the liquid to the bottom of the tube.

To reset the thermometer after a reading is taken, the minimum thermometer is inverted with the bulb
end uppermost, until the index falls to the surface of the alcohol under its own weight; it is then restored to
a horizontal position.

4. The Thermograph - A thermograph (Figure 1.12) is a purely mechanical device consisting of a sensor,
metallic element, whose curvature varies with the
temperature. One end of the curved sensitive
element is connected to a long movable lever arm
which may indicate temperature directly on a
convenient scale or which may be connected to
an inked pen at its end. The pen, in turn, rests on
a cylindrical drum which rotates by means of an
inner clockwork. A sheet of chart paper is
wrapped around the drum and is divided into days
and hours, horizontally, and temperature in
degrees, vertically.
Changes in temperature cause variations
in curvature of the sensitive metallic element
which cause deflection of the long pen arm
upward or downward, depending on the nature of
Figure 1.12. A thermograph
the change. The pen inscribes an inked line on the
sheet surrounding the drum. As it does so, the

10
drum is slowly rotating; hence a line is traced which indicates the temperature at any time during the
recording interval, as well as the current temperature. Thus, the thermograph gives a continuous record of
the temperature.

Location of Temperature Instruments

In placing temperature instruments properly to record or register air temperatures accurately,
several factors should be taken into consideration:
1. The instruments should be shaded from direct sunlight. The air temperature is desired and not the
temperature of the sun's rays falling on the instruments. Thermometers should also be sheltered
from radiation from walls, bulkheads, or any other source of heat.
2. Good ventilation is required. If the air is not in motion in the vicinity of the instruments, they will
not indicate the true air temperature. Hence, any shelter used for thermometers should allow the
air to pass through it without obstruction. For this purpose, such shelters are constructed with
louvered sides.

Remote Sensing of Temperature

Remote sensing of air temperature above the ground is carried out simultaneously twice daily at
hundreds of "upper-air stations" around the world through the use of the radiosonde. This instrument carries
several instruments often to an elevation of 30,000 meters. A small radio transmitter within the instrument
package emits signals of meteorological data that are received by special equipment in the surface weather
station.

Diurnal and Seasonal Temperature Variations

Due to the changing angular position of the sun with time during the day, a simple diurnal and
rather rhythmic temperature variation exists. Maximum temperature occurs in early to midafternoon and
minimum temperature just before sunrise. The time of minimum temperature follows the radiation pattern.
Throughout the night, the earth's surface and atmosphere both radiate heat away. The lowest temperature
occurs about the time of sunrise after which reheating by the sun occurs.

Horizontal Temperature Variation

The most fundamental temperature effect over the earth's surface is the gradient (change) of
temperature from the equator toward the poles. This important decrease of temperature with increase in
latitude is a consequence of the increasing slant of the sun's rays caused by the curvature of the earth. The
factors resulting from the curvature effect cause more heat to be absorbed than is reradiated in low latitudes
and more to be reradiated than is gained in high latitudes.

Despite the net heat gain in low latitudes, this region does not grow steadily warmer, nor do high
latitudes grow steadily cooler despite their net heat loss. Hence heat must be transferred from low to high
latitudes to achieve a global heat balance. It is in the achievement of this heat- transfer process that the
atmosphere produces the primary wind and weather systems of the earth.

To show the horizontal distribution of air temperature most conveniently, isotherms are used.
Isotherms are lines connecting points of equal temperature. Consequently, if the earth were uniform in
composition, isotherms would be straight east-west lines, similar to parallels of latitude. The isotherms
representing the highest temperatures would be near the equator. The temperature change in a direction
normal to the isotherms is called the horizontal temperature gradient.

Isotherms are rarely straight east-west lines. Their distribution on a world map is quite irregular
and varies greatly from winter to summer and from hemisphere to hemisphere.

11
Vertical Temperature Variation
As one ascends in the atmosphere, steadily decreasing temperatures are encountered. Figure 1.13
illustrates the change in temperature, pressure and density of atmosphere to a height 50 km above the earth
surface. Within the troposphere to a height of about 11 km temperature decreases steadily to about -55 °C
or equivalent change of about -6.5 °C/km. The observed vertical temperature decrease or gradient is known
as the lapse rate (ß). Lapse rate varies through a wide range. But at a given place the different lapse-rate
figures can be averaged, and we call this normal lapse rate.
Although the lapse rate at a given time and place can be obtained only by observation, the average
or normal lapse rate within the 11 km height is well known to be 6.5°C per kilometer (or K/km)
(Figure 1.13).

Notice that the lapse rate refers to temperature conditions existing in a stationary column of
air at a given place and time. This air should not be considered as having any vertical motion, either
upward or downward. Temperature (T) in the air at any elevation can be approximated by the formula

T = To + ßz (1.1)

where To, is the temperature at the ground surface, ß the temperature lapse rate, and z the elevation above
the ground surface.

There are three essential causes for this decline in temperature.

1. The major source of heat for the air is the earth. Clearly, then, with increasing distance from the source
of heat, the air's temperatures must decline.

2.The density of water vapor decreases with elevation so that less heat can be held in the air.

3. Temperature decreases result from expansion on air rising from the earth's surface.

12
Figure 1.13. Physical (temperature) structure of the atmosphere to a height of 50 km.

Effect of Vertical Air Motion on Temperature

Causes of Vertical Air Motions. In addition to horizontal movement of the air, there is often
pronounced vertical movement. The amount of air exhibiting this rising or falling motion depends on the
force that initiates the movement. The causes of vertical air motion can be separated into four distinct
influences:
1. Heating and cooling of isolated parts of the air,
2.Topographic uplifting,
3.The effects of fronts or cold-air wedges, and
4.Horizontal convergence and divergence.

Isolated heating and cooling. If a portion of the earth's surface becomes highly heated, the
overlying air also becomes heated. When heated, air expands, becomes lighter than adjacent air, and tends
to rise. Air over a cold surface will become cold, hence heavier than the surrounding warmer air, and will
tend to sink. This is, on a much larger scale, the same process that occurs in a room heated by a radiator
where the hot air rises in a vertical stream toward the ceiling. Although it is difficult to see these rising and
falling air columns, their presence is well known to air travelers, who constantly encounter so-called
"bumpy air," or "air pockets," which are nothing more than air columns in vertical motion.

Topographic uplift. The topographic effect is easily pictured. Air in motion, approaching a
mountain or a ridge, will ascend the windward slopes and descend on the leeward sides of the elevation.

13
 Fronts. Fronts are the bounding surfaces between different air masses. For example, a cold-
air mass moves southward until it meets a warmer moving mass of air; the line of separation between them
is a front. However, it is not a vertical boundary between the two, but a sloping one. The cold air, being
heavier, will flow in the form of a wedge beneath the warmer air and force the latter up over the cold air.
Figure 1.14 illustrates the wedging of cold air below the ascending warm air mass.

Figure 1.14. Passage of warm air over cold air mass.

Convergence and divergence. For various reasons to be touched on in this manual air in horizontal motion
may be forced to converge or diverge as shown by the net airflow patterns
in Figure 1.15. Because air cannot accumulate from convergence or form a vacuum from divergence, it
follows that ascending and descending air must occur, respectively as shown in the vertical schematic
views in Figure 1.16.

Figure 1.16. Vertical air motion.

(a) Convergence.
(b) Divergence

Figure 1.15. Horizontal convergence and

divergence of air.

Resulting Temperature Effect-Adiabatic Changes. Let us consider a mass of air on the earth's
surface. Assume that this air is forced upward from any one of the four causes of uplift described above. As
this air rises, the pressure on it grows less, causing it to expand. This principle is very familiar in the case of
ordinary gas-filled balloons, which, when released, rise in the air and expand continuously until they burst.

14
 An excellent and common example of this process occurs in the ordinary bicycle or automobile
tire. When the valve is opened, the compressed air in the tire will escape very rapidly. As it does so, the air
expands very rapidly with a consequent rapid decrease in temperature. This is a rather familiar cooling
process.

Oppositely, air that is descending will encounter increasing pressure from the surrounding air and
will be compressed. Whenever a gas is compressed, the work done on it will cause its temperature to rise.
When air is pumped into a tire, the temperature rises noticeably as a result of the compression. When air
subsides or sinks in the atmosphere, it will therefore always grow warmer and will do so at the same rate at
which rising air cools when rising an equivalent distance.

This change in the temperature of a gas or the air, due only to the change in pressure on the air, is
called an adiabatic change. The rate at w/c the temperature changes as air rises or falls is called the
adiabatic lapse rate (α ). This rate is constant for dry air. If the original temperature of the air is known and
the distance through w/c it rises or falls is known, then the resulting temperature as shown in Eq.11 can be
calculated by means of the adiabatic rate. The rate for dry air, known as the dry adiabatic lapse rate, is 10°C
per kilometer.

Sample Problems

1. Imagine that a unit of air at temperature of 24°C rises up a mountain range that is 2,500 m high on the
windward side and which descends to 1,200 m on the lee side. If the air remains dry, what will its
temperature be when it crosses the top of the range and what will it be when it descends to the base of the
lee side?

Given: T0 = 24°C, α =10°C/km, Zm = 2.5 km, ZL = 1.3 km

Solution: Since air is dry during rising and descending, temperature change with elevation follows adiabatic
cooling/heating of 10°C/km. Therefore, the temperature at the top of the mountain (T m) and temperature at
the base on the lee side (TL) would be

a) Tm = To + α Zm = 24 + (-10) (2.5 km) = -1°C

b) TL = Tm + α ZL = -1+ (10) (1.3 km) = 12°C.

Question and Problems

1. Define the following terms: temperature gradient, vertical lapse rate, adiabatic lapse rate, isotherm.

2. What are the causes of vertical air motion?

3. Describe the operating principles of a) standard thermometer, b) maximum thermometer, and c)

minimum thermometer.

4. At what approximate time of the day will the minimum and maximum air temperature occur? Ans. Just
before sunrise, at about 2 p.m.

5.Show the relation between vertical lapse rate and adiabatic lapse rate of air that corresponds to a) good
weather, and b) bad weather.

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6. A column of air moving upward from the ground with a temperature of 32°C cools adiabatically at the
rate of 10°C/km above the ground. The atmospheric pressure at the ground is 1000 mb. a) Determine
the density of air on the ground in g/m3. Determine at 1 km above the ground the b) pressure in the air
column in Pa, b) temperature in °C, and d) density of the air. Assume air to be dry having a gas constant
value of 286.8 m2/s2-K. Ans. 1.143 kg/m3, 89,227.5 Pa, 22°C, 1.055 kg/m3.

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 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Gas molecules exert forces on each other and their environment as they collide. The magnitude of
these forces depends upon the temperature of the gas and the number of molecules involved. These
collision forces are expressed in terms of a quantity called pressure. Pressure differences are principally
related to temperature differences and to the number of molecules exerting pressure forces. Atmospheric
motion results from pressure variations.

The atmospheric pressure (absolute) on a given surface is the force exerted by an overlying
column of air extending to the outer limit of the atmosphere per unit area. Values are read in millibars (mb),
millimeters or inches of mercury. The SI unit of pressure is kPa which is equal to 1000 N/m 2, 108 dynes/m2,
10 mb, 7.5 mm of Hg, or 0.295 inch of Hg. In term of total weight, the atmosphere's weight is enormous
(5.6 x 1015 metric tons).

The relationship among the pressure, density and temperature of dry air is given by the equation of
the state or
P = ρRT (1.2)
where P is the pressure in Pa (or N/m2), ρ the density of dry air in kg/m3, T the absolute temperature in
Kelvin, and R the specific gas constant for dry air which is 286.8 m 2/s2-K. The normal or standard
atmospheric pressure is at the mean sea level with a temperature of 15°C (or 288.16 K). At this temperature
the density of dry air is 1.225 kg/m3. Thus, substituting these values to Eq. 1.2 will give

P = 1.225(286.8) (15 + 273.16) = 101320 Pa

= 101.32 kPa
= 1013.2 mb
= 14.7 psi
The value of the standard atmospheric pressure can be expressed in equivalent height of fluid by
using the pressure-head equation h = P/(ρg), hence
h = 101320/(1.225x9.086) = 8430 m of air
= 101320/(1000x9.086) = 10.33 m of water
= 101320/(13600x9.086) = 0.76 m of mercury
= 760 mm of mercury
= 29.92 inches of mercury.

Change in Atmospheric Pressure with Elevation in a Static Atmosphere

Change in atmospheric pressure P with height z above the earth surface can be derived and in
static fluid it is given by

dP
=−ρg(1.3)
dz

Gases, like air, are compressible, with density nearly proportional to pressure. Thus, density must
be considered as a variable if the integration carries over large pressure changes. Introducing the perfect-
gas law (equation 1.2) into the equation 1.3 to get

dP −Pg
= (1.4 )
dz RT

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 Constant Density Approximation. A simple approximation relating air pressure with elevation is to
assume air density ρ to be constant in the atmosphere. Integrating equation 1.4, with limits of P from P 0 at
z = 0 (mean sea level as reference datum) to P at z = z, becomes

P z

∫ dP=−ρg ∫ dz
Po 0

P = Po – ρgz (1.5)
Isothermal Atmosphere Assumption. One common approximation is the isothermal atmosphere
(constant temperature) where T = T o. Substituting into equation 1.4 and integrating the right hand term and
simplifying gives air pressure P at any height z above msl. Separate the variables and integrate between
limits to get

P z

∫ dP P
=ln =
g
∫ dz
P P
o
Po R T o o

P=P 0 exp
( −gz
RT )
o
.(1.6)

Exact Solution (Non-isothermal atmosphere). Actually, the earth's mean atmospheric temperature
drops off nearly linearly with z up to an altitude of about 11,000 m (Figure 1.13) given by T = T o + ßz
where To is sea-level temperature (absolute) and ß is the temperature lapse rate discussed earlier, both of
which vary somewhat from day to day. By international agreement the following standard values are
assumed to apply at the troposphere from 0 to 11,000 m above mean sea level (msl):

To = 15°C = 288.16 K
ß = -6.5 K/km = -0.0065 K/m

Introducing equation 1.1 into equation 1.4. and integrating, we obtain an exact relation of pressure
with elevation or

P z
P −g
∫ dP =ln = ∫ T dz
Po
P P o R 0 o+ βz
(1.7)

( )
−g
βz Rβ
P=P+ 1+ ,
T0

where R = 286.8 m2/s2-K and g/Rß = -5.26 (for dry air) with P = P o at z = 0. Table 1.1 provides the
relationship among pressure, density and temperature of the standard atmosphere at a given elevation.
Values of pressure P with elevation shown in Table 1.1 are determined from Eq.1.7.

Table 1.1. Standard Atmosphere (also see Figure 1.13).

Geometric Height Temperature1, T Pressure2, P Density3, ρ

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 m ℃ Pascals Kg/m3
0 15.0 101,325 1.23
1,000 8.5 89,900 1.11
2,000 2.0 79,500 1.01
3,000 -4.6 70,100 0.99
4,000 -11.0 61,700 0.82
5,000 -17.5 54,100 0.74
6,000 -24.0 47,200 0.66
7,000 -30.5 41,100 0.59
8,000 -36.9 35,700 0.53
9,000 -43.4 30,800 0.47
10,000 -50.0 26,500 0.41
11,000 -56.4 22,700 0.36
12,000 -56.5 19,400 0.31
13,000 -56.5 16,600 0.27
14,000 -56.5 14,200 0.23
15,000 -56.5 12,100 0.20
16,000 -56.5 10,400 0.17
17,000 -56.5 8,900 0.14

1
T* = T0 + ßz, ß= -0.0065℃ /m ( ¿ K /m ), T0 = 15℃+273.15=288.15 K

( )
−g
βz Rβ
2
P = P0 1+ , P0 = 101,325 Pa, g = 9.806 m/s2
T0

Example Problem: If the standard atmospheric pressure is 101,325 Pa, compute the standard
pressure at an altitude 1000 m above msl, a) by the exact formula and compare with b) an isothermal
assumption and c) a constant-density formula. Compute also the: d) temperature and e) density of air at this
height.

Solution: At standard atmospheric pressure the temperature at z = 0 m is 15°C or 288.16 K and that the
density of air is 1.225 kg/m3.
(a) From the exact solution in equation 1.7 gives

( )
5.26
−0.0065 K /m x 1000 m
P=P 0 1+ ,
288.16 K

P = Po ( 0.97744 )5.26=101,325 ( 0.88691 )

= 89,860 Pa = 89.86 kPa = 898.6 mb.

Temperature (T) at this height can be determine using equation 1.1 or T = T 0 + ßz = 15°C + (-
0.0065 °C/m) (1000 m) = 8.5°C. Density of air (ρ) at this height can be approximated using Eq. 1.2 or ρ =
P/RT = 89860 N/m2 (286.8 m2/s2-K x 282.66 K) = 1.11 kg/m3. Table 1.1 also gives the same pressure,
temperature and density at height 1000 m.

(b) For the isothermal assumption Eq. 1.6 yields

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 P=(101.325 kPa) exp ( −9.806
286.8× 288.16 )
×1000 m

= 89.99 kPa = 899.9 mb.

(c) The simple linear approximation given in Eq. 1.5 is applied to get

P = 101325 - (1.225 kg/m3) (9.806 m/s2) (1000 m)

= 89,307.65 Pa = 89.31 kPa = 893.1 mb

This is only 0.62 percent low compared with the exact result which is surprisingly closed. However, error
due to approximation becomes significant as elevation increases.

(d) Temperature (T) at 1 km would be: T = To + ßZ = 15 + (-6.5)(1 km) = 8.5°C = 282.66 K

P 89,860 3
(e) Density (ρa) of air at this height would be ρa ¿ = =1.11kg /m .
RT 286.8 (282.66)
The same result would be obtained using Table 1.1.

Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure

To measure atmospheric pressure, a barometer is used, which is commonly of two types. These
are:
1. Mercurial Barometer - A mercury barometer (Figure 1.17)
is a simple barometer made by filling a glass tube 81 cm
long with mercury and inverting it so that the open end of
the tube is below the surface of mercury in a cistern. The
pressure of the outside air then forces the mercury in the
cistern upward into the vacuum chamber within the tube.
The mercury will rise until its weight in the tubeZ just
balances the pressure of the air on an area of the mercury in
the cistern just equal to the interior cross-sectional area of
the tube. Thus, if the tube area is 1 cm 2 and the air pressure
is normal, the mercury will rise until its weight in the tube is
10.1325 N (The normal or standard atmospheric pressure is
101.325 kPa or 1013.25 mb.) The equivalent of the mercury
column is 76 cm.
Figure 1.17. A Mercurial
The height of the mercury column is measured by sliding a
Barometer
vernier attached on a scale. To obtain accurate measurements,
corrections are made for temperature expansion of the mercury, gravity and latitude.

2. Aneroid Barometer - An aneroid barometer (Figure 1.18) is made by exhausting the air from a
thin, cylindrical metallic box with corrugated tops and sides known as sylphon chamber. With
practically no air on the inside and an air pressure of
1006 millibars on the outside, the box would collapse
except for a strong spring inside. If one side of the box
is fixed, the other side will move due to changes in
atmospheric pressure. The corrugated surface of the
metallic box is to increase the area exposed to the air.

20
As the outside pressure changes, the chamber will either expand or contract causing the spring to
move. The movement of the spring causes a pointer to move over a scale of figures corresponding
to the readings of a mercury barometer.

21