INDEX

PAGE NO.
SNO. TOPIC

1
INTRODUCTION 3

DISTRIBUTION
2
OF 4-13
TEMPERATURE

VARIATION OF
3 13-15
TEMPERATURE

SIGNIFICANCE
4 OF 16
TEMPERATURE

5 CONCLUSION 17

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QUESTION :
DISCUSS IN DETAIL THE
FACTOR AFFECTING UNEVEN
DISTRIBUTION OF SEASONAL
TEMPERATURE ON THE
EARTH’S SURFACE?

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
• The ultimate source of heat and energy is the Sun. The divergent
heat received from the sun on the different regions on Earth is the
utmost reason behind the different climate features. So
understanding the pattern of temperature distribution on Earth in
different seasons is important for understanding different climatic
features such as precipitation, wind system, pressure system,
etc.
• The interaction of incoming solar radiation (insolation) with the
atmosphere and the earth’s surface creates heat. This is
measured in terms of temperature
• Planets closer to the Sun receive much more solar radiation than
planets farther out in the solar system. The Earth receives 342
Watts per meter squared or W/m2; this received energy from solar
radiation is called insolation. That’s about twice as much insolation
as Mars and half as much as Venus.
However, Earth doesn’t absorb all of the solar radiation that comes
our way. About 30% of it reflects off of light-colored surfaces, like
clouds, snow, ice, and sandy deserts. The fraction of reflected light is
known as albedo, and it also varies between planets (see Figure 4).
Mercury, which has virtually no atmosphere or ice, reflects only 10% of
incoming radiation, while Venus, which is cloaked in a thick haze of
carbon dioxide, reflects about 75%.

Table showing data about the planet

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1.2 DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE
Temperature indicates the relative degree of heat of a substance. Heat
is the energy which make things or objects hot, while temperature
measures the intensity of heat.
Although quite distinct from each other, yet heat and temperature are
closely related because gain or loss of heat is necessary to raise or
lower the temperature.
The celsius scale, named after the swedish astronomer. Anders Celsius,
is accepted internationally by Scientists for reporting air temperature.
The historical temperature records of several English-speaking countries
include values on the Fahrenheit scale, Fahrenheit temperatures may be
converted to their celsius equivalents by the formula 5 C (F 32) 9 .
Moreover, difference in temperature determines the direction of flow
of heat. This we can understand by studying temperature distribution.
Distribution of temperature varies both horizontally and vertically.
A) Horizontal Distribution of Temperature

B) Vertical Distribution of Temperature

1.2.1Horizontal Distribution of Temperature

Distribution of temperature across the latitudes over the surface of the

earth is called its horizontal distribution.

On maps, the horizontal distribution of temperature is commonly shown

by isotherms.

When we analyse an isotherm map, it can be seen that the horizontal

distribution of temperature is uneven.

Isotherms are line connecting points that have an equal temperature.

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 • FIG 1: HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE IN JANUARY

• Horizontal Distribution of Temperature in January. In January, the sun

shines vertically overhead near the Tropic of Capricorn. Hence it is
summer in southern hemisphere and winter in northern hemisphere.
• High temperature is found over the landmasses mainly in the regions
including north-west Argentina, east and central Africa, and, central
Australia in the southern hemisphere. Isotherm of 30°C closes them. In
the northern hemisphere landmass arc cooler than oceans.
• During this time northeast Asia experiences lowest temperatures. As
the air is warmer over oceans than over landmasses in the northern
hemisphere, the Isotherms bend towards poles when they cross the
oceans.
• In southern hemisphere, the position of the isotherms is just reverse.
They bend towards poles when they cross the landmasses and towards
equator when they cross oceans. Large expanse of water exists in
southern hemisphere.
• Hence, isotherms are regular and widely spaced in the southern
hemisphere.

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 Fig:2 HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE IN JULY

• Horizontal Distribution of Temperature in July During this period

the sun shines vertically overhead near the Tropic of Cancer.
• Hence, high temperatures are found in the entire northern
hemisphere.
• Isotherm of 30°C passes between 10° N and 40° N latitudes. The
regions having this temperature include south western USA, the
Sahara, Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, desert region of India, and
China.
• However, lowest temperature of 0°C is also noticed in the
Northern Hemisphere during summer in the central part of
Greenland.
• During summer in the northern hemisphere, isotherms bend
equatorward while crossing oceans and poleward while crossing
landmasses.
• In southern Hemisphere the position of isotherms is just opposite.

The difference between the average temperatures of warmest and

the coldest months is known as annual range of temperature.
Annual range of temperature is larger in the interior parts of the
continents in middle and high latitudes of the northern hemisphere.
Verkhoyansk in Siberia records 66°C, the highest annual range of
temperature in the world. Its lowest average winter temperature is-
50°C. Hence it is aptly called cold pole of the earth.

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1.2.2 The factors responsible for the uneven
horizontal distribution of temperature are:
(i) Latitude

(ii) Land and Sea Contrast

(iii) Relief and Altitude

(iv) Ocean Currents

(v) Winds
(vi) Vegetation Cover

(vii) Nature of the soil

(viii) Slope and Aspect

1. Latitude :
• We have already studied under’insolation’ that the angle of
incidence goes on decreasing from equator towards poles.
• Higher the angle of incidence, higher is the temperature. Lower
angle of incidence leads to the lowering of temperature.
• It is because of this that higher temperatures are found in tropical
regions and they generally decrease at a considerable rate toward
poles.

FIG3 EFFECT OF ANGLE OF INCIDENCE ON INSOLATION

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 2. Land and Sea Contrast:
• Land and sea contrast affects temperature to a great extent.
• Land gets heated more rapidly and to a greater degree than
water during sunshine. It also cools down more rapidly than
water during night.
• Hence, temperature is relatively higher on land during day time
and it is higher in water during night. In the same way there are
seasonal contrasts in temperature.
• During summer the air above land has higher temperature than
the oceans. But the air above oceans gets higher temperature than
landmasses in winter.
• Not withstanding the great contrast between land and water
surfaces, there are differences in the rate of heating of different
land surfaces.
• A snow covered land as in polar areas warms very slowly
because of the large amount of reflection of solar energy. A
vegetation covered land does not get excessively heated because
a great amount of insolation is used in evaporating water from the
plants.

FIG4 SEA BREEZE AND LAND BREEZE

3. Relief and Altitude:

• Relief features such as mountains, plateaus and plains control the
temperature by way of modifying its distribution.
• Mountains act as barriers against the movement of winds. The
Himalayan ranges prevent cold winds of Central Asia from entering
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 • India, during winter. Because of this Kolkata is not as cold as
Guangzhou (Canton) in winter though both are situated almost on
the same latitude.
• As we move upwards from sea level, we experience gradual
decrease in temperature.
• Temperature decreases at an average rate of 60C per 1000 m.
altitude. It is known as normal lapse rate.
• The air at lower elevations is warmer than that of higher elevations
because it is closest to the heated surface of the earth. As a result
mountains are cooler than the plains even during summers.

It is worth remembering that the rate of decrease of temperature with altitude

varies with time of day, season and location.

FIG5 CHANGING IN AIR TEMPERATURE WITH ALTITUDE

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Quito and Guayaquil are two cities of Ecuador (South America) situated near
the equator and relatively close to each other. Quito is at 2800 metres. high
from mean sea level while Guayaquil is just at 12 metres altitude. However
because of difference in altitude. Quito experiences annual mean temperature
of 13.3°C while in Guayaquil it is 25.5°C.

4. Ocean Currents:
• Ocean currents are of two types - warm and cold.
• Warm currents make the coasts along which they flow warmer,
while cold currents reduce the tempeeture of the coasts along
which they flow.
• The North-Western European.Coasts do not freeze in winter due
to the effect of North Atlantic Drift (a warm current), while the
Quebec on the coast of Canada is frozen due to the Cold Labrador
Current flowing along it, though the Quebec is situated in lower
latitudes than the North-West European Coast.

FIG 6 OCEAN CURRENTS

5. Winds :
Winds also affect temperature because they transport heat from one region to the other,
about which you have already studied under advection.

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 6. Vegetation Cover:
• Soil devoid of vegetation cover receives heat more rapidly than the soil under
vegetation cover. Because vegetation cover absorbs much of sun’s heat and then
prevents quick radiation from the earth whereas the former radiates it more rapidly.
• Hence the temperature variations in dense forested areas are lower than those in
desert areas.
• For example annual range of temperature in equatorial regions is about 5°C while in
hot deserts, it is as high as 38°C.

7. Nature of the Soil:

• Colour, texture and structure of soils modify temperature to a great degree.
Black, yellow and clayey soils absorb more heat than sandy soils.
• Likewise heat radiates more rapidly from sandy soils than from black, yellow
and clayey soils.
• Hence temperature contrasts are relatively less in black soil areas than those
of sandy soils.

8. Slope and Aspect :

• Angle of the. slope and its direction control the receipt of
insolation.
• The angle of incidence of sun’s rays is greater along a gentler
slope and smaller along a steeper slope. The ray in both the cases
carry an equal amount of solar energy.
• Greater concentration of solar energy per unit area along gentler
slope raises the temperature while its lesser concentration along
steeper slopes lowers the temperature.
• For such reasons, the southern slopes of the Himalaya are warmer
than the northern ones.
• At the same time the slopes, in terms of aspect, exposed to the
sun receive more insolation and are warmer than those which are
away from the direct rays of the sun.
• The northern slopes of the Himalaya for example, not facing the
sun are exposed to cold northernly winds are obviously colder.
• On the other hand the southern slopes of the Himalaya are sun-
facing and are also shelter from the northernly cold winds are
warmer.
• Hence we observe settlements and cultivation largely on the
southern slopes of the Himalaya while the northern slopes are
more under forest area.

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 Latitude, land and sea contrast, relief and altitude, oceans currents, winds,
vegetation cover, nature of soil, slope and aspect control the distribution of
temperature in the world.

FIG 7 ASPECTS OF SLOPE

1.2.1 Vertical Distribution of Temperature

• The temperature in the troposphere decreases with increase in
altitudes but the rate of decrease in temperature changes
according to seasons.
• The decrease of temperatures is known as vertical
temperature gradient or normal lapse rate which is 1000 times
more than the horizontal lapse rate.
• The decrease of temperature upward in the atmosphere
proves the fact that the atmosphere gets heat from the Earth
surface through the process of conduction, radiation, and
convection.
• Hence, it is obvious that as the distance from the Earth’s
surface (the source of direct heat energy to the atmosphere)
increases (i.e as the altitude increases), the air temperature
decreses.

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2. Inversion of Temperature
• Inversion of temperature is a phenomenon in which temperature
rises with rising altitude temporarily and locally under particular
conditions.
• Inversion is usually just temporary, yet it is fairly prevalent.
• Long winter nights, bright skies, dry air, and no winds result in
rapid heat radiation from the earth's surface and lower layers of the
atmosphere.
• The air near the earth's surface cools as a result of this. The higher
layers, which lose heat more slowly, are rather warm.
• As a result, the normal temperature declines with increasing
height. The cooler air is closer to the ground, while the warmer air
is higher up.
• To put it another way, the temperature rises with height, either
temporarily or locally.
• The phenomena of temperature inversion is most commonly seen
in intermountain valleys due to air drainage.
• The rapid radiation of heat causes the mountain slopes to chill
swiftly throughout the winter.
• The air above them grows colder as well, and its density rises. As
a result, it descends the hills and settles in the lowlands.

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 • This air forces the comparatively warmer air of the lowlands
higher, resulting in a temperature inversion.
• In the valleys, it is not uncommon for temperatures to drop below
freezing, resulting in frost. The higher slopes, on the other hand,
remain noticeably warmer.
• Air drainage is the movement of heavy, dense cold air towards the
valley slopes, almost like water.

2.1 Air Drainage

• Because of air drainage, an inversion occurs in hills and
mountains. The cold air formed at night in the highlands and
mountains flows under the pull of gravity.
• Because it is heavy and dense, cold air travels down the slope
nearly like water, accumulating firmly in pockets and valley
bottoms with warm air above.
• This is referred to as air drainage. It shields plants against the
effects of frost.

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 3. VARIATIONS IN THE SEASON DUE TO
TEMPERATURE
• The Earth contains many different climate types. From the teeming tropical
jungles to the frigid polar wastelands, there seems to be an almost endless
variety of climatic regions.
• There are many factors that determine or control the climate in any given
place. Perhaps the most obvious and strongest influencing factor on
climate is the yearly variation in the amount of solar energy received from
the sun.
• This varies with latitude and time of year giving rise to what are termed
"seasonal changes".
• The severity of seasonal changes during a year, from summer to winter,
depends strongly on the latitude where you live. There are only small
seasonal changes in temperature at lower latitudes (near the equator)
with increasingly larger seasonal changes in temperature at higher
latitudes (toward the north and south pole).
• Two observable "seasonal changes" that take place during a calendar
year at a given location on Earth (latitude) are
• Changes in the intensity of sunshine received
• The changes in length of daylight hours.
• These astronomical changes give rise to variations in temperature
throughout the year.
• The severity of seasonal changes is not the same at all latitudes.
• Seasonal changes in temperature at the equator and throughout the
tropics are minor.
• As you move further away from the Equator, seasonal changes become
more severe, and the largest seasonal changes occur at the north and
south poles and throughout the Arctic and Antarctic regions. The
explanation for seasonal changes is based on the geometry of Earth's
yearly orbit about the Sun relative to the Earth's daily rotation.
• Seasonal changes in the intensity and duration of sunshine are probably
different from what you are used to. For example, the "summer season"
is popularly defined as the season extending from the summer solstice
(around June 21) through the fall equinox (around September 21).
• As we have seen, the day of maximum solar intensity (or maximum
solar heating) in the northern hemisphere occurs on the summer
solstice.

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 • We may wonder why summer solstice is not typically the warmest time
of the year. The reason is that there is a lag between the maximum solar
heating and the warmest time of the year.
• In the northern hemispere, the warmest temperatures generally occur
near the end of July and the beginning of August, even though the
maximum heating from the sun happens on the summer solstice
(around June 21).

4. Significance Of Temperature distribution

• It aids in understanding various climatic elements such as
precipitation, wind system, pressure system, and so on.
• It is helpful in assessing global warming and so in the process of
taking precautionary steps.
• Each day Earth receives energy in the form of incoming solar
radiation from the sun. This shortwave solar radiation ranges
mostly from ultraviolet (0.2 μm wavelength) to the near-infrared
(2.0 μm wavelength), but reaches its maximum at around 0.5 μm
wavelength (blue-green visible light). This insolation is absorbed
by Earth’s surface and is converted to heat (longwave radiation).
Earth’s (terrestrial) longwave radiation reaches its peak intensity at
the 10 μm wavelength (thermal infrared) and is responsible for
heating the lower atmosphere.

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 • Temperature is represented by a human-invented quantitative
measure of heat energy emitted by or contained within a surface or
material. As such, these numerical temperature values can be
used to differentiate one climatic region from another. Spatial
variations in temperatures (i.e. temperature distributions) occur
both vertically and horizontally within the Earth’s atmospheric
envelope.

• These temperature distributions, their causes and variations

5. CONCLUSION
Sun is the primary source of energy on earth. Sun’s energy reaching the
earth in short waves is called insolation. The amount of insolation
depends upon angle of incidence, duration of the day and transparency
of the atmosphere.

• Distribution of temperature varies both horizontally and vertically.

Certain factors control its distribution.
• They are latitude, land and water contrast, winds, ocean currents,
altitude and aspect of slope.
• Horizontal distribution of temperature is shown on a map with the
help of isotherms, the imaginery lines joining places of equal
temperature.
• Temperature also decreases with increasing altitude. The rate at
which it decreases in normal conditions is known as normal lapse
of temperature. It is 60C per 1000m of height.
• The phenomenon of inversion of temperature occurs when
temperature increases with increase in height: It is generally local
and temporary in character.

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