NAME: AIMAN

R.NO: GEO-16
BS GEOGROPHY-I

QUESTION: 01

EARTH”S HEAT BUDGET SYSTEM

 Earth’s heat budget. Of all of the solar radiation reaching Earth, 30% is
reflected back to space and 70% is absorbed by the Earth (47%) and
atmosphere (23%). The heat absorbed by the land and oceans is
exchanged with the atmosphere through conduction, radiation, and latent
heat (phase change). The heat absorbed by the atmosphere is eventually
radiated back into space (PW).

Earth, third planet from the Sun and the fifth largest planet in the solar
system in terms of size and mass. Its single most outstanding feature is that its
near-surface environments are the only places in the universe known to harbour
life. It is designated by the symbol ♁. derives from Old English and Germanic
words for ground and earth, and it is the only name for a planet of the solar
system that does not come from Greco-Roman mythology.

 Earth’s Heat Budget

The balance of incoming and outgoing heat on Earth is referred to as its heat
budget. As with any budget, to maintain constant conditions the budget must be
balanced so that the incoming heat equals the outgoing heat.
It refers to the net flow of energy into Earth in the form of shortwave radiation
and the outgoing infrared long-wave radiation into space.  In case of their being
not balanced, Earth would become either warmer or cooler with the passage of
time.
This balance between incoming and outgoing heat is known as Earth’s heat
budget
Radiative Equilibrium
In other words, the heat budget at the top of the atmosphere must be in
balanced state which in turn, is called Radiative equilibrium. It is note –worthy
that the 29 percent of the solar energy that reaches the top of the atmosphere is
reflected back to space by clouds, atmospheric particles, or earth surfaces like sea
ice and snow.

How the Heat Budget is achieved?

Of all of the solar energy reaching the Earth, about 30% is reflected back
into space from the atmosphere, clouds, and surface of the Earth. Another 23% of
the energy is absorbed by the water vapor, clouds, and dust in the atmosphere,
where it is converted into heat. Just under half (47%) of the incoming solar
radiation is absorbed by the land and ocean, and this energy heats up the Earth’s
surface. The energy absorbed by the Earth returns to the atmosphere through
three processes; conduction, radiation, and latent heat (phase change).

Surface Radiation Budget

•Surface rock or soil partly reflects and partly absorbs incoming radiation
•Absorption leads to an increase in surface temperature
•Heat is lost to balance the SW input by LW radiation from the surface and
conduction into the ground and convection in the atmosphere.
•If the surface is damp then evaporation will lead to the removal of heat by
evaporation •Vegetation uses some of the incoming radiation for photosynthesis
•It has been estimated that around 5% of the incident solar radiation (12% of the
visible radiation) is used in producing biomass.
•The reflected radiation depends strongly on wavelength
•In the near IR leaves may reflect ~40% and absorb 60% of the available sunlight
•However, dense forests absorb 70%, reflect 17% and transmit to the soil 13% of
the available sunlight.
Variations in the Heat Budget Across the Globe
The calculated short and longwave energy budgets of the Earth-
atmosphere system averaged over time as a function of latitude.
But there is an interesting twist to this global distribution of heat. The
tropical regions actually receive more radiant heat than they emit, and the
poles emit more heat than they receive.  We should therefore expect that
the tropics will be getting continually warmer, while the poles become
increasingly cold. Yet this is not the case; so what is happening? Rather
than the heat remaining isolated near the equator, about 20% of the heat
from the tropics is transported to the poles before it is emitted. This large
scale transport of energy moderates the climates at both extremes.

Heat Storage
•Absorbed radiative energy in the atmosphere is transformed into sensible and
latent energy. •Over land this manifests as increases in temperature and/or
evaporation, the partitioning depends on available moisture and the ground
vegetation cover.
•In the tropics in summer the land warms relative to the ocean and hence
develops monsoon systems.
•Water is evaporated from the ocean surface, cooling the ocean.
•As water vapour and thus latent energy it can be transported considerable
distance before removal by precipitation, provided an efficient heat transport
mechanism.
• Increases in temperature cause an increase in the internal energy of the
atmosphere, casuing it to expand, changing its altitude and hence potential
energy. The combination of internal and potential energy can be expressed as
enthalpy or sensible heat.

Heat Transfer in the Ocean and Atmosphere

•Much of the heat transport polewards takes place by atmospheric circulation.

•However, a significant fraction, especially near the equator, where as we shall
see the Hadley Cell only weakly transfers heat polewards, takes place through the
surface waters of the ocean. •The ocean surface heat transport is largely by wind
blowing across the sea surface driving surface water currents
•The oceans are capable of storing heat for a wide range of time scales and
subsequently transporting it to other locations.
•The thermohaline circulation (see next lecture but one) can store heat for 1000s
of years.
•The strongest thermohaline circulation is in the Atlantic Ocean, whereas the
Pacific Ocean is much fresher and features shallower circulations.
•This is largely due to differences in salinity. The atmosphere transports water
vapour across the isthmus in central America from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
leaving the former saltier than the latter.

Remission of the energy absorbed by the earth

For the energy budget at Earth’s surface to balance,
processes on the ground must get rid of the 48 percent of
incoming solar energy that the ocean and land surfaces absorb.
Energy leaves the surface through three processes:

Conduction 
is the transfer of heat through direct contact between the surface
and the atmosphere. Air is a relatively poor thermal conductor (which means it
is a good insulator), so conduction represents only a small part of the energy
transfer between the Earth and the atmosphere; equal to about 7% of the
incoming solar energy.

Radiation
All bodies with a temperature above absolute zero (-273o C) radiate heat in the
form of longwave, infrared radiation. The warmed Earth is no exception, and
about 16% of the original solar energy is radiated from the Earth to the
atmosphere (Figure 8.1.1). Some of this radiated energy will dissipate into
space, but a significant amount of heat will be absorbed by the atmosphere.
This is the basis for the greenhouse effect
 In the greenhouse effect, shortwave solar radiation passes through
the atmosphere and reaches the Earth’s surface where it gets absorbed.
When the radiation is re-emitted by the Earth, it is now in the form of long
wavelength, infrared radiation, which does not easily pass through the
atmosphere. Instead, this infrared radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere,
particularly by the greenhouse gases such as CO2, methane, and water vapor. As a
result, the atmosphere heats up. Without the greenhouse effect, the average
temperature on Earth would be about -18o C, which is too cold for liquid water,
and therefore life as we know it could not exist!

Latent heat
The largest pathway for heat exchange between the land or oceans
and the atmosphere is latent heat transferred through phase changes; heat
released or absorbed when water moves between solid, liquid, and vapor
forms.Heat must be added to liquid water to make it evaporate, and when
water vapor is formed, that heat is removed from the ocean and transferred to
the atmosphere along with the water vapor. When water vapor condenses into
rain, that heat is then returned to the oceans. The same process happens with
the formation and melting of ice. Heat is absorbed by ice when it melts, and
heat is released when ice forms, and these phase changes transfer heat
between the oceans and the atmosphere.
To complete the heat budget, the heat that is absorbed by the
atmosphere either directly from solar radiation or as a result of conduction,
radiation and latent heat, is eventually radiated back into space.

Differential Heating of Earth’s Surface

If the Earth was a flat surface facing the sun, every part of that surface would
receive the same amount of incoming solar radiation. However, because the
Earth is a sphere, sunlight is not equally distributed over the Earth’s surface,
so different regions of Earth will be heated to different degrees. This
differential heating of Earth’s surface occurs for a number of reasons. First,
because of the curvature of Earth, sunlight only falls perpendicularly to the
surface at the center of the sphere (equatorial regions). At any other point on
Earth, the angle between the surface and the incoming solar radiation is less
than 90o. Because of this, the same amount of incoming solar radiation will be
concentrated in a smaller area at the equator, but will be spread over a much
larger area at the poles. Thus the tropics receive more intense sunlight and a
greater amount of heating per unit of area than the polar regions.
Because of the curvature of the Earth, the same amount of sunlight will be spread out over a
larger area at the poles compared to the equator. The equator therefore receives more intense
sunlight, and a greater amount of heat per unit of area (By Thebiologyprimer (Own work) [CC0],
via Wikimedia Commons).

Finally, the poles reflect more solar energy than other parts of the Earth
because the poles have a higher albedo. The albedo refers to reflectivity of a
surface. Lighter surfaces are more reflective than darker surfaces (which
absorb more energy), and therefore have a higher albedo. At the poles, the
ice, snow and cloud cover create a much higher albedo, and the poles reflect
more and absorb less solar energy than the lower latitudes. Through all of
these mechanisms, the poles absorb much less solar radiation than equatorial
regions, which is why the poles are cold and the tropics are very warm.

QUESTION: 02

PLATE TECTONIC THEORY

Plate tectonics, theory dealing with the dynamics of Earth’s outer
shell—the lithosphere—that revolutionized Earth sciences by providing a
uniform context for understanding mountain-building processes, volcanoes,
and earthquakes as well as the evolution of Earth’s surface and reconstructing its
past continents and oceans.
The concept of plate tectonics was formulated in the 1960s. According to
the theory, Earth has a rigid outer layer, known as the lithosphere, which is
typically about 100 km (60 miles) thick and overlies a plastic (moldable, partially
molten) layer called the asthenosphere. The lithosphere is broken up into seven
very large continental and ocean-sized plates, six or seven medium-sized regional
plates, and several small ones. These plates move relative to each other, typically
at rates of 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 inches) per year, and interact along their boundaries,
where they converge, diverge, or slip past one another. Such interactions are
thought to be responsible for most of Earth’s seismic and volcanic activity,
although earthquakes and volcanoes can occur in plate interiors. Plate motions
cause mountains to rise where plates push together, or converge,
and continents to fracture and oceans to form where plates pull apart, or diverge.
The continents are embedded in the plates and drift passively with them, which
over millions of years results in significant changes in Earth’s geography.

TECTONIC PLATES
Tectonic plates, large slabs of rock that divide Earth’s crust, move constantly
to reshape the Earth’s landscape. Movement of the plates over Earth’s surface
is termed plate tectonics. Plates move at a rate of a few centimeters a year,
about the same rate fingernails grow.
Tectonic plates are gigantic pieces of the Earth's crust and
uppermost mantle. They are made up of oceanic crust and continental
crust. Earthquakes occur around mid-ocean ridges and the large faults
which mark the edges of the plates.

The World Atlas names seven major plates: African, Antarctic, Eurasian,
Indo-Australian, North American, Pacific and South American.

California is located at the seam of the Pacific Plate, which is the world’s
largest plate at 39,768,522 square miles, and the Northern American plate.

Principles of plate tectonics

In essence, plate-tectonic theory is elegantly simple. Earth’s surface layer, 50 to
100 km (30 to 60 miles) thick, is rigid and is composed of a set of large and small
plates. Together, these plates constitute the lithosphere, from the Greek lithos,
meaning “rock.” The lithosphere rests on and slides over an underlying partially
molten (and thus weaker but generally denser) layer of plastic partially
molten rock known as the asthenosphere.
The process of plate tectonics may be driven by convection in Earth’s
mantle, the pull of heavy old pieces of crust into the mantle, or some combination
of both.

How Plates Move

1. Hot mantle from the two adjacent cells rises at the ridge axis, creating new
ocean crust.
2. The top limb of the convection cell moves horizontally away from the ridge
crest, as does the new seafloor.
3. The outer limbs of the convection cells plunge down into the deeper mantle,
dragging oceanic crust as well. This takes place at the deep sea trenches.
4. The material sinks to the core and moves horizontally.
5. The material heats up and reaches the zone where it rises again

. HOW MANY TECTONIC PLATES ARE THERE?

There are major, minor and micro tectonic plates. There are seven major
plates: African, Antarctic, Eurasian, Indo-Australian, North American, Pacific
and South American.

The Hawaiian Islands were created by the Pacific Plate, which is the world’s
largest plate at 39,768,522 square miles.

WHAT IS A TECTONIC PLATE BOUNDARY?

A tectonic plate boundary is the border between two plates. The tectonic
plates slowly and constantly move but in many different directions. Some
are moving toward each other, some are moving apart, and some are
grinding past each other. Tectonic plate boundaries are grouped into three
main types based on the different movements.
Lithospheric plates are much thicker than oceanic or continental
crust. Their boundaries do not usually coincide with those
between oceans and continents, and their behaviour is only partly influenced by
whether they carry oceans, continents, or both. The Pacific Plate, for example, is
entirely oceanic, whereas the North American Plate is capped by continental crust
in the west (the North American continent) and by oceanic crust in the east and
extends under the Atlantic Ocean as far as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES

The study of plate boundaries and their motion is like figuring out a constantly
moving jigsaw puzzle. Understanding the types of plate boundaries is vital to
understanding the Earth’s history.
Divergent plate boundaries: the two plates move away from each other.
Convergent plate boundaries: the two plates move towards each other.
Transform plate boundaries: the two plates slip past each other.

Divergent Plate Boundaries

Plates move apart at mid-ocean ridges where new crust forms. Between
the two plates is a rift valley.
As plates move apart at a divergent plate boundary, the release of pressure
produces partial melting of the underlying mantle. This molten material, known
as magma, is basaltic in composition and is buoyant. As a result, it wells up from
below and cools close to the surface to generate new crust. Because new crust is
formed, divergent margins are also called constructive margins.
Convergent Plate Boundaries
At subduction zones, a convergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates
push together.
Given that Earth is constant in volume, the continuous formation of Earth’s
new crust produces an excess that must be balanced by destruction of crust
elsewhere. This is accomplished at convergent plate boundaries, also known as
destructive plate boundaries, where one plate descends at an angle—that is, is
subducted—beneath the other.
When two plates converge, the result depends on the type of lithosphere the
plates are made of. No matter what, smashing two enormous slabs of lithosphere
together results in magma generation and earthquakes.

Ocean-Continental collision
When oceanic crust converges with continental crust, the denser oceanic plate
plunges beneath the continental plate. This process, called subduction, occurs at
the oceanic trenches

 Subduction of an oceanic plate beneath a continental plate causes earthquakes and forms a line of volcanoes
known as a continental arc.

Ocean-Oceanic collision
When two oceanic plates converge, the older, denser plate will subduct into the
mantle. An ocean trench marks the location where the plate is pushed down into
the mantle. The line of volcanoes that grows on the upper oceanic plate is
an island arc. Do you think earthquakes are common in these regions.

. (a) Subduction of an ocean plate beneath an ocean plate results in a volcanic island arc, an ocean trench and
many earthquakes. (b) Japan is an arc-shaped island arc composed of volcanoes off the Asian mainland, as
seen in this satellite image.

Continent-Continental collision
Continental plates are too buoyant to subduct. What happens to continental
material when it collides? Since it has nowhere to go but up, this creates some of
the world’s largest mountains ranges. Magma cannot penetrate this thick crust so
there are no volcanoes, although the magma stays in the crust. Metamorphic
rocks are common because of the stress the continental crust experiences. With
enormous slabs of crust smashing together, continent-continent collisions bring
on numerous and large earthquakes.

. (a) In continent-continent convergence, the plates push upward to create a high mountain range. (b) The world’s
highest mountains, the Himalayas, are the result of the collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate, seen in this
photo from the International Space Station.

Transform Plate Boundaries

Transform plate boundaries are seen as transform faults, where two
plates move past each other in opposite directions. Transform faults on
continents bring massive earthquakes
California is very geologically active. What are the three major plate boundaries in
or near California?
A transform plate boundary between the Pacific and North American plates
creates the San Andreas Fault, the world’s most notorious transform fault.
Just offshore, a divergent plate boundary, Juan de Fuca ridge, creates the Juan de
Fuca plate.
A convergent plate boundary between the Juan de Fuca oceanic plate and the
North American continental plate creates the Cascades volcanoes.
 This map shows the three major plate boundaries in or near California.
LABELLED DIAGRAM WITH PLATE BOUNDERIES