O LEVEL GEOGRAPHY NOTES

Def.: Are the study of earth and its environment and how men interact with the
environment.
Environment
Def.: Are our surroundings which include vegetation, mountains, rivers etc.
Branches of geography
1 physical geography
2 economic geography
3 human geography
4 political geography
Weather and climate
Weather
Refers to the atmosphere conditions of any place for a short period of time
Climate
Is a typical weather conditions recorded over long period of time example 20 to
30 years.
Weather elements Instruments
Atmosphere temperature Six’s thermometer
pressure Barometer
Wind direction Wind vane
humidity Hygrometer
rainfall Rain gauge
sunshine Sun shine
wind speed Cup anemometer
visibility observation

Temperature and the structure of earth’s atmosphere

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  The atmosphere extends for about 1000km from the earth’s surface, only
the atmosphere up to a height of 80km will be studied.
 Within this height, the atmosphere can be divided into three main layers
the troposphere and the stratosphere and the mesosphere
 These layers are separated by boundary zones known as pause
Troposphere
 Is the lowest layer and it affects people everyday
 The troposphere is the layer most commonly referred as the atmosphere
 This layer extends up to 8kms at the poles and to about 16kms along the
equator.
 This layers or zone is made up of gases (example nitrogen, oxygen and
carbon dioxide) smoke, dust and all the water vapour in the atmosphere.
 In this zone, temperature decrease with height at a uniform rate of about
6, 5 degrees per every 1000m
 This rate of decrease is called environmental lapse rate
2 stratospheres
 It extend from the tropopause to a height of about 50 km
 Clouds do not occur in this zone and temperature has the highest
concentration of ozone gas which is the gas that absorbs the dangerous
ultra violet radiation from the sun
3 mesosphere
 It extends to about 80kms
 In this zone temperature decrease with height
 Above the mesosphere there is a boundary called the menopause
 The zone above the menopause is called the thermosphere which extends
high into space and temperature increase with height
The heating of the atmosphere and heat transfer in atmosphere
 The sun is the main source of the heat energy in the earth atmosphere
system
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  The heat from the sun is called solar radiation or insolation
This radiation consists of ‘short wavelength ‘forms of energy
 X-rays and gamma rays are absorbed by the thermosphere and therefore
do not reach the earth’s surface
 Ultraviolet rays are absorbed by the mesosphere and stratosphere. The
very important gas responsible for ultraviolet absorption is ozone
 Some of the short-wave radiation is reflected back to space by clouds and
the lighter areas of the earth such as ice-covered continents and oceans
 The remaining amount of solar radiation after the above losses, which are
estimated to be 45% of the initial 100% entering the upper atmosphere
from the sun, is absorbed by earth surface.
 When the earth’s surface has sufficiently absorbed the solar radiation, it
begins to give out its own form of radiation which is called terrestrial
(earth) radiation
 This radiation from the earth as opposed to solar radiation consist of long
wavelengths
 It is this Terre striation radiation that tropospheric gases (examples carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen and water vapour) can now absorb
 The main reason why temperature decrease with height in the
troposphere, explaining the adage” the higher you go the cooler it
becomes”
 When the tropospheric gases have sufficiently absorbed the terrestrial
radiation, they in turn begin to re-radiate in all directions
 However, most of this radiation comes back to the earth
 This ability by the troposphere to prevent heat escaping to space by
retaining it within the earth-troposphere system is what is called the
“greenhouse effects”
 This is an analogy to an agriculture greenhouse which allows the sun’s
heat to escape
 If it was not for this ability of tropospheric gases to retain heat, then the
average surface temperature of the earth would have been -40 degrees
Celsius making life impossible

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  The transfer of energy from the sun to the earth from the earth to the
atmosphere and from the atmosphere back to the earth leaves the earth
with a surplus
To balance this excess the earth transfers heat to the atmosphere once again,
this time not by radiation but by these three mechanisms:
 Conduction
 Convection
 Latent heat of vaporization
Conduction
 Is when heat is passed along by touching particles.
 Heat is passed to layers of air that are in contact with the ground
 These layers pass on the heat to subsequent layers with which they are in
conductors
 An example of good conductors of heat is an iron rod whereas a piece of
wood is an example of a poor conductor
 A person holding an iron rod in a fine will feel heat faster than a person
holding a piece of wood in the same fire
Convection
 Is when the transfer of heat by air currents in a gas or liquid.
 When the earth heats the air immediately above it by conduction the air
becomes lighter in weight and rises into the atmosphere the surrounding
air.

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Latent heat of vaporisation
 Is heat that is taken up by water particles when they changes from liquid
to gas in the process of evaporation
 This heat comes from the water body (the earth’s surface) and is released
into the atmosphere
 The water vapour then condenses which is how clouds, fog and mist are
formed
Horizontal temperature distribution and the factors that affect it
 The heating of the atmosphere varies from place to place and is governed
by the ways in which different surface react to incoming radiation
 The earth is no flat it is a sphere made up of mountains and valleys
 Its consists of the land and sea
 The concentrations of dust, water vapour and clouds and the movement
of wind also vary from place to place.

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The factors that affect temperature are:
 Latitude
 Altitude
 Nature of land and sea
 Aspect
 Length of day and night
 Oceans currents
 Clouds cover
 Winds

Latitude
 Latitudinal location refers to the location of a place either north or south
of the equator
 The latitudinal location of a place determines the angles of the sun’s rays
(sun’s altitude)
 The equator is at 0 degrees latitude and therefore the angles of the
incident ray from the sun is almost 90 degrees
 This means that the sun heats the surface more effectively. However, the
further a place is from the equator or the higher the latitude, the lower
the heating effects
 Also the heating effect is reduced for high latitude areas because the sun's
rays now pass through a longer distance in the atmosphere and therefore
there is greater solar radiation loss by absorption scattering and reflection.
Diagram

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  The sun's rays that heat the of the equator only have to pass through a
small distance in the atmosphere marked B
 Also on reaching the earth the sun's rays are concentrated on a smaller
area around the equator compared to at the poles
 This explains the decrease in temperature as one moves away from the
equator marked A
 This factor accounts for the permanent cold poles and the constantly hot
equatorial area
Altitude

 It is how high place is above sea level

 The height is determined using the sea level which is regarded as 0metres
 It can be said that generally low-lying area are warm or hot, while
mountains or plateau are cool or cold.

Diagram

 The altitude factors explain why there is snow on top of Mount Kilimanjaro
and Mount Kenya, despite the fact that they are located near equator.

Nature of the land and sea

 The land and sea differ in ability to absorb and radiate heat energy.
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  The land heats up quickly and also loses heat quickly
 The sea takes time to heat up and also takes time to lose heat
 The difference are mainly due to the fact that on land heat is transferred
by conduction and also that. Land surface are poor conductors of heat.
 As a result, the land is heated to very shallow depths-only 1metre each
day.
 The sea can absorb heat down to depths ranging from between 8metres
and 10 metres and the heat is transferred through convection currents.
 Therefore seas heat up slowly and lose heat slowly and the land warmer
than the sea during the day.at night the land loses heat quickly, while the
sea loses heat slowly and is therefore warmer than the land.
Aspect
 It is directly linked to the slope of the land and the angle of the sun's rays
as they strike the surface
 This relationship is linked to the latitudinal location of the slope.
 Since sun is nearly away overhead at the equator in southern hemisphere
particularly south of the tropic of Capricorn, north-facing slopes receives
more solar radiation than the south-facing slopes
Diagram

Length of day and night

 During the summer solstices (June) the sun is above the tropic of cancer
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 and the northern hemisphere areas experience more hours of sunshine
and fewer hours of darkness.
 This gives rise to high temperature in these areas.
 Meanwhile, in the southern hemisphere there are more night hours and.
shorter days/hours.
 This gives rise to lower temperature in countries in the south even though
they may be at the same latitude distance from the equator as their
northern hemisphere counterparts
 During. the winter solstice(December)the sun is directly above the tropic
of Capricorn and the southern hemisphere areas now experience more
hours of sunshine and fewer hours of darkness, giving rise to higher
average temperature for the south

Oceans currents

 Oceans currents are streams of either warm or cold waters in the oceans
 The warm currents flow from the equator towards the poles and cold
currents flows from the poles towards the equator
 The cold currents are found on the western sides of continents and the
warm currents are on the eastern sides of the continent.
 Air blowing over the warm currents will bring warmer condition to coastal
areas and air blowing over the cold currents will bring cool condition to
coastal area

Diagram

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Cloud cover
 Cloud tend to reduce the amount of solar radiation reaching the earth's
surface through reflection and absorption
 They also trap out-going radiation from the earth
 When there are no clouds, temperature are very high during the day and
low at night.
 The opposite is true when there are clouds.
Winds
 Winds is air in motion
 Winds help distribute the temperature. Wind is caused by differences in
air density due to difference in air temperature.
 As a general rule, winds that blow from warm places have a warming
effect and winds from cold places have a cooling influence
 As a result, winds that blow from the tropics towards the sub-tropical
areas e.g. the north-easterlies towards the Zimbabwe, will usually be
warm while winds that blow from the sub-tropical cold regions towards
the equator
Measuring and recording temperature
 Temperature is measured with an instrument called a thermometer
 A thermometer that can measure maximum and minimum air
temperature over time is called maximum and minimum thermometer or
six's thermometer
 These measurements are used to work the following temperature:
1 average or the mean temperature
 The mean daily temperature is calculated by simply adding the maximum
and the minimum temperature and then dividing the total by two
= maximum temperature + minimum temperature÷2
2temperature range
 Is the difference between the maximum and the minimum temperature.
 The range for a day is also called daily or diurnal temperature range
3 mean monthly temperature
=sum of daily mean temperature for the month/number of days in the month
4 the mean annual temperature
=sum of monthly mean temperature for the year÷12
Diagram of a six's thermometer

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Atmospheric pressure.
 Air has weight, and it therefore exerts pressure on the earth's surface.
 The pressure decreases with height because of the reduce column of air
above a given point
Diagram

 Person A on top of the mountain experiences less pressure than person B

because A is carrying a smaller column of the atmosphere than B.
 Pressure decrease with height and as a result low pressure on very high
mountains.
NB pressure is measured using an instrument called a barometer
The pressure readings are then marked onto maps and linked with isobar.

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Isobar are lines that join areas with the same pressure
Pressure is proportional to the density or weight of the air, and the density of the
air is directly related to the temperature of the air.
NB a cold mass of air is dense or heavy and will therefore sink and exert more
pressure on a surface causing high pressure
 A warm air mass is light or less dense and therefore less pressure will be
exerted on a given surface.
Diagram

 Areas of low pressure are associated with rising air and areas of high
pressure are associated with cold, descending air.
 The relationship between pressure and temperature on the diagram above
Pressure distribution on the earth
 Temperature is the main factor that demines the distribution of pressure
either locally or on a global scale
 On a global scale, the equatorial area, theoretically will form a low-
pressure belt associated with the high temperatures and the rising air.
 The poles would, on the other hand, form high-pressure area associated
with the cold, sinking.
Diagram

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  When air rises, it is replaced by inflowing air
 The rising air expands and cools and become dense and therefore sinks,
forming a downward flow opposite the rising flow.
 The sinking air reaches the earth's surface and spreads out.
 The other factor that influences pressure, beside temperature is air
movement.
 Air moving out of the poles destined for the equator, gradually finds itself
occupying more and more space as it crosses larger and larger area
 As it finds more space, it expands (increase in volume)
 This expansion reduces the density of the air and results in low pressure
that is well develop at 60Degrees north and south of the equator.
 These two pressure belts are called the temperature low-pressure belts.
 In the same ways, air rising at the equator spread out towards the poles.
 Since the equator has the largest surface area of the earth, air moving out
of it gradually finds itself occupy less and less space.
 The air therefore contracts (decrease in volume) resulting in an increase in
pressure in density which translates to an increase in pressure
 This produce two high pressure belts at 30 degrees north and south of the
equator.
Diagram

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  The equatorial low-pressure belt (caused by the high temperature).this
belt is accompanied by a surface convergence of air followed by vertical
ascendance of the air and high-level divergence by the rising air. This area
of low pressure along the equator is known as the doldrums
 The two polar high-pressure belts (caused by the low temperature): these
two belts are accompanied by high-level convergence of air, followed by
vertical descent of the air and surface divergence by the sinking air.
Diagram

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  The two temperate low-pressure belts (caused by air movement): these
two belts are accompanied by surface convergence of air followed by
vertical ascendance of the converging air and high level divergence by the
rising air
 The two subtropical high pressure belts (caused by air movements): these
two belts are accompanied by high-level convergence of air, followed by
vertical descent of the air and surface divergence by the sinking air.
Wind systems and factors affecting them
 Wind is caused by differences in air density due to difference in air
temperature.
 Wind blows from area of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
 In a pressure cells, winds will blows inwards an area of low pressure and
outward in an area of high pressure
Diagram

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  In real life the earth rotates from west to east and because of this wind
direction is diverted to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left
in the southern hemisphere as shown by the broken arrow.
 These deflection in wind direction according to hemisphere are explained
by Ferrell’s (William Ferrell).
 The force that deflects the wind is called the Coriolis force.
 Therefore the rotation of the earth is responsible for the main wind
patterns of the globe.
 The resultant wind pattern shown is known as the planetary wind system,
since the whole of planet earth is affected by Ferrell’s law of deflection
which is caused by the Coriolis force.

Diagram

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  If a pressure cell is considered the illustrated wind pattern can be
observed.
Diagram

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  In the northern hemisphere, in a low low-pressure cell winds blows inward
as shown by the unbroken arrows
 However, due to rotation, winds will be deflection to the right resulting in
the wind blowing in a generally anticlockwise direction (A).
 In a high-pressure cell in the northern hemisphere, the winds are
deflected to the right as they blow outwards and the resultant general
wind pattern is a clockwise direction around a high-pressure as in cell(B).

Wind measurement and recording

 Wind direction is measured by a wind vane and wind speed is measured
by an anemometer.
 The win speed is classified using a beau fort scale
Diagram of a wind vane

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Diagram of a cup anometer

Table

Beaufort no Wind type Speed km/hr knots Observed

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 effects of wind
0 calm 0 0 Smokes rises
vertically
1 Light air 3 2 Direction
shown by
smoke but not
by wind vane
2 Light breeze 9 5 Wind felt on
face,leaves
more
3 Gentle breeze 16 10 Leaves and
small twigs in
constant ss
4 Moderate 24 15
breeze
5 Fresh breeze 34 20
6 Strong breeze 44 25

Wind rose
 Information on wind speed and direction is represented on a wind rose.
 The wind rose shows the percentage of time for which the wind blows
from different directions at various speeds.
 The wind rose shows wind conditions for a specific period such as a day,
week, a month or one whole year
 The wind rose has either a hexagonal or circular Centre
 For hexagonal Centre, each side represents a cardinal compass point. For
the circular center wind direction are grouped under given bearing
intervals.
Diagram of wind rose

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Sea and land breeze
Sea breeze

 Happen during the day when cool air from the sea blows toward the lands
 During the day, the land heats up quickly, heating the air above it and
creating an area of low pressure
 On the other, the sea is cools the air above it creating an area of high
pressure.

Land breeze

 Takes place at night when cool air from the land blows toward the sea.
 The breeze forms because land loses heat quickly and therefore cools the
air above it to create an areas of high pressure.
 It will be warmer over the sea because winter loses heat slowly, creating
an area of low pressure.
Diagram

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Problems and opportunities caused by local winds
 relief from dry and humid condition
 warm condition
 snow-melt induced floods and landslide
 snow thawing
 moist conditions
 gusty cold wind
 dusty dry wind
 frost
Water vapour in the atmosphere

 Water is presented in the atmosphere as an invisible gas, or it can be

found as water droplets or even as ice or snow
 The invisible gaseous state of the water is called vapour
 The vapour content of the atmosphere is called humidity
 Temperature determine the amount of water vapour in the air or what the
atmosphere can hold
 There is a limit to the amount of moisture that the air can hold at any
given temperature
 When this limits is reached the air is said to be saturated.
NB The exact amount of water vapour that a given volume of air contains is
called absolute humidity

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  Absolute humidity is usually the highest around the equator and decrease
towards the poles.
NB The most important aspect of water vapour is the ratio between the actual or
a the absolute humidity of a given mass of air and the maximum amount of
water vapour that this air can hold at the same time(relative humidity)

Measuring humidity

 The instrument used to measure relative humidity is called a hygrometer

Diagram of hygrometer

How hygrometer works

 The ordinary thermometer are used to measure the humidity and both are
kept in the Stevenson screen.
 The bulb of one thermometer is wrapped in thin muslin which dips into a
small bath containing water thereby keeping the muslin moist.
 If the air is not saturated, water evaporated from the muslin and this cools

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 the bulb of the thermometer causing, its mercury to contract.
 The bulb of dry bulb thermometer is not affected in the same way and so
the two thermometers shown different reading that the wet bulb
thermometer shown a lower reading.
 The difference between the readings is to calculate the relative humidity
by using a set of table.
 If the air is saturated, then there is no evaporation and both thermometer
show the same reading.

Clouds
 When air cooled below the dew point temperature condensation takes
place, resulting in the formation of clouds.
 Clouds are tiny droplets of water or tiny ice crystal’s that float in the air.

Types of clouds

 Clouds are classified according appearance, from and height of their bases
.
Table

 Cirr means high

 Alto means medium0
 Cumulu means heap of cloud
 Strata means layered cloud

1 Cirrus clouds
 Tiny ice crystals
 Whites, wispy and features-likes
 Very high clouds

2stratus clouds

 Grey and layered

3 cumulus clouds

 White cotton wool-like cloud

 Massive or heaped
 Globular in shape

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4 nimbostratus

 Rain-bearing clouds that are dark in colour.

 Produce continuous rain and dull weather conditions

5 cumulonimbus

 Are clouds of great vertical extent

 Are white at the top and grey in the lower sections
 Summits that can be called anvil heads
 Heavy rains, lightning and thunder.

Diagram for the appearance of common clouds types

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Rain formation
 Rain refers to large drops of water that fall form clouds.
 It follows that rain is formed as a results of condensation and cloud
formation.
 Clouds are made up of tiny droplets of water floating in the air.
 If these small droplets join together or coalesce they form larger drops
 The drops then fall to the ground as rain due to gravity.
 Some clouds are made up of tiny ice crystal and these crystals will join to
form large crystals, which then fall to the ground as hail or the ice crystal
will melt as they fall to the ground becoming rain.

Main stages/processes common in all rainfall types

1 rising (due to either light air rising over colder air, heating air rising, or air
forced up a mountain or barrier)
2expanding (results from reduced pressure exerted on the rising air parcel)
3 cooling (due to air occupying a larger area and using heat energy to expand
outward.)
4 condensation and clouds formation (suspended water droplets)
5coalescence (large droplets formed by smaller ones joining)
6 rainfall (large drops fall through the air to the ground as rain, which can
overcome up draughts in the air.
Rainfall types

1convectional rainfall

 Is initiated by the sun heating the ground.

 The hot ground surface heats the moist air above it.
 The heated air becomes lighter, rises, expand and then cools
 As it keeps on rising, it is cooled to below dew point temperature, which
results in condensation of the water vapour in the air.
 At ground level, cool air from the surrounding area moves in to replace the
rising air, filling up the partial vacuum created.
 At upper levels, the cooled air also descends, thereby completing the
convectional currents.

Diagram

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Relief or orographic rainfall
 This type of rain occurs a as result of warm moisture air being forced to
rise over a physical barrier such as mountain or a high ground.
 As the air rises, it expands cools and then the moisture in it condenses and
rain is formed.
 Most of the rain falls on the windward side of the mountain where the
wind first moves upslope.
 As the air descends on the leeward side it undergoes compression and
heats up and therefore no rain is formed.
 The leeward side, it undergoes compression and heats up and therefore
no rains formed
 The leeward side is said to be in the rain shadow
Diagram

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2Frontal or cyclonic rain fall

 This occurs in the temperature regions where warm tropical air masses
meet cold polar masses forming a front.
 The formation of front is covered in the section that cover the formation
of depression (depression rain)
 Two types of front are formed in a temperature depression and these are
the warm front and the cold front.
 In a warm front, warm air gradually rises over cold dense air.
 As the warm air rises, it expand and cool and then the moisture condense,
resulting in the formation of rain

Diagram

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Air masses and related weather system
Origin of air masses
 An air mass is a large body of air with distinctive characteristic of
temperature and humidity
 It is fairly uniform or homogeneous horizontally and covers large areas.
 As air masses move, they can sometimes collide.
 If air masses with different characteristic collide, they do not mix freely
with each other but form a sloping boundary surface between them

NB the boundary formed is called front.

1warm front

 Occur when two air masses collide, the lighter or less dense warmer air
tends to rise up over the dense cold air
Diagram

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2cold front
 Occur when cold dense air force itself under a mass of warmer air thus
pushing it.
Diagram

 Air masses are caused by air that rests undisturbed for a long time, upon
either land or water surface that have uniform temperature and humidity.

Types of air masses

 Using the temperature and humidity characteristic of the source regions,

air masses have generally been classified into four main categories.
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1polar continental (PC) air masses

 These originate from cold continental masses of the higher latitudes.

 The air masses are cold and dry since they are from the land
2polar maritime (Pm) air masses

 These are formed over cold seas in the high latitudes

 The air masses are cool and moist.

3tropical continental (Tc) air masses

 These originate from land in the tropics, especially in deserts

 The air masses are hot or warm and very dry.
4tropical maritime(Tm) air masses

 These form over oceans in the tropics

 The air masses are warm and moist

5artic or Antarctic air masses

6equatorial maritime and continental air masses

7stable or unstable air masses

Pressure wind air masses and weather

 The inter-relationship between pressure winds, air masses and

temperature results in some typical weather pattern.
 These resultant weather patterns are anticyclone, depression (temperate
cyclones) and tropical cyclones.

Anticyclones

 Is an area of high pressure that is associated with a descending cold air

masses.
 The winds tend to blow outwards from the Centre but due to the rotation
of earth they blow in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere
and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere.

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  Anticyclone are generally associated with calm condition low wind speed,
low temperature, high pressure and clear skiers.

Depression (temperate cyclones)

 Is an area of low pressure in the temperate area associated with the

collision of polar air masses and tropical air masses around the 40degrees
to 60 degrees latitude north or south of the equator which results in the
creation of fronts
 The winds moves in a general clockwise direction in the southern
hemisphere and in an antilock in direction the northern hemisphere.

Characteristic of depression

 Warm and cold front

Formation of depression

 Depression are created as a result of friction between the cold polar air
mass and the warm tropical air masses.
Stage1

 There is state of balance and so we have an undisturbed polar front.

Stage2

 With time, bulge or wave is created and pressure drops at the top of the
wave.
Stage3

 The low pressure so formed is characterized by chosen system of isobar

and since the system is found in the southern hemisphere, a clockwise
circulation of winds blowing around the Centre of the system.
 Once matured, the whole system begins to move from west to east
 At this stage, clear front are created.
Diagram

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Occluded front

 Occur when the cold front catches up with the warm front and cold air
force the warm air up
 It is associated with dull weather which bring cold weather and continuous
rainfall due to the combination of cumulonimbus and nimbostratus clouds.

Diagram

Tropical cyclone

 Are extreme low pressure system that form in tropical latitudes.

 They form over oceans with high temperature of about 27 degrees
celcius.The tropical cyclone are known by various local name (hurricane,
typhoons, cyclone, Willy willies).
 They are associated with strong winds that spiral towards the centres in an
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 anticlockwise direction in southern hemisphere.

Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

 Occur when different air masses meet and form fronts as already describe,
air masses that meets in tropical regions have the same characteristics
 ITCZ follow the apparent path of sun in Africa
 The seasonal changes are vividly evident over land but remain subtle over
the oceans.
 This is because the land quickly responds to high insolation levels by
producing high temperature ideals conditions for ITCZ location.

Diagram

July

January

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  In January, the position of the ITCZ and the intense low pressure over
Centre Africa make the ITCZ a destination on North West monsoons
(Congo air) north easterlies and the prevailing "traditional" south
easterlies.
 Weather conditions associated with the ITCZ
 The direct sun causes very high temperature
 Excessive heating by the sun causes an intense low-pressure belt.
 Northwester lies and south-easterlies converge. These are very moist air
masses and therefore the relative humidity value are very high.
 Upon arrival, the moist air masses rise conventionally creating towering
cumulonimbus clouds.
 Heavy rains result from the towering clouds.
 Diurnal temperature ranges are low due to the greenhouse effect of the
clouds.
 The recording of weather information
 Model weather station recorded.
Diagram

35
Diagram

The circle is used to show cloud cover or amount

Wind speed and direction are shown by an arrow attached to the circle.
The direction is shown by the position of the arrow in relation to the north and
south directions.
36
The wind speed is shown by features attached to the arrow.

Diagram

Weather forecasting

 Is the prediction of future weather conditions for an area on the basis of

current and past weather attributes or phenomena.

Importance of weather forecasting

 People want to know what the weather will be like next day
 People want to know what to wear.
 Farmer would want to know whether or not there is going to be frost rain
and drought.
 Pilots would want to know the weather condition for taking off and
landing.
 People and weather
 People makes an effort to try and changes the weather for their own
benefit and sometimes people bring about changes in the weather
unintentionally.
 Direct changes
 Farmer use heat from gas stoves or electrical heaters to prevent the
occurrence of frost.

37
  Aviation workers use heaters to disperse, fog and mist for better visibility
as planes land and take off
 People use cloud seeding to trigger rain by spraying condensation nuclei
into clouds.
 People use clouds dispersants, such as silver iodide to reduce the intensity
of rain storms.

Indirect changes

 Concrete and glass buildings absorbs and trap heat, causing an increase in
temperature especially i urban area.
 Smokes and gases produced by industry cause a greenhouse effect as they
trap outgoing long-wave radiation, thereby leading to high temperatures
in the troposphere.
 Heat is released by machinery and power stations in urban centres and by
domestic use and central heating systems
 Pollutants are released into the air from dust during farming and from
industries, which then act as condensation nuclei to increase the chance
of rain and fog.
 The use of chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) destroys the ozone layers, which
results in increased temperature.
 The removal of vegetation creates bare surface with a high albedo, which
lead to increased cooling of the areas.
 Vegetated areas increase atmospheric humidity through
evapotranspiration.
 Water bodies, like lake induced localized land and sea breezes and
frequent fog and rain in the surrounding area
 Wind velocity is reduced due to the construction of buidings,which act as
wind breaks
 High-rise buildings can induce orographic uplift, which results in rain.

Climate

 Refers to the state of the atmosphere in a particular area over a long

period of time
 The element of climate and weather are the same but the climatic values
represent the average of the daily readings of each specific element for a
period of more than 35 years.

Climatic type.
38
  Climates can be divided into three broad group: tropical, temperate and
polar climates.

1Equatorial (hot, humid, tropical climate.

Location.

 This climate zone lies approximately between 5 degrees north and 5

degrees south of the equator
 Some of the area with this type of climate includes the Congo Basin, the
southern coastal areas of West Africa and the Amazon.

Characteristics

 There is little or no seasonal variation in the climatic condition.

 Temperature are uniformly high throughout the year ranging between 26
degrees Celsius and 28 degrees Celsius.
 The diurnal and annual ranges of temperature are very small, ranging
between 1 degrees Celsius and 3 degrees Celsius or both annual and
diurnal.
 Humidity is high 90%
 The rainfall is heavy and associated with the ITCZ.

Diagram

39
Opportunities presented by the Equatorial climate.

 The climate encourage growth of hard woods a source of timber and

logging activities.
 Rubber plantations are common in these regions
 Rivers always flow so opportunities for HEP production and navigation
exist.
 This climate is a leaching source of biodiversity in animal and plants, some
of which are used for medicines.
Problems posed by equatorial climate

 The enervating climate causes stuffiness and tiredness associated with

high humidity and temperature.
 Many pest and diseases thrive in this climate
 Accessibility problems exist, due to thick forest, muddy roads and
constantly wash-always.
 Soils are easily leached and eroded. The soils retain fertility under natural
condition due to rapid recycling of nutrients. If the forests are destroyed
problems of infertility, erosion and secondary bush.
2 Tropical maritime (eastern margins)

Location

 The tropical marine climate is located approximately between 10 degrees

and 25 degrees north and south of the Equator on the eastern parts of the
continents.
 The main areas with this this type of climate include Madagascar.
Characteristic

 The climate features are similar to the equatorial climate, in the

temperature and rainfall are fairly high and uniform throughout the year.
 There is rain throughout the year, mostly as a result of trade winds
blowing over warm currents
 Temperature are high throughout the year but modified by the effects of
ever-present sea breezes.

3 tropical continental or seasonally humid tropics (savannah)

Location

40
  This zones lies approximately between 15 degrees and 22 degrees north
and south of the Equator and the tropics
 Examples: Sudan and most of central Africa, Brazilian Plateau, India

Characteristic

 Temperature are high throughout the year(25 degrees) but cooler in

winter (17 degrees)
 The temperature range averages 8 degrees.
 Rainfall in summer (920mm)and the movement of the ITCZ
 The weather is dry, windy and dusty in the winter and hot, humid and
calm in summer.

Diagram

4 Mediterranean (warm temperate western margin climate)

Location
 This type of climate is found on the western side of the continent
approximately 30 degrees to 40 degrees north and south of the Equator.
 Examples Cape Province California, Chile
Characteristics
 There marked summer and winter seasons.
 Winter are wet as a result of cyclonic storms and summers are dry due to
anticyclone condition and associated offshore winds.
 There sunny conditions especially in summer
 The annual temperature range is large ranging between 10 degrees Celsius
and 15 degrees Celsius.
 The rains are, on average, low about 400mm to 600mmm
Graph

41
5 warm temperature eastern margin

Location

 This is a humid, subtropical type of climate, found on the eastern

continental margins.
 It occurs in latitudes 20 degrees to 35 degrees north and south of the
equator.
 In Africa, it is found in the south-eastern part of South Africa in KwaZulu-
Natal.

Characteristics

 Summer are long hot (27 degree) and humid and winters are cold (18
degrees) but there are great variations due to the influence of tropical air
masses.
 There is rain throughout the year although it occurs mostly in summer.
 The annual rainfall is about 1000mm.

Diagram

42
6 hot desert

Location

 Deserts are located between 15 degrees and 35 degrees north and south
of the equator in the interior of continents and the west coast.
 Examples Sahara, Kalahari, Namib, Thor Arabia

Characteristics

 Rainfall is low about 250mm annually.

 There are very high temperature during the day averaging about 30
degrees Celsius and very low temperature during the night about 10
degrees Celsius.
 There are clear skies and low humidity.
 Windy condition occur.
 Anticyclone conditions occur as the area fall along the horse latitude.
 Evaporation rate are high due to high daytime temperature.

Graph

7 temperate deserts

Location

 These deserts are located in the mid-latitudes which is 25 degrees and 40

degrees north and south of the equator
 They are located in the interior of continents example Asia, Patagonia.

Characteristics.

43
  High temperature of about 31 degrees Celsius occur in the summer and
winters are very cold with temperature of below -10 degrees Celsius being
recorded.
 The temperature range is very high (over 32 degrees Celsius).
 Rainfall is very low about 110mm and snow falls in the winter.

8 temperature continental

Location

 The temperature continental is also known as the warm continental

climate.
 It is found 30 degrees to 50 degrees north and south of the equator.
 Examples Highveld of South Africa, northern America.

Characteristic

 There are seasons

 It is very cold in winter(-3 degrees) and frost may occur
 In suumer,the days may be hot(22 degrees)
 There is low rainfall, ranging between 500mm and 1000mm
 The summer is very short.

9 tundra (cold desert)

Location

 Cold desert are found along polar margins

 They occur along the Artic Sea in North America.

Characteristics

 Cold desert have long winter nights and lack any warm season.
 Temperature range between -29 degrees Celsius and -40 degrees Celsius
in winter
 Sun does not rise above the horizon for weeks.
 Summers are short and cool, with a maximum temperature of 10 degrees
Celsius and the sun remain above the horizon for several weeks.
 Snow cools the ground for nearly six month.

44
10 mountains or mountain climate

 Many mountain tend to have peculiar climatic conditions.

 These high are have varying climatic elements that change quickly with
height.

Characteristics

 Pressure and temperature are low due to the high altitude

 Rainfall increase and then degrees with altitude due to the effect of
leeward and rain shadow areas.
 The conditions are always cool and diurnal temperature range is small.
 There are local winds that blow up the valley (anabatic) during the day
and down the slope (katabatic) during the night.

Climatic type of Africa

Diagram

Weather hazard

45
1tropical cyclone

Effects

 They are accompanied by strong winds that can destroys buildings,

commucation lines and crops.
 High rain can cause heavy flood.
 People die from flooding, falling building damaged cars and lack of shelter
as well as exposure to adverse weather elements.
 People are also killed by lighting during the heavy thunderstorms.
 In mountainous areas, heavy rains can cause landslide and bury
settlement under mudslide.
 It destroy crops field, animals and food reserves, leading to people dying
from lack of food.
 It cause the government and local authorities face high cost of
reconstruction houses and commucation network.
2 flood hazards

How people contribute towards flooding

 Urbanization results in concrete surface that encourage rapid run-off

 Deforestation lead to high surface run-off
 River siltation occur due to poor farming methods and stream bank
cultivation and leads to reduced river depth.
 Overgrazing leads to soil compaction and erosion and result in saltation of
the rivers.
 Poorly constructed dam wall.
 Dam building related floods occurs when dam fill up or water is released.

Ways of reducing the effects of flooding.

 Building embankments or artificial levees along the side of river to stop

water from overflowing
 Planting vegetation on catchment area of rivers
 Creating artificial channels to divert river flows
 Building dams to control the flow of water.
 Straightening up river course to reduce overflowing along meanders and in
marsh area.
 Widening and dredging river channels especially those affected by siltation

46
 so that they hold more water
 Putting early flood warning system in place in order to reduce the damage
property and loss of life.

3 Drought

 Drought is when rain fail to come when they are expected or come in
smaller quantities than expected.

Controlling the effect of drought

 Construction dams for irrigation and storage of water during drought

periods
 Using agro-forestry that combines low density forestry with traditional
agriculture.
 Using drip and sprinkle irrigation which conserve water unlike flood
irrigation
 Building good storage facilities for surplus production for use during a
drought.
 Relocating animals to better areas during drought periods
 Creating drought levy in the national budget for use during famine periods
 Creating ‘food for work’ or public works projects for people affected by
drought.
 Drilling borehole and improving water supplies at strategies locations like
school hospital and business Centre.
 Using drought tolerant and drought resistant crop varieties.
 Offering drought-relief supplies to people and distributing them fairly.
 Governments should import food grains from other countries
 Introducing water conserving measures in urban areas
 Establishing chiefs’ food security system that is the zundo ramambo
system

THE EARTH, PLATE TECTONICS AND LANDFORMS

 The planet earth is part of a larger collection of planets called the solar
system.
 The sun which is a medium size star is the Centre around which planets in
our solar system orbits or go around.
 There are eight planets in the solar system namely mercury, Venus earth,
mars Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
47
The solar system

 It is made up of the sun, the eight planets and their 172 moons, asteroids,
comets dust and gas.

Asteroids

 This are small bodies that are believed to have been left over from the
beginning of the solar system over 4, 6 billon years ago.
 They are rocky subject comprising round or irregular shapes several
kilometers crosses.

Comets

 Are lumps of ice and dust that occasionally come into the Centre of the
solar system.
 When they go close to the sun, the comets evaporate.

The eclipse of the moon

 The moons is a satellite that revolves around the earth.

 It is because of this movement that the illuminated part of the moon
varies as see it.
 The earth sometimes comes between the sun and the moon causing an
eclipse of the moon.
Diagram

48
Eclipse of the sun

 It occurs when moon comes between the sun and earth blocking light
from the sun and creating a shadow on the earth.
 The shadow may create complete darkness on some parts of the earth or
partial darkness in some case.

Diagram

Rotation of the earth

 Rotation refers to the turning of the earth on its own axis.

 The earth rotates around 360 degrees in a period of 24 hours that is over
15 degree in an hour.
 This rotation is responsible for the period of darkness (night) and those
illumination (daylight).

Revolution of the earth

 The earth revolves round the sun and this takes 365 ¼ days which is one
year
 A leap year is when it takes the sun 366 days to revolve round the sun and
this occurs every fourth year.
 It cause seasons which are different in the northern and southern
hemisphere e.g. during June and (winter) the sun is overhead in the
northern hemisphere (summer)
49
Sun’s rays 22 Dec

 The sun is visible for more than 12 hours in the southern hemisphere
 The sun is visible for less than 12 hours in the northern hemisphere.
 The sun’s altitude is 90 degrees at the tropic of Capricorn
 The sun’s ray appear for very few minutes on the horizon at the Arctic
Circles between 23 September and 23 march there is continuous darkness
at the northern pole.

ON 21 JUNE

50
  The sun is visible for less than 12 hours in the Southern hemisphere
 The sun is visible for more than 12 hours in the northern hemisphere
 The sun’s altitude is 90 degrees at noon at the tropic of cancer
 The sun’s rays shine for 24 hour daily of the north pole and the Arctic
circle between 23 march and 23 September the south pole is in
complete darkness.

Location of the globe

 The earth is divided into two halves northern hemisphere and southern
hemisphere with a marginally line called equator.
 Place on the globe can be found along or at the point where a line of
latitude crosses a line of longitudes.
 Firstly a place on earth is either northern hemisphere or southern
hemisphere or equator.

Diagram

51
 NB line on the globe running from east to west re referred to as line of
latitude.
NB those running from North Pole to South Pole are called line of longitude
or meridians.
NB the 0 degrees longitude is the prime meridian and it passes through a
place called Greenwich in England hence place called Greenwich meridians
The longitude are numbered from 0 degrees either east or west of Greenwich
meridian
Diagram

52
How to locate a place on the globe
Any place on the globe is located at a point where a line of latitude intersects a
longitude line.
The location of a place is identified by the line of line of longitude e.g. the
coordinate for Harare in one atlas are given as Harare Zim 7, 17 ¾ S 31 E where:
 Harare is the name of the place to be located
 Zim is the country in which Harare is found
 7 is the page number in the atlas on which the map appears
 17 ¾ S is the degrees of latitude south of the Equator
 31 E is the degree of longitude east of the prime meridian or Greenwich.
Longitude and time
Calculating time
How many degrees does the earth turn in one hour? We need to do the
following calculations
360* turn in 24 hours
X=1/24 x360*
X=15*
How many minutes does the earth take to rotate through 1*
15* turn in 60 min
1* turn in x mins

53
X=1/15 x 60 mins
X=4mins
Calculations of time are based on the Greenwich meridian or the 0* longitudes.
Places east of the Greenwich meridian are ahead in terms of time, while those
due west are behind.

Table

Examples

 If Greenwich meridian time is 0800hrs.what would be the time at

Beitbridge with a longitude of 30* east.
 15* represents 1hrs
 Therefore 30* represent 2hrs difference in time.
 Beitbridge is due east of Greenwich meridian (0*) with a time that is
ahead.
 Therefore add two hours to 0800hrs to give us the time at Beitbridge as
1000hrs.

THE INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE (IDL)

 Meridian 180* is the prime meridian that divides globe into eastern and
54
 western hemisphere.
 IDL follows the 180* meridian passes over water surface and avoids all
land surface so people in these areas are correct with their date

STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

 The internal structure of the earth comprises a number of layers which are
made up of different rocks-forming minerals

Diagram

1THE CRUST:
 The outermost layer
 Is divided into two: continental and oceans crust
(a)Continental crust
 It is made of lighter rocks of mostly granite in origin
 Rocks have a density of 2,65g/cubic centimeter
 The rocks are rich in silicon and aluminum formed mineral and sometimes
called SIAL(or felsic-feldspar and silica minerals)
 It ranges in thickness from 40km in continental valleys to 70 km in
mountainous regions of the world.

55
(b)Oceans crust
 It is made of a heavier rocks of mostly basalt in origin
 The rocks have a density of 3,1g/cubic centimeter
 The rocks are rich in magnesium and iron and in geology circle such rocks
are said to be MAFE(magnesium and iron )
 Its thickness average 5km.

2 MANTLE

 Is dominated by rocks made up of iron and magnesium.

 Such rocks are referred to as ultra-basic rocks
 The mantle is almost 3000km thick and the temperature is about
2850*C .this layer is semi liquid
 Separating the mantle and crust is a layer of discontinuity called moho or
simply m-layer derived from the Yugoslav scientist called MOHOROVIC.

3 THE CORE (BARYSPHERE)

 Has a thickness of 3500km and comprises mainly of nickel and iron and is
referred to as the NIFE
 It comprises of very dense materials with the density varying between
3,0g/cubic centimeters
 The outer core is made up of liquid or plastic materials and the inner core
is in a solid state.

CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONIC

 The earth’s outer 100km is made up of separate blocks which are

continuously moving
 Such movement are earth movements or tectonic movements.
 In general agreed that the jig-saw fit of continents had been noted by
Francis Bacon as far back as 1620.
 Later on, Suess came up with the idea of a one-time large southern
continent which he named GONDWANALAND after a place found in India.
 Gondwanaland comprised of south America,Africa,southern India
Australia and Antarctica
 However according to Alfred Wegener in 1912 all the continents once
formed a huge landmass called PANGEA
 This large super continent included all continents and not only the

56
 southern continent as in Gondwanaland
 Pangaea therefore comprised of Laurasia in the north(Europe, north
America and Asia ) and Gondwanaland in the south(India,Africa,south
America and Australia)
 Pangaea began to break up as the continents drifted.

EVIDENCE FOR THIS CONTINENT DRIFT

 Some coastal areas of continents seen to fit together. Trace out the map of
south Africa and Africa they can join together
 Plants (flora) and animals (fauna) on continents such as Australia, India,
Africa and South America were found to be similar indicating that these
area were once joined.
 Geologist noted some similarities in the rocks formation and mountain
ranges such close correspondence was noted between north-west Europe
and North America.
 A scientific study called PALAEOMAGNETISM has been used by scientists to
determine the original positions of the poles in the past. This method uses
the magnetic nature of rocks to determine the original position of
continents.

The plate tectonics theory

As the plate moves, so do the continents they are carrying along with these
Diagram

The block called plate consists of the oceans crust continental crust and some
57
solid part of the upper mantle that float above the partial molten sections of the
upper mantle.
There are seven major plate that have been identified:
 African
 Indian
 South American
 North American
 Australian
 Eurasian
 Antarctic
The other minor plates include the Nazca and Arabian plates.

Why do the plate move?

 In the Centre of the earth rocks continue to be created and are spread
outwards or towards the Centre.
 Convection currents are set up in the mantle where the new material
created in the core is moved
 This convection process possibly resulted in the break-up of continents
and their subsequent movements.
 Sea are created as continents drift apart (sea or ocean floor spreading)
Diagram

58
PLATE MARGINS
Plate margin represent the boundary between two plates
These are three types of plate boundary:
 Constructive/divergent
 Destructive/convergent
 Conservative
1 divergent/constructive margin
 In this case, the two plates are moving away from each other due to the
convectional currents pulling the plates apart

Diagram

Time 1

 As its inception divergence of the two plates cause widespread fracturing

of the crustal rocks due to tensional force induced by the divergence.
 This inevitably creates rift valley (valleys formed by rifting blocks)
 At the Centre of the valley, the crust shows thinning and at its sides, the
valley is marked by stepped faulting
 It is this stage that the incipient divergent plate boundary over the
continent of Africa has reached that is the African rift valley.

Time 2

 With further divergence of the plates, the thinned crust becomes the exist

59
 place of magmatic material from the upper mantle.
 The magma upon exit at the surface solidifies to form a new oceanic crust
(constructive)
 Meanwhile, the area directly below the central point of exit of the magma
becomes raised due to pushing magma become raised due to pushing
magma. This forms the oceanic ridge that is an elongated mountain.

Diagram

2 convergence /destructive margin

 There are three types of convergent or destructive plate margins of this

nature.

Oceanic vs. continental

Diagram

60
  In this case, the oceanic plate collide with the continental plate .due to the
fact that the oceanic plate is heavier, it is forced to subduct below the
lighter continental crust.
 When it gets to the hot regions of the mantle, it particularly melts,
producing magma that rises up and intrudes the continental rocks or
extrudes at the surface as volcanoes
 Meanwhile, the sediments once aboard the sinking oceanic crust do not
subduct as well but are compressed against the continental crust forming
high range of Fold Mountains.
 The subducting oceanic crust bends at the point of subduction, producing
very deep ocean zones called trenches

Oceanic vs. oceanic

Diagram

 In the case, one

of the oceanic plate is forced to subduct because of speed differences.
61
  The subducted plates encounter the hot upper mantle and partially melts,
producing magma that extrudes the other oceanic crust and begins to
build volcanic mountains.
 With time, the growing volcanic mountains eventually break sea level
forming islands called island arc
 Japan is an example of an island arc.

Continental vs. Continental

Diagram

 The adjoining oceanic’s crust is slowly closed up by the advancing Eurasian

and Indian plates.
 Meanwhile sediments build up on the sea floor.

Diagram

62
  Eventually the advancing continental crusts collide squeezing the
sediments of the former sea to form high –rise fold mountains e.g.
Himalayan series, the Zagros, the Alps and the Atlas ranges.

3 conservative or neutral plates

 In this case plate move horizontally sliding against each other.

 There is neither creation nor destruction of the crust hence the term
conservative meaning no change.

Diagram.

Examples are found in north-west USA along the San Andreas Fault.
63
TECTONIC MOVEMENTS: FOLDING AND FAULTING

 Tectonic forces result in earth movements

 The movements involves vertical or horizontal movements of the earth’s
crust.

Folding

 Is the bending of rocks layers in the earth’s crust.

 Folding result from compressional forces acting on the earth’s crust.
 These forces act horizontally on the land mass and this results in the types
of fold depends on the amount of bending.

Diagram

 In a symmetrical fold, limbs (slope) are of the same steepness and the fold
is described as symmetrical.
 The limps bend upwards that is the fold is an up fold or anticlines.

Diagram

64
  In an anticline, one slope is steeper than the other.

Diagram of syncline

 A syncline is a down fold because the strata bend downwards.

 Horizontal strata are bent upward.

Diagram of over fold

 If compression forces continue to be exerted on the over fold one limb is

65
 thrust right over the over
 An over thrust fold or recumbent structure results.
 If faulting then occurs over a plane nappe is formed.

Diagram of complex folding and its result.

LANDFORMS RESULTING FROM FOLDING

 The most spectacular results of folding come in the form of Fold

Mountains.
 The formation of Fold Mountains is referred to as orogenesis
 Oros=mountains
 Genesis =beginning or formation

Old Fold Mountains

 These are mountains that have been worn down by agents of denudation
such as water and ice
 They are plateau-like in shape and are as a result not very high.

66
Young fold mountains

 They form very impressive relief feature

 These Fold Mountains were built during the last orogeny called the Alpine.

orogeny period Examples of mountain

Caledonian(old fold 400 million years ago Highly eroded mountains
mountain) in north west
Britain(Scotland)
Hercynian(old fold 300 million years ago Relies of former highlands
mountains) gentle slope.Harz
mountain of Centre
Germany up to 3000m
high
Alpine(young fold 35 million year ago Alps, Pyrenees, Rockie,
mountains) Andes, Himalayas. Up to
or over 6000m high.

OTHER MINOR FEATURES RESULTING FROM FOLDING

Anticlinal mountains

 Initial landform produced by folding.

 Does no last for a long geological period by being quickly acted upon by
denudation.

Diagram

67
Synclinal valley

 Initial landform produced by folding.

 The famous Mberengwa Greenstone-belt is an example of a synclinal
valley.

Diagram

Anticline valley

68
  Due to the fact that compressional force are operating away from
the fold axis, the anticline is quickly attacked by erosion
 This forms an anticlinal valley on which unique trellis drainage may
develop due to the exposure of tilted blocks.

Diagram

Synclinal mountains

 Due to the facts that compressional forces are operating towards

the Centre of the fold axis the syncline is more resistant to erosion.
 It remains standing as the surrounding anticlines are eroded.

Diagram

69
Down-warping

 It has resulted in basins being formed in some parts of Africa.

 The basins are simply shallow syncline due to lateral compressional
force e.g. Lake Victoria.

Faulting

 It involves an upward or downwards movement of a rocks along a

fault line.
 A joint differs from a fault in that a joint is simply a crack in a rock.
 There is no displacement of the rock along the fracture.

Diagram

(a)A joint
(b)A fault

 In a fault, there is vertical or lateral displacement of the rock.

 In a fault, there is displacement of rock along the crack or fault line.
 Faulting results from tensional and compressional force that caused
stresses in the rock.

70
Movements associated with faulting

 Vertical displacement of a block is referred to as a throw.

 Lateral displacement is the heave.
 The angle between the fault plane and the horizontal is the hade.
 Tensional forces result in normal faults and compression force result
in reverse faults or thrust faults.

Diagram

71
  There may also be horizontal movements along a fault, resulting in
sideward or lateral displacement called a tear fault
.
Diagram

Landforms resulting from faulting.

Fault scarps

 In the steep slope created on the face of a block when displacement

occurs along a fault line.
72
  A fault scarp is also simply referred to as a scarp or it develops into
an escarpment
 Zambezi escarpment in northern Zimbabwe which includes the
famous Matusadonha.

Horst and graben features

1 a horst or block mountain

 Normal faulting may occur raising a central block and lowering the
two adjacent block.
 The raised block is called horst (mountain) or a block mountain.

Diagram

Example of horst are the Ruwenzoni Range of mountains in Uganda, the

Kenya Highlands Chizarira range of mountains to the south of Lake Kariba.

2 a graben

 Is the down-throw segment usually between the horst features.

 It results in the formation of rift valleys such as Great East Africa Rift
73
 Valley.
 Graben can be formed by tensional forces or by compressional
forces.

Diagram

Rift valley formation

 It can be explained using the compression theory or tension theory.

Compression theory

Diagram

74
  The middle block is down-thrown resulting in fault-bound rift valley.
 This theory has the problem that the uplifted side blocks would be
rising against the force of gravity and would form overhanging parts.
 Thus the compression theory seems an unlikely cause of rift valley.

The tension theory

 Are responsible for pulling apart blocks of rocks and the middle
block is down-thrown to results in a rift valley.

VULCANICITY AND EARTHQUAKES

VULCANICITY

 Refers to all the processes by which solid, liquid or gaseous or

igneous material is moved inside the earth’s crust or ejected onto
the surface.

Intrusive vulcanicity.

 Is when the igneous material is moved inside the earth’s crust.

Extrusive vulcanicity

 Is ejection of igneous material onto the earth’s surface.

 Basic lava is rich in iron and magnesium and has a low silica content.

75
The distribution of volcanic activities.

 Volcanic activity is mostly concentrated along plate boundaries such

as mid-oceanic ridge arc area, oceanic deeps, faulting and folding
regions.

Volcanic eruption.

 The interior of the earth is made of a very hot mass of molten

(liquid) and semi-molten rocks and gases kept down by the pressure
of the overlying rocks in the lithosphere.
 The eruption process is usually very violent since magma which is
the molten material moved in the earth’s crust contains gases that
under a lot of pressure.
 It produce a thunderstorm like sound which can result in mud flows
of ash and cinder known as lahar which can be very destructive.
 The material comes out through an opening called vent (hole)
or`fissure (crack)
 When the magma reaches the earth’s surface, it is then called lava
 The lava then piles up to form a mound or cone-shaped hill known
as a volcanic cone.

Diagram

76
  Volcanic cone is usually made up of layers of lava ashes and cinder
which are small fragment of lava
 The process continues until a mound or pile of alternating layers of
lava and ash is formed known as composite cone

Classification of volcanoes

(a) Ejected material

 Volcanoes can be grouped according to the nature of the material

being ejected, or the shape of the volcanic cone.
 Using the nature of the lava, there is acid lava and basic

(1) Acid lava

 Contains a high percentage of silica.

 It has a lower melting points of 700*c and is regarded to solidify
quickly.
 The lava flows slowly and moves short distances, therefore
producing steep-sided dome –shaped volcanic cones.
 Acid lava usually results in the formation of volcanic plugs or
spines, which close the vent and help to build up pressure.

Diagram

77
 (2) Basic lava

 Is rich in iron and magnesium and has a low silica content.

 It is highly fluid and the therefore can flow over long distances
with speeds of up to 40km/hr.
 It has a higher melting points 1200*C.
 Basic lavas are associated with less violent eruptions, but very hot
lava flows.

a. Fissure volcanoes

 Lava may be ejected through fissures or cracks or a vent.

 The fissures can extend for long distances and because it is basic
basaltic lava, it will accumulate over large distance to great height to
form lava plateaus e.g. Drakensberg Mountains.

Diagram

78
b. basic or shield volcanoes

 The lava flows out of a central vent and can spread out to create
gentle sided cones made up of layers of lava e.g. Mauna Loa on
Hawaii.

Diagram

79
c. acid or dome volcanoes

 The lava quickly solidifies and a result produces steep sided concise
cone.
 The lava can solidify in the pipe to produce a spine e.g. Mount
Pelee.

Diagram

d. ash and cinder volcanic cones

 The ash and cinders produce a gently sided, slightly concave-shaped

cone.

Diagram

80
e. composite volcanic cones

 It is a steep-sided cone made up of layers of lava and ash and may

develop secondary pipes known as dyke and associated conelets or
parasite cones e.g. MT Kenya, MT Cameron.

Diagram

81
Calderas

 These are volcanic cones with large craters.

 This large crater are usually filled with water to form caldera lakes.
 The caldera are formed in two main ways: either subsidence or
violent eruption and disintegration.

Diagram

Eruption style

 Volcanoes can also be classified to the eruption style.

 This classification is based on the degree of violence of the
explosion.
The classification is as follows:
 Icelandic style-lava flows gently from a fissure
 Hawaiian style-lava is emitted gently, but from a number of vents
 Strombolian style-lava emission is violent due to viscous lava
 Vulcanian style-the emission consist more of gases, ash and cinder.
These eruption are violent
 Versuvian style-the violent eruption of gases produces dark clouds.
These eruption take place after periods of inactivity
82
  Plinian style-produces the most violent eruption of gases made of
fine ash
 Pelean style-a strong lateral blast of gases occur due to solidified
lava.

Frequency of eruption

 Another way of classifying volcanoes is on the frequency of

eruption.
 There are active volcanoes, which can erupt any time
 We also have dormant volcanoes. These volcanoes have erupted in
recent time
 Extinct volcanoes have not erupted in historic time.

Other minor extrusive volcanic features

Geyser

 These are formed when water in the earth’s crust is heated by hot
volcanic rocks to produce steam.
 The production of steam forms some cavities or opening and then
creates pressure resulting in the steam and water exploding onto
the surface.

Hot spring
 These are formed by superheated water flowing out quietly from
the ground.

Intrusive igneous features

 The intrusive features are classified according to their shape, the

mode formation as the magma moves along lines of weakness in the
rocks and how they look when exposed by agents of erosion.

Diagram

83
Batholith

 A large mass of magma which accumulate in the earth’s crust when

exposed by erosion, these batholith form large granite upland.
Sill

 This feature is formed when magma intrudes along bedding planes

or joints in sedimentary rocks.
 In tilted rock strata, the sill can form escarpments if exposed by
erosion.

Dykes

 When magma cuts across bedding planes it forms dyke

 Dykes may be exposed by erosion. If the dyke are made of soft rock,
depressions may be formed.

Laccolith

 When magma intrudes along a bedding plane, it arches up or it piles

up to form dome-shaped laccolith.

84
Lopolith

 If the magma is forced to move along a bedding planes it forms a

crescent-shaped or saucer-like landform called a lopolith.

Positive and negative effects of volcanoes on human activities

Volcanoes as hazards

1. Destroying vegetation and human made feature such as roads,

bridge and house
2. It trigger heavy rains by producing water vapour and condensation
nuclei
3. Small hot rocks and dust can be thrown up as high as1km and
destroy vegetation.
4. Dangerous gases can be released in the atmosphere
5. Volcanic eruption can produced huge clouds of very hot gases with
temperature of up to 1000*C
6. Landslide can be triggered by volcanic activity.
7. Volcanic activity can trigger tsunamis (large waves that can be as
high as 20 metres or more and move with speeds of nearly
800km/hr.)

The benefits of volcanoes

1. Lava weather
2. Volcanic activity is associated with precious stones and minerals.
3. The superheated water can be used to produce geothermal power
e.g. in Iceland.
4. Volcanic area are tourist attraction.
5. Hot spring water is said to be able to cure skin diseases.
6. Igneous rocks can be used for building purposes.

EARTHQUAKES

 These are sudden vibrations or tremors in the earth’s crust that are
caused by the movements of move due to internal pressure.

Measurement of earthquakes

85
  Earthquakes are measured with a seismometer which records the
amplitude of the seismic wave.
 The two basic measurements for earthquakes are magnitude and
intensity.
 Magnitude is the degree of shaking caused by earthquakes waves
and intensity is the energy released in an earthquakes and intensity
is the energy released in an earth.
 The intensity of an earthquake is measured by the modified Mercalli
scale.
 This is fixed scale of 0-12 where 0 means it was not felt at all and 12
was total destruction.

Number Intensity effect

1 Instrumental Animals, sense
tremors
2 Weak Noticed by people
resting
3 Slight Tremors similar to
truck vibration
4 Moderate Fell indoor parked
cars shakes
5 Fairly strong Tremors felt generally
and wakens sleeps
6 Strong Trees are shaken,
furniture falls
7 Very strong Plaster falls and walls
crack
8 Destructive Weak walls columns
and chimney falls
9 Rumous Some houses
collapse, ground
cracks
10 Disastrous destructive

11 Very disastrous Floods, landslides few

building left
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12 Catastrophic Ground forms waves,
overall destruction.

Effect of earthquakes

 They cause vertical or lateral displacements of the crust.

 They cause landslides and the opening up of deep cracks on the
earth’s surface.
 They cause the raising and lowering of the sea floor
 They cause the formation of tsunamis.

What to do before an earthquakes.

 Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, a first aid kit, a battery
powered radio, a flashlight and extra batteries at home.
 Learn first
 Learn how to turn off the gas, water and electricity.
 Makes a plan for where to where to meet your family after an
earthquake.
 Do not leave object on shelves.

What to do during an earthquakes

 Stay calm .if you are inside, stay inside .if you are outside.
 If you are inside, stand against a wall near the Centre of the
building.
 If you are outside, stay in the open away from building.

What to do after an earthquakes

 Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid to anyone
who needs it.
 Check water, gas and electricity lines for damage
 Turn on the radio .do not use the phone unless it is an emergency.
 Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy
shoes to keep from cutting your feet.

ROCKS AND WEATHERING

87
ROCKS

Is simply a collection or aggregated of mineral.

Type’s rock and their characteristics.

1 rock jointing

 Refers to crack and openings in rocks. Some rocks are poorly jointed
while others are well jointed.

2 rock hardness

 Apart from the solid or hard forms, rocks can also consist of soft
materials such as clay and sand.

3 rock texture

 The mineral gains in rocks differ in size and the way they are
arrange. Rocks that have large grains or crystal are described as
course-grained those with smaller crystals are fined-grained.

4 rock structure

 This refers to the arrangement of minerals in the rocks.

 It determine how easily a rock can break and how hard it is.

5chemical composition

 It comes from the minerals that makes up the rocks.

6 colour

 Different rocks have different colours reflecting the different

minerals in their composition.

Types of rocks

1 igneous rocks

88
  The word igneous comes from the Latin word ignis means fire.
 Igneous rocks are so called because they form when hot molten
material moves up cools and solidifies either inside or outside the
earth’s crust.
 Magma cools slowly deep inside the earth to produce coarse –
textured rock with large crystals.

Level of cooling and Examples and Examples

name of igneous rock characteristic of and
acidic characteris
rock(quartz/silica tic of basic
,meca and feldspar) rock(iron
and
magnesiu
m)
Deep-seated, plutonic Granite: coarse- Gabbro
intrusive grained coarse
grained
Intermediate Granite: medium Dolerite:
depth,hypabyssal/intru crystal medium
sive crystal
Surface level volcanic Rhyolite: fine-grained Basalt:
extrusive rocks obsidianglassy,black fine-
finely ground grained

Sedimentary rock

 It cover two-thirds of the earth’s surface.

 The word sedimentary comes from the Latin term sedeo meaning sit
of settle down.
 Sedimentary rocks therefore form when sediments or eroded
materials carried by water, wind or ice are laid down and compacted
together (sedimentation)

Diagram

89
  Strata or beds are horizontal layers showing different types and
amounts of sediments accumulated over millions of years
 Bedding planes separates strata from one another.
 Most sedimentary rock are non-crystalline in contrast with igneous
rocks which have visible minerals crystal.
Sediments forming sedimentary rocks are of three types:
 Mechanically derived
 Chemically derived
 Organically derived
Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks

Conglomerate

 Is a rock chuck with easily identifiable different rock particles.

 It is formed when pebbles, cobbles and gravel are deposited by
water, and are then cemented by smaller sand and mud particles.
Sandstone
 Forms when quartz (sand) particles are deposited by wind or water
and cemented together to form a porous rock mass.
Siltstone

 Is formed in the same way that sandstone is formed except that in

this case the particles are finer or silt particles. Loess is the name
given to wind-deposited dust

Shale
 Is a soft, brittle non-porous smooth textured rock showing thin
strata of clay and sand.
 The varying composition of the layers gives the rock reddish-brown
to green colours.Shale results from the compaction of clay deposits
followed by sand particles in shallow water bodies.

90
Clay.

 Is a fine-grained rock deposited in water and is common in vleis.

Banded ironstone

 Is a hard rock composed of alternating layers of fine-textured quartz

and iron.
 The layers are formed through deposition of quartz and iron
particles.
 It is later compacted and hardened so it is appropriate to regard it as
a metamorphic.

Chemically formed sedimentary

 Limestone is a fine –grained whilst-grey or yellowish rock made up

of calcium carbonate
 Dolomite is a type of limestone composed of calcium magnesium
carbonate.
 Limestone is formed by precipitation and deposition of calcium
carbonate or calcium magnesium carbonate

Organically formed sedimentary rocks

Coal

 Is a hard black rock with a high carbon content

 Coal is formed when vegetation decaying in the absence of oxygen
in swamps is compacted by sediments.

Peat

 A soft fibrous brown rock, represents the early stages of coal

formation

Limestone

 Is also formed organically when skeleton of sea water organism like

polyps.

91
Metamorphic

 It means change form.

 Metamorphism is the process of changing the physical and chemical
make-up of existing igneous sedimentary and even metamorphic
rock to produce entirely different rock.
Rocks and their metamorphic equivalents

Original rock Metamorphic rocks and agent

of change
Sandstone(quartz Quartz formed when quartz is
grain)sedimentary melted and recrystallized to
form tightly linked crystals
Coal sedimentary Graphite and anthracite
Limestone/dolomite Marble due to heat and
sedimentary pressure
Basalt: igneous Greenstone or green schist due
to heat and pressure causing
recrystallization

Importance of rocks

 Relief and the attractiveness of the landscape.

 Formation of soil and hence agriculture.
 Economic activities
 Underground water
 Construction activities
 Coal is fuel homes, industries and locomotives.

Rock weathering

 Is the physical disintegration (break up) and chemical decomposition

(decay) of rocks in situ.

Types of rock weathering

1 mechanical or physical

 Is the break-up of rocks into smaller fragments without changing the

92
 chemical or mineral composition of the rocks.

2 chemical

 In this case, the rocks rots and the minerals are changed.

3 biological

 Is either physical or chemical rocks breakdown due to the action of

plants and living organism including humans.

1 mechanical weathering processes

a. Insolation weathering or alternate heating and heating

 This types of weathering is due to the repeated and prolonged

heating and cooling of exposed rocks which occurs during the
daytime and night
 Repeated heating and cooling results in repeated expansion and
contraction, which in turn eventually leads to peeling off of the thin
outer layer in the form of a sheet or slab.

Diagram

93
 (b)Pressure release or dilation.

 Intrusive igneous rock which form underground get exposed as

erosion removes the overlying material
 The removal of this material relieves pressure on the rocks
allowing it to expand outwards.
 Cracks parallel to the rocks develop.

Diagram.

(c)Freeze-thaw

 In mountains area and temperature areas, such as the UK, it is

common for temperature to fluctuate regularly above and below
0*C.
 In such Ares, porous and jointed rocks taken in water and this
water undergoes repeated cycle of freezing and thawing.
 It is important to stress that it is only after repeated cycles of
freezing and thawing and of expansion and contraction
respectively that rock get fatigued or weak and then break down.
Diagram

94
 Chemical weathering

 It involves the break up or rotting of rock through chemical reaction,

which alter the mineral composition of the rock.
It includes these three forms as in most types of chemical weathering is
95
facilitated by:
 The mineral composition of the rock
 the presence of water for reaction to occur
 Warm to hot temperatures which quicken or speed up the rate of
chemical reactions

1 Carbonation solution

 This process is common in limestone rock; the chemical composition

of which is mainly calcium carbonate.
 As rain falls through the atmosphere, it dissolves carbon dioxide
foaming weak carbonic acid.
 Carbonic acid reacts with calcium carbonate to form calcium
bicarbonate.
 Since calcium bicarbonate always dissolves and carried into solution.

Calcium carbonate+ carbon dioxide +water=calcium bicarbonate

The landforms resulting from carbonation include:-

 Sink holes
 Dry valleys
 Underground caves
 Grikes clints

2 Hydrolysis

 It describes a process in which feldspar minerals reacts with water

to form clay.
 Therefore, hydrolysis mainly attacks those rocks that contain
feldspar.
 When feldspar in a rock such as granite is changed into clay the
other minerals remaining in the granite lose their original cohesion
which causes them to fall off the mother rock as individual grain
(granular disintegration).

3 Oxidation

 Rock containing ion react with oxygen under moist conditions to

produce iron oxide.
 The formation of iron oxide weakens the rock in a manner similar to
96
 the rusting of iron nails.

4 Hydration

 Some minerals absorbs water and in doing so they give rise to new
compounds e.g. hematite an iron oxide combines with water to give
limonite.
Note: there is no chemical change.

PROCESSES OF BIOLOGICAL OR BIOTIC WEATHERING.

 The three types of biological weathering are root action, the action
of burrowing animals and soil organisms and acid weathering.
 Plants roots growing in rocks cracks, a process called root wedging
can dislodge or move out of position rocks blocks weighing as much
as 20 tones.
 Burrowing animals and soil organisms mix up the soil thereby
breaking the rock minerals and enabling water to percolate.
 Animal excretions, humus acid from decaying leaves and rocks
lichens react with some rocks minerals leads to chemical rock decay.

Landforms in limestone areas.

Diagram

97
Surface features.

 Surface streams are absent over limestone rock since carbonation-

solution along joints develop sink hole into which the streams
disappear underground.

1 dry valley

 Show the existence of surface streams before the development of

sink holes or shallow holes.
 Stream disappearing underground remerge as resurgent streams
where limestone gives way to rocks such as clay which allow surface
runoff.

2 Gorges.
 Represent collapsed underground caverns or caves and former
underground streams channel.
98
  Carbonation solution along joints develops deep elongated furrows
called grikes. The non-jointed portions form ridges termed Clints.

3 Scarps

 This are steep slopes at the edge of a limestone mass are more
resistant to erosion compared to other rocks because they allows
less water to enter and so little erosion occurs.

Underground feature

 Water containing weak carbonic acid enters and enlarges joints.

 As a results, whole streams disappear into subterranean limestone
areas.
 Carbonation-solution open up hollow passage that form
underground caves.
 Water containing dissolved calcium bicarbonate loses its carbon
dioxide from both the cave roof and floor and deposit calcium
carbonate.

Stalactites

 Are calcium deposits elongating downward from the cave roof.

Stalagmites

 Develop from the cave floor.

 Stalactites and stalagmites may join to form pillar or columns.

Mass wasting (slope failure)

 Is the movement of weathered material down slope due to the pull

of gravity.

Forms of mass wasting

 Mass wasting processes can be slow or rapid when large rocks
fragment moves down slopes a process of talus creep occurs.
(a) Soil creep
 Tilting poles, trees and walls indicate the slow downward movement
of soil and weathered rocks.
99
 (b)Mud flow

 Block sliding down slope forming terraces.

(C)Slumping or landslide

 Mud accumulate at the base of the slope.

(d)Rock fall
 Scar and rockslide

RIVER PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS PRODUCED.

Underground water and its importance.

The occurrence of underground water

Water moving down through the soil or rock reaches a zone of

saturation where all open spaces are filled with water.
This is the groundwater zone, the top most part of which is called water
table.

Diagram

Porosity and permeability

100
 Water is absorbed into soil in a manner similar to how a sponge
absorbs water.
Water fills the opening in soil or rocks which are termed pore spaces
Porosity is the proportions of rock or soil volume that is occupied by
the pore space, the greater the amount of water the rocks can absorb.
This means porosity is the ability of rocks or soil to absorb water.
Permeability on the other is the ability of a given rock or soil to
transmit the water absorbed through porosity.
Aquifers and aquicludes
The material that hinder the movement of ground water are
aquicludes. For examples, clay has such tiny pore spaces that it does
not easily transmit water.
Sand can easily absorb and allow water to move through it.
Materials such as sand which can contain and transmit water easily are
called aquifers.

Surface water flow and the initiation of stream.

Sheets flow is generated when rain falling on the land flow over the
whole surface as a thin layer of water.
As the slope steepens or the amount of water increases, sheet flow is
concentrated in well-defined but small shallow channels or rivulets
called rills.
Rills in turn join and deepen to form gullies.
Gullies in turns pour their water into bigger channels of seasonally or
permanently flowing water called streams.

Features of rivers basins.

A river basin is the area drained by a network or system of streams.

It is also called a drainage basin or catchment area, to emphasize the
idea of land area that contributes water to a systems of stream.
In each basin there is a main river, which is the consequent stream
since it forms because of water flowing on the original slope of land.
The consequent is joined by subsequent or tributary streams since
they flow on the slope partly provided by the main river.
Obsequent streams flow in the opposite direction to the dip or rocks.
The point at which the tributary joins the main river is the confluence.

Diagram

101
 Draining patterns

Rivers within a basin or part of a basin form a network of stream.

The term used to describe this network of streams is drainage pattern

Dendritic drainage

The term dendritic comes from Greek word Dendron (tree).

The various streams branch or join one another like branches of trees.

Diagram

Dendritic drainage is common pattern that can be identified on most

102
 topographical maps of Zimbabwe
The conditions necessary for its development includes:-
 Gently sloping area
 Areas of the same rocks type or with rocks of uniform resistance
to erosion.
Radial drainage
This drainage pattern is formed where stream drain from a central
highland in all directions.
It is also termed centrifugal or divergent drainage
A radial drainage pattern is common on conical hill and domes.
Radial drainage tends to be localized to features likes volcanic cones and
other features with conical shape therefore the watershed on summit end.

Diagram

Centripetal or convergent drainage pattern.

In this types of drainage rivers drains towards the Centre of a lake, a

103
swamp or depression
It essentially an inland drainage systems.

Diagram

Trellis or trellised drainage.

It forms where streams join one another at right angle.

Trellis drainage develops in areas alternate hard and soft rock.
The main stream follows the initial direction of the slope
The subsequent or tributaries then develop along the soft rocks to join the
main stream at right angle.

Diagram

104
Other conditions for development of trellis drainage are:
1. Faults lines or rectangular joints
2. Eroded fold mountains area
3. Head ward erosion by stream.

Parallel drainage.

It flow moves or less parallel to each other

It has been encourage by the gentles slope leading to the Zambezi.

Diagram

The flow of water in streams.

Stream velocity and stream discharge.

It shows that the amount and speed of water flowing in streams changes
105
from time to time and place to place.
Stream velocity –is the speed and which water flows along its channel e.g
10m/s or 0,5km/h.
Stream discharge- the amount given as volume of water passing across a
given section of the channel.

Discharge =cross sectional area x velocity

The graphs that show change in discharge over time are termed
hydrographs.
The term river regime is also used for changes in discharges.

The volume of water changes following reasons:

1. Climate: dry or wet or snow-melt periods wet throughout the year.
2. Size of drainage basin: contributions tributaries and perennial
streams are due to changes in rainfall.
3. Seepage or loss: rivers passing areas of porous rock desert (through
evaporated) vegetation.
4. Urban areas: increased runoff into rivers.
5. Other human activities:dams,farming exotic forest plantation
6. Position along the river: discharge is slow near the source but high
at the mouth.

River processes shaping the channel.

Stream transportation.

Rivers transport their load in four ways, which also describe the four types
of river load.

These are:
 Solution (solution/dissolved load)
 Suspension(suspended load)
 Saltation(saltation load)
 Traction(traction/bed load)

Diagram

106
 The amount and type of load carried by the river varies due to:
1. Season(flood-time dry season mass movement)
2. Type of rocks(dissolved loose material of various size)
3. Bare or vegetated surface
4. Human activities such as farming, gold panning, mining
pollution and dumping.

River erosion

The removal of material by rivers becomes possible when the water has
overcome friction and is flowing.
The erosion occurs in three direction ways:
I. Head ward erosion occur in the upper course

107
 II. Vertical erosion occurs in the upper course.

III. Lateral erosion occurs in the middle and lower course

This is done through following processes:

1 hydraulic action.

108
The sheer force of the moving water detaches and plucks loose and solid
rocks particles from the channel bed and banks.

2 abrasion or corrosion

This process occurs when channel bed and banks material are scraped off,
ground away and scoured by solid material carried by the river.

3 potholing

Erosion caused by abrasion results in potholes.

Potholes are round holes drilled into solid bedrock by pebbles and stones
due to the swirling of water associated with turbulent flow.

4 corrosion or solution

River water dissolves rock particles through chemical weathering process

such as solution and hydrolysis.

5Attrition

Solid materials carried by the river hit against each other and break into
smaller particles each other and break into smaller particles.
Strictly speaking, attrition in this form is not a process of river erosion.
The breaking material causes erosion when it hits against the banks and
bed, thereby tearing off other material while breaking into pieces.

River deposition.

Decrease in flow velocity reduces the ability of a river to transport its load.
As a result, the river drops whatever sediments it would be carrying.
Fluvial deposit of any size and shape are called alluvium.
Deposition occurs in any of the following places along the course of the
river.
1. Channel bed
2. The river valley floor during floods
3. The banks
4. The mouth

Factors influence the river’s energy to erode transport or deposit.

109
1 gradient of channel

The gradient through which the river water flow determines the amount
of energy a river has in eroding and transporting its load.
The upper course of river has a steep gradients, therefore the fast-flowing
water possess more energy.
The middle and lower course of the river have a gentle gradient, therefore
the moving waters have less energy.
As far as gradient of channel is concerned the upper courses of river have
more energy to erode and transport compared to the middle and lower
course.

Volume/discharge

 Water flowing in a river is due to the pull of gravity and the pull of
gravity is determined by these mass and hence volume of the water
being moved.
 Upper-course Rivers have smaller volumes because their only source
of water is overland flow generated in the immediate vicinity and
channel precipitation.
 Middle and lower –course rivers section on the other hand, have
higher volumes due to the fact that they obtain their waters from
upstream tributaries overland flow generated in the immediate
vicinity and channel precipitation.
 As far as volume is concerned, middle and lower course stream have
more energy to erode and transport compared to upper course
streams.

Channel in cross-section
Diagram

110
(a)Has a large wetted perimeter which is the cross-sectional length of the
river bed and banks that the river water is in contact with.
This means it experience more friction and more energy is lost to
overcome this.

As far as channel shape in cross-section is concerned channel (b) has

less energy than channel (b).the latter small, wetted perimeter/cross-
sectional length.

Channel roughness

(a) Upper-course stream encounter more friction due to the very rough
channels caused by protruding boulders and rocky outline.
(b) Middle and lower course streams encounter less friction because
the banks and bed are smooth.
This means such channel have more energy to erode and transport.

Diagram

111
Characteristic of river valley

Long profile-is the cross section along the length of the river from the
source to the mouth
Short profile-is the cross section across the river valley from crest line
through the channel to crest line.
Long profile.

Diagram.

112
 Features common in major section/reaches of river

Upper course/or head water reaches

V-shaped valley potholes interlocking spurs gorges rapids waterfall due

mostly to vertical erosion.

Middle course/reaches

Open V-shaped valley truncated spurs meanders mostly due to lateral

erosion
Lower course

Flood plans features e.g. bluffs natural levees raised beds alluvial fans
deferred junctions braiding swamps deltas mostly due to deposition.

Features common in the upper course

1 Potholes

These are circular holes bored into solid bedrock by pebbles and stones
carried by the river.
The rough bed encourages turbulent flow where stones are caught up
and used to drill holes in the channel bed.
Condition for the formation:
I. Turbulent flow
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 II. Solid bedrocks
III. River load comprising stones and pebble.

Diagram.

Interlocking spurs

Since the discharge in the upper reaches is small streams avoid obstacles
and follow area weakest resistance.
The course of the river will twist and turn resulting in interlocking spurs.

Diagram

114
Condition for the formation:
 Fast-flowing water
 Little discharge
 Occurrence of resistant area.

Narrow steep-sided valley

Water flowing in small amounts and predominantly in steep are erodes

vertically.
This is also facilitated by the course load it would be transporting in the
upper reaches.

Diagram

115
Gorges

Are river valley bounded by more or less vertically upstanding walls due to
marked down-cutting with little opening up.
In the upper course, gorge form where the rocks is too resistant to allow
any opening up of the valley.

Condition for the formation.

 Vertical erosion in resistant rocks for example the LUPATA gorges cut
in resistant rhyolite in the lower Zambezi.
 Along a fault line, which presents area that can easily be eroded.
The gorges downstream of the Victoria fall
 Vertical erosion in area of uplift
 Upstream retreat of a waterfall
 Collapse of underground cavern in limestone area.
 Down-cutting of the predator or victor stream in river capture
 Vertical erosion on a once-buried hard rock layer by an existing
stream through super-imposed drainage
 Vertical erosion as a river passes through a desert or semi-arid are
where there is little mass movement to open up the valley.

Rapid and waterfall

Occur where there is a drop in the river course or channel.

Waterfall represent a higher fall than rapids.

116
Appearance and Formation processes and examples
reason
1 faulting As a river descends the scarp in areas of faulting,
it forms a waterfall. The type of waterfall is a
knick point which is a break in the long profile
due to uplift or rejuvenation.
Diagram.

2 band of The occurrence of resistant band or rocks across

resistant rock the channel means that the area downstream of
across the the band can be deepened, thereby forming a
channel(a)rapids water or rapid.
over a series of Diagram
resistant
bands(b)rapids
over wide rocks
bands

117
River capture and its occurrence
River capture or river piracy occurs when one stream erodes deeper and
backwards to undercut and divert the water of a neighboring stream.
The point of capture is marked by a waterfall since the capturing stream
was at a lower level than the victim or capturing stream.
Diagram

Features associated with the lower course of river.

Stage1 lateral erosion begin

118
Stage2 lateral erosion continues

Stage 3 fully-developed flood plan

119
Formation of flood plain

Diagram

Meanders
120
Are formed when the river twists and turn in wide bends.
Although common in the flood plain, they can develop in any part of the
river.
The reasons for their development are not well understand.
However meandering is common behavior of flowing fluids that avoids
straight path in preference for one that twist and turns
It is believed meandering maximizes speed while at same time reducing
friction.

Diagram

The speed of moving water within a meandering channel is faster on the

outer bend than on the inner bend
The outer bend is therefore eroded, while on the inner bend, there is
deposition since the water velocity is slow.
The outer bend forms a concave slope with a river cliff, while the inner
bends forms a slip-off convex slope.

Cut-off or oxbow lake

121
Since erosion is marked on the outer bends in time the distance separating
neighboring meanders is reduced and may finally lead to the formation of
an oxbow or cut-off lake.
The oxbow lakes is so-called since it is shaped like horns of an ox or a
horse shoe.

Diagram

122
Braided channel

It forms when the river is unable to move all its sediment load and
therefore deposits it.
In order to continue flowing the river subdivides into smaller channels that
continuously join and separate.
It should be noted that braiding is not only confined to the flood plain but
can occur on any part of the river.
For example siltation and gold panning can lead to braiding since would be
choked with sediment.

Diagram.

Natural levees

During floods water overspill the channel bank onto the flood plain where
some of the load is deposited
Most of the deposits are along the channel side since the water spilling
onto the plain is slower than that in the channel.
This leads to a slightly high ridge being built along the channel on both
sides (natural levees)
123
Deferred tributary and deferred junction

With the development of the natural levees along the mains river,
tributaries are force to abandon their initial confluence to flow parallel to
the main river within the flood plain.
These tributaries are termed deferred tributaries in that they do not join
the main river where they used to but have to run parallel to the main
river and can only join if there is a break in the natural levees.
Such a confluence is termed a deferred or delayed junction.

Alluvial fan

Is the fan-shaped feature formed by the deposition

Of alluvium as a tributary descends down the bluffs onto the flood plain.
The deposition occurs at a point where the steep bluff changes into, the
flat plain, and is therefore the result of the reduction in velocity.
When the river descend onto a flat area like a rift valley or can form on an
escarpment.

Swamps

They are areas of stagnant water with water-loving vegetation.

They develop in the flood plain due to frequent flooding and where
tributaries fail to enter the main stream.

The river mouth

A river eventually reaches the sea or lake which as noted earlier

represents its end.
This is because a river cannot transport or erode below its base level.
On reaching the sea, river velocity is reduce to almost zero.
The river is forced to deposit its load.

Deltas and river mouths

Most rivers enter the sea through several channels called distributaries
where the overall shape of the deposits is triangular.
This is how the name delta arose.
The Greek letter delta is a triangular shape.

124
Diagram

Delta formation

Condition determine the formation of a delta.

 The sea currents cannot remove all the deposited material due to a
tide less sea which facilitates deposition.
 The tides occur after lengthy interval of deposition and are unable
to remove the deposited sediments
 The river carries a large load and is slow enough to drop the load at
the mouth.
 Clay particles carried in suspension may thicken or coagulate when
they mix and react with seawater and then settle onto the bed.
This process is termed flocculation an important process in delta
formation.

Diagram

125
126
Types of deltas
1 arcuate delta

2 estuarine delta

127
 3 bird’s foot delta

4 cuspate delta

128
The interaction of people and river

Construction of multi-purpose project.

An example is the kariba dam.

It means to provide hydro-electric power, it has had side effects.

Positive

 Provision of HEP
 Promotion of tourism/recreation
 Fishing industry
 Increased accessibility to some parts of the Zambezi
 River transport
 Joint ownership and management of water resources
 Drinking water
 Irrigation e.g. Charara banana estate on the southern shores
of lake Kariba.

Negative

 Displacement of Tonga people whose live hoods were destroyed

 Underdevelopment of neighboring area the electricity is for the
bigger towns.
 Destruction of aquatic riverine and land-based ecosystem through
flooding.
 Frequent earth tremors.
 Dams create local base level to which upstream rivers have to
adjust.

Urbanization

Rivers passing through urbanized areas are affected in the following ways:
 Increased runoff from the tarmac and concrete surface results in
increased
 Pollution of water occur caused by industrial effluent waste disposal.
 Shortage of water occurs in area downstream of dams built to
supply the urban area.

129
 HOT DESERT FEATURES

Deserts

These are areas characterized by very arid (dry) condition with very
little or no rain fall (UNEP) e.g. Namib, Sahara

Location of hot desert

Deserts cover almost half of Africa’s total area with the Sahara
contributing one-quarter of this area.
Worldwide most hot deserts are located between 15* and 30*
north and south of the equator and mostly on the western coasts.
However other deserts occur inland of continents and outside the
tropics as cold deserts.

Diagram.

How do deserts arise?

130
 Deserts form in high pressure areas especially 30* north and south
of the equator .remember these are called the horse latitudes.
In these area air subsides (i.e. sinks) and increase in temperature as
the subsiding air gets warmed.

Diagram

The deserts that’s occur on the leeward or rain shadow side of

mountains such as the Sahara, Atacama and the California deserts
are caused by the dry, descending winds.
These winds would have lost much of their moisture on the
windward side of the mountains.

Rain shadow.

Diagram

131
Look at the global distribution of most tropical and subtropical deserts
shows that they are located on western sides of continents.
In addition to the subsiding air under anticyclone condition, the western
coast are washed by cold oceans currents
Onshore winds passing over the cold currents form fog or mist due to
cooling.
Thus, on reaching the land, the wind is dry and unable to cause any
rainfall.

Diagram.

132
Although Walvis Bay in Namibia and Masunga in Mozambique are on the
same latitude, they experience different average annual temperature.
Onshore winds blowing over the cold Benguela current form mist and fog,
so that, on reaching the land these winds are dry and encourage dry and
desert conditions
The cooled onshore winds lower the temperature of coastal areas like
Walvis Bay.

Climatic characteristic of hot deserts

 Deserts are mainly characterized by aridity(dryness)

133
  The dry seasons are very long if not persistent.
 The rainy season is extremely short, it ever it exist. Rain fall that
characteristic hot deserts or semi-arid areas is usually below 250mm
per annum.The fall that occur are very rare and there are occasional
evidence storms which are accompanied by high, short-lived
discharge.
 In terms of temperature the annual and daily temperature ranges
are very large. Temperature are on average 40*C during the day and
can drop to 0*C during the night.
 Evapotranspiration rates are therefore expected to be high during
the day because of the high temperature morning dew is also
caused by the cooling effects of the moist air above the ground
during the night.
 In summary, the climatic characteristic of hot deserts are those of
dryness (low humidity) extreme temperature change, windiness and
high pressure (subsiding air).

Desert landscapes

The types of landscape in deserts includes the following:

1 Ergs: a sandy deserts comprising mainly sand dunes found in the Sahara.
2rocky deserts or Hamada and stony desert or reg .all sands has been
blown away by deflation.

Wind process and their resultant landforms

1 wind transportation processes

Transportation by wind is achieved through the processes of suspension

saltation and surface creep.

(a)Suspension

Is a process in which small particles e.g. fine clay and silt are carried by
wind and then deposited else.

(b)Saltation

This process involves sand particles with a diameter of 2mm.these

particles jump up and down near the ground as they are moved from one
134
place to another.

Diagram

(c) Surface creep or traction

The particles that are larger than 2mm in diameter are dragged along
rolled along or pushed by strong winds.

Wind erosion
Deflation
Wind removes loose material and if it has a high velocity even heavier

135
particles can be removed.
In general, wind deflation results in lowering the ground surface.
The most spectacular features formed by wind deflation are called
deflation hollow.
The formation of a deflation hollow

Stage 1: initial stages of development in unresisting rock.

Stage 2: hollow deepens as unconsolidated rock is blown away.
Stage 3: hollow is now very deep, with the water table above the bed.
These becomes sites for oases in the Sahara, which are also called pans in
Southern Africa.

Diagram.

136
Abrasion

The sand blasting or tilting action by sand on rock is referred to as abrasion

or corrosion.
Its effects are concentrated at a height of 0.9m-1m above ground level.

LANDFORMS
1 ventfact/faceted pebbles.

These are product of wind abrasion that comprise a faceted and polished
surface.
The most common ventifects are called dreikanters which is a German
word.

2 rocks pedestal or mushroom rocks

In the formation of a rock pedestal, the base of rocks eroded through

abrasion.
The foot of the rock suffers the most from the effects abrasion resulting in
the mushroom-shaped feature.
It may be formed from either uniform rocks or rocks comprising
alternating layers of hard and soft rocks
Rock pedestal resulting from uniform rocks
Diagram

137
Rock pedestal resulting from alternating hard and soft rock
Diagram.

Zeugens.

Layers of alternating hard and soft sedimentary rocks may lie horizontally
and wind may attack the weaker rocks through times of weakness such as
faults.
138
There are deepened as the wind abrasion continues to create elongated
though.
Usually the ridges are flat-topped and steep-sided.
These Zeugens also occur in series or in sequence.
In time, continued erosion by wind may undercut the features and the
ridges collapse.
Diagram.

Yardangs
In place where yardangs forms the alternating bands or strata of hard and
soft rocks lie vertically.
This is in contrast to Zeugens where the bands of rocks lie horizontally.
Weathering weakens the softer rocks and this prepares the rocks to be
attacked and eroded by abrasion.
The results of denudation are seen in the formation of ridges (upstanding
masses) and furrow/trenches.

Diagram.

139
When wind erosion continues, the furrows are widened and this makes
the ridges harrows.
Diagram.

Wind deposition

140
Loess

The sand particles carried in suspension or transported by saltation may

be deposited several km from the place of origin.
This occurs as the wind velocity is reduced and therefore the wind cannot
transport any larger particles.
Deposition of sand occurs in the form of loess which is fine grained and
yellowish in colour.

Sand dunes.

1 barchans

Are formed where winds blows consistently from a particular direction and
such winds are termed prevailing winds.
An obstruction such as vegetation may cause the sand to accumulate,
marking the first phase in formation of the barchans.
Moreso, sand accumulate on the central part of the features, but less
accumulate on the sides, which project out as the horns.
Horns are created because on the sides, where there is no obstruction
sand is easily moved forward by winds.

Characteristics of barchans.
 Crescent shaped two horn pointing downward.
 Steep concave leeward slope due to eddies
 Gentle convex slopes due to prevailing winds
 Asymmetrical in shapes because of the gentle windward slopes and
steep leeward slopes.

Diagram.

141
2 seif dune

Are formed from a combination of barchans.

They are longitudinal in form and lie parallel to the general direction of the
wind.
The seif dunes can be up to 100m high and over 120 km in length.
The steepness of the slopes is about 20*.
Wind eddies help in clearing the corridors of any sand.
Diagram

Parabolic

142
3 parabolic dunes

These are u-shaped mounds of sand with convex noses trailed by

elongated arms.
Unlike barchans, their arms point upward.
Parabolic dunes depend on vegetation (grass, shrubs and trees) which help
anchor the trailing arms as the nose migrate downwards.
They are formed when sand is eroded from a blowout and deposited in
the immediate vicinity.
4 star dunes
These are pyramidal sand mounds with three or more arms that radiate
from the high Centre of the mound.
They are found in areas with a multi-directional wind regimes.
They grow upward rather than sideways.

Diagram.

143
5 transverse dunes
These dunes are perpendicular to the prevailing wind.
One sides of the crest (a) is eroded by the eddies effect of the wind, and
the eroded material is deposited on the next side (b).
Diagram.

144
Action of water in deserts
Water occurs in hot deserts and the evidence for this is as follows:
1 some storm occurs, bringing with them some quantities of rainfall. These
may be quite sudden and heavy and cause flash floods or they may be
lighter.
2 dew is deposited during the early morning
3 coastal deserts experience fogs, for example the south west of Africa.
4 some major rivers of the world flow across deserts for example in Nile
River in Egypt.

Landforms resulting from the action of water

Wadis
Are deep and steep-sided valleys resulting from vertical erosion and lateral
erosion of a stream channel.
Usually vertical erosion exceed lateral erosion which causes the steep
slopes.
The debris is carried by the powerful stream after a rare storm and is
deposited on the valley floor of the wadis.
Diagrams.

145
The steepest wadis were formed in the past when it was wetter during the
pluvial periods e.g. wedi Zem Zem in Libya.
Inlands basins
Are formed where streams flow from the surrounding uplands into some
depressions.
The depression become temporary lakes or pans also referred to as playa
lakes or salt pans/lakes.
Diagram.

146
At the base of the basin, streams deposit sediment and alluvial fan.
Diagram.

The alluvial fans may join up to form features called bajada and bahada.
Mesas and buttes.
Plateaus that are flat-topped highland may have areas of weakness where
erosion outs through, creating deeps valley separating uplands.
The larger uplands are called mesas and the smaller one are called buttes.
Buttes result from the denudation of large mesas
A hard rocks may overlies the mesas and then they become flat-topped
147
just like Table Mountains.
Diagram.

Pediments.
Is a gentle slopes, almost concave in profile.
The slopes have a 7* angles on the upper part and ½* on the lower part.
They are formed by erosion from desert floods.
The desert piedmont.
The piedmont zones describes the part between desert highlands and
lowlands.
The words piedmont is derived from the two Italian words namely ‘piede’
meaning ‘foot’ and ‘Monte’ meaning ‘mountain’ so piedmont is the
mountain foot.
It comprises a steep scarp slopes called a mountain front a piedmont
angles where gradient changes and alluvial material collects forming an
alluvial fan or bajada.
The pediment lies between the bajada and the peripediment.
Diagram.

148
Desertification and challenges it poses to peoples.
Desertification refers to the spreads of desserts condition.
Causes of desertification
Physical
Climatic
I. Rainfall decrease
II. Increase in evapotranspiration

Human activities
I. Population increase
II. Land cultivation
III. Overgrazing
IV. Deforestation
V. Expansion of human.

Effects or dangers of desertification

 Sparse vegetation, sand
 Water source dry up
 Livestock dies
 Less food-famines/hunger
 Less rainfall.

Combating desertification
 Afforestation
 Reforestation
 Contours
149
  Terracing
 Paddocking
 Settle oases
 Dry farming
 Dam construction
 Wind breaks
 Education
 Legislation

BIOTIC STUDIES
Biotic (living elements)
Abiotic (non –living elements)
Elements /components of the environment.
Air (atmosphere)
Soil (lithosphere)
Stones
Water (hydrosphere)
Living things (biosphere)

Ecosystems
Is the study of the interaction of plants and animals with each other and
environment.
Is a group of plants and animals that live together and interact with other
elements of the environments.
Features of an ecosystem

150
Structures of an ecosystem.
An ecosystem comprises biotic components which are producers,
consumers and reducers
1 producers.
The green plants are the major producers.
They use energy from the sun, carbon dioxide and water to produce food
in a process called photosynthesis.
Plants are a major source of food for other organisms in any ecosystem.
2 consumers
There are three of consumers: primary, secondary and tertiary consumers.
I. Primary consumers. These are animals or creatures that feed on
plants such as grazers and browsers. They feed on vegetation and
are called herbivores.
II. Secondary consumers. These feed on primary consumers the
herbivores and are called carnivores. Carnivores hunt kill and eat
their prey and are called predators e.g. lion.
III. Tertiary consumers. These feed on both primary, secondary
consumers for examples people and are called omnivores.

3 reducers
This group comprises the decomposers such as bacteria and fungi.
These organisms decompose dead animals and plants.
Reducers are vital because they break down the chemical into simpler
ones that can be taken up by the producer from the soil.

151
Food chain
Is a feeding relationship which shows the organisms which feed on each
other, they gain energy they need for all the things they have to do to
survive.

Basic food chain.

The sun –producer-consumers-decomposers

Sun –plant-hare-lion-bacteria

The feeding levels are called tropical levels.

These are the position occupied by the producers, consumers and
reducers in a feeding system.
The tropic level can best be illustrated using a tropical pyramid.

Trophic pyramid

Diagram

152
The number of species at each level decrease because energy is
progressively lost at each level.
Therefore there is less energy left at each level for the next level resulting
in decreasing number of species.

Succession in ecosystem

This is a development of forest from almost bare area to a mature or

closed forest (primary plant succession).
Primary plant succession ends up in climax vegetation.
A climax vegetation such as the closed forest is adjusted to the
environmental conditions in the area is stable and does not change unless
the physical conditions change or is disturbed by humans
In case where vegetation was removed the vegetation that replaces it is
secondary vegetation and the type of succession is secondary succession.

Factors that influence vegetation

1 climate
(a) Rainfall
(b) Temperature.
2 soil condition
3 reliefs
4 biotic factors

Soil and ecosystems

Soil
Is the upper of the earth where plants grows and animals lives.
Soil comprises mainly minerals matter, organic matter air water.
The parent rocks from which soils are derived included igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic.
Climate.
The rate of rocks, weathering is influenced by climate
Rate of weathering are high in parts of the world where temperature and
rainfall are high.
These are usually the tropical rainforest areas and some sub-tropical area
such as the savannah.
The large amount of humus in these area assist in the formation of organic
acids which promote high rates of decay.
153
Relief.
Steep slopes are usually associated with thin soils because the rates of soil
erosion are higher.
Gentle, low-lying slopes develop waterlogged soils because of the poor
drainages.
Water accumulates down slopes, because it receives water from the upper
slopes as well as minerals and organic matter
More mature soils, which are deep are likely to develop.
Organisms.
The nutrient cycles, which is the continuous movement of nutrients
between living and non-living components of an ecosystem, is vital for the
well-being of soils.
Bacterial and fungi break down dead vegetation through decay and
decomposition.
Earthworms and termites also help to mix minerals and organic material.
Time.
Soil formation is an extremely long process.
A good soil takes at least 3000 years to form
Recently formed soils are closely related to the parent rock in terms of
their characteristics.
The soil profile
The horizontal layers or horizontal of the soil.
Diagram.

154
Horizon A
This layer is also referred to as top soil.
The humus content is high in this layer.
The humus is derived from the decomposition of dead plants and animals.
In this layer, under condition of high.
Leaching is the downward movement of soluble minerals.
Horizontal A is therefore also referred to as the zone of illuviation.
Horizon B
This is the subsoil and can also be referred to as the zone of accumulation.
Material from zone A accumulate in the zone of illuviation.
Horizon C
This layer comprises material that has just been weathered
It is very compact with very few pore space.
Horizon D
This layer comprises unweathered rocks.

Soil characteristic.
1 composition of soils
As noted earlier, soil organic matter air water and mineral matters.
155
5% 25% 25% 45%
Organic water air Mineral
matter matter

2 minerals
Minerals are derived from the parent material through the process of
weathering.
3 organic matter
Soil nutrients come from organic matter or humus
The organic matter is derived from the decomposition of dead plants and
animals.
4 air
Air is also vital for the respiration of soil-living organisms which are
responsible for recycling nutrients.
5 water in soil
Soil moisture is a vital component of any soil.
It plays a very important part in the transporting and dissolving of
nutrients.
There must also be sufficient moisture in soil so that plants do not wilt and
die under moisture stress
6 soil texture
Texture describes how the soil particles feel, that is, how coarse or fine the
particles of the rocks are.
For example sand is course with little clay, silt is quite smooth and clay is
fine, plastic and sticky.
7 soil structure

Particles of soil make up the structure of soil when they are held together.
The particles may give the rock is blocky structure, platy structure or a
granular or crumby structure.
8 soil acidity (pH)
Soil pH determines the degrees of acidity or alkalinity of a soil.
This is measured of a pH scale.

Soil erosion
Soil form important component of an ecosystem.
Plants are supported by the soil and they are nourished by nutrients and
soil moisture.
Types of soil erosion
156
Soil erosion is the washing away of top soil by agents such as running
water and winds.
1 splash erosion
This is associated with the detachment of soil particles by the force of the
raindrops.
After a while, the particles themselves block the pore spaces and the
surface is compacted or closed up so that no water infiltrate or is
absorbed, but flows over the land as run-off.
2 sheet erosion or sheet wash.
This occurs on extensive area where soil particles are removed and moved
elsewhere by run-off
Sheet erosion lower the surface by removing the soil.
It is common where large parts of rocks are exposed or on gentle sloping
areas where water flows as sheet flow over the whole surface.
3 gully erosion
Running water takes advantages of the channels or rills it cuts out and
widens them to become deep gorges.
This type of erosion may results in large areas being rendered useless.

Causes of soil erosion

Population increase.
Deforestation.
Overgrazing.
Monoculture.
Cultivation downslopes.
Steepness of slopes
Soil type.
Existence of bare rock.
Vegetation cover.

End

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