1. ПРАДАВНЯ ІСТОРІЯ БРИТАНІЇ.

ІБЕРИ

The history of Great Britain, an island off the coast of Europe, dates back
hundreds of thousands of years. The earliest evidence of human life is a small
collection of stone tools from the Palaeolithic period, around 250,000 BC, which
marks the presence of early inhabitants long before the island separated from the
mainland of Europe following the last ice age.
After the ice age, the climate of the British Isles became warmer, prompting a
shift in the lifestyle of the inhabitants. This transition marked the Neolithic
revolution, brought about by the arrival of migrants from the Mediterranean known
as the Iberians around 3000 BC. These newcomers, rather than adhering to the
previously established hunter-gatherer way of life, began to cultivate crops and
domesticate animals. Remnants of the Iberians' presence include the ancient village
of Scara Brae, burial mounds known as barrows, and ritual sites termed henges. The
most famous of these henges is the iconic Stonehenge, a monument that still stands
today.
The ensuing Bronze Age, commencing around 2000 BC, saw another wave of
migration into Britain. This time, newcomers known as the Beaker people arrived
from Europe. They are named after the distinct pottery found in their burial sites.
Their influence extended to the architectural landscape, with the dominant form of
settlement transitioning to fortified hill-forts. These enclosures, often perched atop
hills, became common throughout the region.
This period in Britain's history extended until the arrival of the Celts around
800 BC, marking the beginning of the Iron Age. The Celts, originating from Central
Europe, introduced a new culture, language, and technological advancements,
including ironworking, which significantly influenced the development of Britain.
The Celtic conquest began a new era in the ancient history of Britain.
Thus, from the earliest evidence of human life to the Celtic conquest, the
ancient history of Britain is characterized by significant migrations, cultural
evolutions, and technological advancements, laying the foundation for the society
that would continue to evolve over the subsequent centuries.

2. КЕЛЬСТСЬКА НАВАЛА ТА ЇЇ ЗНАЧЕННЯ ДЛЯ ІСТОРІЇ ТА КУЛЬТУРИ БРИТАНІЇ

The Celtic invasion of Britain, starting around 750 BC, marked the onset of the
Iron Age and introduced transformative cultural, technological, and social changes
to the island. The Celts, originally from Eastern Europe, brought with them the
knowledge of iron mining and working, enabling the production of stronger
weapons and tools. This innovation extended to transportation, with iron-wheeled
chariots that improved mobility and influenced warfare and trade.
The Celts organized themselves into tribes, characterized by a military
aristocracy, and their societal pattern often fluctuated between conflict and
peaceful trade amongst themselves and with Ireland and continental Europe. One of
the most notable aspects of Celtic society was the central role of Druids, priests who
were integral to the ruling class. Their way of life and society was first recorded in
writing by Julius Caesar during his exploratory expedition in 55 BC.
The Celts encountered significant challenges with the invasion of the Romans
in 43 AD under Emperor Claudius. The lack of cohesive resistance among the Celtic
tribes led to their defeat and the integration of Britain into the Roman Empire as the
province of Britannia by the end of the first century AD. Despite sporadic resistance,
such as the uprising led by Queen Boudicca of the Iceni in 60 AD, the Roman Empire
retained control over Britain. Over time, many Celts adopted Roman customs and
language, leading to Latin becoming the official language in the southwest of the
country.
One of the Romans' notable contributions was a robust road system, but their
efforts to maintain control over the north (Caledonia) proved futile. Instead,
Emperor Hadrian built a defensive wall to secure the frontier. By the fifth century,
the Roman Empire started withdrawing its troops from Britain to defend Rome from
Germanic tribes, leading to the end of Roman influence in Britain by 410 AD. The
departure of Roman troops left the Britons vulnerable to invasions from the Picts,
Scots, and Saxons.
The post-Roman era, often termed the "Dark Ages," witnessed an invasion by
the Teutonic tribes of Jutes, Angles, and Saxons around 447 AD. The influx of these
tribes and their conquest displaced the Romano-British and diminished Roman
influence on British culture, save for the roads, city foundations, and some Latin
vocabulary. The Celts, in turn, were driven into regions such as Wales, Cornwall, and
the lowlands of Scotland. Some also fled to the British colony of Armorica on the
continent, which later became known as Brittany, or "Little Britain."
Despite the tumultuous history of invasions and migrations, the Celts' legacy
remains a significant part of British history and culture. Their arrival marked a
transformative era, and their contributions, particularly in terms of language, social
structure, and technological advancements, have played an enduring role in shaping
the historical narrative and cultural fabric of Britain.
3. РИМСЬКЕ ЗАВОЮВАННЯ БРИТАНСЬКИХ ОСТРОВІВ

The Roman conquest of the British Isles began in earnest in AD 43 under

Emperor Claudius, following two less successful information-gathering expeditions
by Julius Caesar in 55 BC. The Celtic tribes, despite their fierce resistance, were
unable to coordinate effectively against the well-organised Roman invaders, leading
to their eventual subjugation.
By the end of the first century AD, Britain was completely integrated into the
Roman Empire as the province of Britannia. The Roman rule was marked by a series
of successful campaigns by Roman governors that brought most of the island under
imperial control. However, this control was challenged notably in AD 60 when the
Romans encountered a major uprising of Celtic tribes led by Queen Boudicca of the
Iceni. The revolt caused significant damage, including the destruction of the Roman
capital Colchester and the important trading center Londinium, before being quelled
by Roman legions.
Despite this significant resistance, Roman influence gradually permeated
Celtic society, leading to the widespread adoption of Roman customs and the Latin
language, particularly in the southwest of the country. The Celts began to take pride
in their Roman citizenship and the wearing of the Roman toga became a symbol of
this new allegiance.
One of the most enduring legacies of Roman rule in Britain was the
construction of a comprehensive road system, which greatly improved connectivity
across the region. Another significant achievement was the construction of the
immense defensive Hadrian's Wall on the northern frontier, in an attempt to fortify
against the Picts from Scotland, as the Romans deemed it impossible to hold the
region of Caledonia (Scotland).
The Roman rule in Britain began to wane by the fifth century, as the Roman
Empire faced new threats from migrating Germanic tribes in Europe. In response to
these threats, Rome began pulling more of its troops out of Britain to defend the
capital, leaving the Britons vulnerable to attacks from the Picts, Scots, and Saxons.
The final Roman soldiers left Britain in 409, and a year later, in 410, Rome fell to the
Goths, marking the end of Roman interest in Britain. The Britons' ill-fated reliance
on Saxon mercenaries for defence against the Picts, where Roman legions had
previously been used, further destabilised the region.
The post-Roman period, often referred to as the "Dark Ages," saw a wave of
invasions by Germanic tribes, including the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons, which began
around 447. Over the next fifty years, these tribes displaced the Romano-British
from their native lands, leading to a significant decline in Roman cultural influence in
Britain, save for the roads, city foundations, and remnants of the Latin language.
In summary, the Roman conquest of the British Isles marked a transformative
period in the region's history, with lasting impacts on its infrastructure, language,
and culture, despite the eventual decline of Roman influence in the wake of
Germanic invasions.

4. АНГЛОСАКСЬКЕ ЗАВОЮВАННЯ

The Anglo-Saxon conquest marked a significant shift in the history of the

British Isles. Following the fall of Roman rule, the region once known as Britannia
was overtaken by three influential Germanic tribes: the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes,
whose arrival led to the renaming of Britannia as England, the land of Angles.
These tribes established several kingdoms in the region, forming a political
structure known as the heptarchy. This comprised of Kent, established by the Jutes,
Essex, Sussex, and Wessex established by the Saxons, and East Anglia, Mercia, and
Northumbria founded by the Angles. Each kingdom operated independently, but
shared a common language and culture.
The society in Anglo-Saxon England was structured into three tiers: the
nobility, free peasants, and slaves. Free men were expected to serve in the 'fyrd', a
form of national militia called upon in times of crisis, and pay a feorm, or food rent,
to the king. The kings, in turn, were advised by their council of wise men, known as
the Witan.
An efficient administrative system was put in place, dividing the land into
units called "shires", or counties, many of which still maintain their original
boundaries today. These counties were further subdivided into areas known as
"hundreds". This administrative model was considered one of the most effective in
Europe for a considerable period.
Anglo-Saxon society was largely agrarian, with most of the population
engaged in farming. Aristocratic life was communal, with social gatherings often
taking place in royal halls where professional bards would recite heroic ballads. The
most significant surviving epic from this period is "Beowulf", a renowned example of
Old English literature.
The religious landscape of England was transformed in 597 AD with the arrival
of a Christian mission led by a Roman monk, Augustine, dispatched by Pope
Gregory. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury and spearheaded the
conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. The introduction of Christianity
brought literacy to the region, and monasteries, also known as "minsters", became
centres of learning and education. The Venerable Bede, an eighth-century monk,
chronicled this period of change in his work "The Ecclesiastical History of the English
People".
In summary, the Anglo-Saxon conquest ushered in a new era in the history of
the British Isles, marked by a reshaping of the political, social, and religious
landscape, and the establishment of structures and traditions that would endure for
centuries to come.

5. НАБІГИ ДАНІВ НА ТЕРИТОРІЇ БРИТАНСЬКИХ ОСТРОВІВ. ЗАВОЮВАННЯ

КРАЇНИ ДАНАМИ

In 787, the first Vikings arrived on the shores of England, marking the
beginning of a 200-year period of incursions that would significantly disrupt the
recently established Christian society. These Scandinavian warriors, particularly the
Danes, became notorious for their swift and devastating raids.

By autumn of 870, the Danes had achieved considerable military success,

conquering nearly all of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Only Wessex remained
independent, under the reign of King Alfred. Alfred's forces managed to resist the
Danish invasion, notably at the Battle of Ethendun (also known as Edington) in 878,
where they achieved a decisive victory over the Vikings. Despite this victory, Alfred
was forced to accept the Danish colonization of a significant part of England, a
territory that would come to be known as the Danelaw.

In addition to his military success, King Alfred is also remembered for his
cultural contributions. He established a court school to educate the nobility and
invited renowned scholars to England. He also embraced English as the official
written language, translating numerous Latin works, including the History of the
Venerable Bede, into English. He initiated the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in the 890s and
developed a legal code, further contributing to the cultural identity of the country.

In the 980s, Viking raids on England resumed under Harold Bluetooth, the king
of Denmark and Norway. The English king at the time, Ethelred the Unready, was ill-
prepared for these assaults. In a bid to protect his realm, Ethelred paid off the
Vikings using funds raised through a heavy tax known as the Danegeld. However,
the respite was temporary. England was soon invaded by Viking armies, and by
1016, the Danish king Cnut (or Canute) had claimed the English crown.

The subsequent events were greatly influenced by the intervention of a

powerful nobleman from Sussex named Godwin. Following the death of Cnut's sons,
Godwin maneuvered to become the mentor to Ethelred's son, Edward. Under
Godwin's influence, Edward the Confessor, the penultimate Anglo-Saxon king, was
crowned in Winchester in 1043.

In conclusion, the Viking incursions, particularly those led by the Danes, had a
profound impact on the British Isles, resulting in the Danish conquest of much of
England and dramatic shifts in the region's cultural and political landscapes.

6. НОРМАНСЬКЕ ЗАВОЮВАННЯ. ФЕОДАЛЬНА АНГЛІЯ

The final years of Anglo-Saxon England were marked by a power struggle over
the throne. Edward the Confessor, who had a deep appreciation for Norman culture,
failed to produce an heir. Consequently, several claimants emerged including
Edward's half-nephew Edgar, Norwegian king Harold Hardrada, and Edward's cousin
William, Duke of Normandy.
Upon Edward's death, the Witan, a council of nobles, elected Harold
Godwinson king, despite his lack of royal blood. However, William of Normandy had
other plans. He assembled a fleet to invade England. Simultaneously, Harold's
brother Tostig, with Norwegian support, invaded northern England. Although Harold
managed to repel this invasion, his forces were severely depleted when they
encountered William's army at the Battle of Hastings on October 14th, 1066. William
emerged victorious, marking the end of Anglo-Saxon England.
William the Conqueror was crowned King of England on Christmas Day 1066.
He was a stern and ruthless ruler. His rule saw the replacement of the Anglo-Saxon
nobility with Normans, causing the Saxons to become a subordinate class. French
became the language of the aristocracy, while English was relegated to commoners.
The Norman Conquest introduced the feudal system to England, under which
the king owned all land, but granted it to vassals in exchange for military service and
a share of the land's produce. At the base of this societal structure were the serfs,
who were essentially slaves.
 In 1086, William conducted a comprehensive survey of the kingdom, which
was recorded in what came to be known as the Domesday Book. This survey
enabled William to maximize his taxation revenues and solidify his control over the
country. Additionally, the Church underwent significant reform, gaining its own
courts under the new regime.
William's successor, William II Rufus, led a markedly different reign. Known for
his avarice and extravagance, his taxing policies sparked rebellions, and his disregard
for the Church generated significant discontent. He met his untimely end while
hunting in the New Forest in 1100.
Following Rufus's death, his brother Henry seized the throne. Henry I
professionalized the government, established national law courts, and fostered the
growth of a legal profession. However, his designated heir, his daughter Matilda,
was rejected by the Normans and Anglo-Saxons, resulting in the ascension of his
nephew Stephen of Blois upon his death in 1135.
King Stephen's rule was characterized by a lack of law enforcement and
ensuing anarchy, allowing nobles to establish unlicensed castles and wreak havoc
upon the populace. Civil war broke out when Matilda invaded England in 1139. In
1153, it was agreed that Matilda's son Henry would succeed Stephen. This
arrangement came to fruition with Stephen's death in 1154, marking the beginning
of the Plantagenet dynasty under King Henry II. Thus, the Norman Conquest and the
resulting feudal system significantly shaped the history and social structure of
England.

7. РАННЄ СЕРЕДНЬОВІЧЧЯ. СТОЛІТНЯ ВІЙНА ТА ВІЙНА ТРОЯНД

The early Middle Ages in England was a time of significant political, social, and
cultural transformations. From the reign of the Plantagenet dynasty to the
culmination of the Wars of the Roses, the era was marked by territorial conquests,
power struggles, and the Hundred Years War.
The Plantagenet or Angevin dynasty ruled England from 1154 to 1485, starting
with Henry II. A proficient ruler, Henry II managed to restore law and order swiftly,
refining and overhauling the entire English judicial system. A key event of Henry's
reign was his tumultuous relationship with Thomas a' Becket, the Archbishop of
Canterbury, which resulted in Becket's murder and sparked widespread pilgrimage
to his shrine.
The subsequent rulers Richard I and John saw England's fortunes rise and fall,
respectively. Richard I, known as the Lionheart, prioritized his role in the Crusades
over ruling England, while John's tyrannical reign led to the historic signing of the
Magna Carta in 1215, an important step towards constitutional monarchy.
The Hundred Years War (1337-1453), though not a continuous campaign, was
a significant conflict between England and France, greatly influencing the political
landscape. The conflict arose due to territorial disputes and economic interests and
was marked by major victories such as the Battle of Sluys and Battle of Crécy.
However, the devastating impact of the Black Death shifted the dynamics of the
conflict and led to social changes, including the end of serfdom in England.
The reign of Richard II was marked by the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 and his
eventual deposition in 1399, leading to the establishment of the House of Lancaster.
The reigns of Henry IV, Henry V, and Henry VI were marked by power struggles,
culminating in the Wars of the Roses, a dynastic conflict between the Houses of
Lancaster and York.
The Battle of Agincourt under Henry V was a significant victory during the
Hundred Years War. However, it was his son Henry VI's mental illness that
exacerbated the power struggle, leading to the seizure of power by Edward VI of the
House of York.
The turbulent reign of Richard III and his supposed role in the disappearance
of the young princes led to widespread distrust and culminated in the Battle of
Bosworth Field. Richard III was killed in this battle, and Henry Tudor claimed the
throne, marking the end of the Wars of the Roses and the beginning of a new era in
England's history.
In conclusion, the early Middle Ages was a tumultuous period in England
characterized by warfare, power struggles, and significant socio-cultural
transformations. The Hundred Years War and the Wars of the Roses, in particular,
shaped the political landscape, with the eventual emergence of the Tudor dynasty
marking the end of this era.

8. ДИНАСТІЯ ТЮДОРІВ ТА ЇЇ ВЕСОК У РОЗВИТОК КРАЇНИ

The Tudor Dynasty, which ruled England from 1485 to 1603, was a period of
profound transformation for the nation and Europe. It encompassed significant
advancements in navigation, changes in global power dynamics, and the impacts of
the Renaissance and Reformation movement.
Henry VII, the first Tudor king, solidified his domestic position by marrying
Elizabeth of York and formed strategic international alliances by marrying off his
children to heirs of Spain, Scotland, and France. He sought to limit the Parliament's
role and imposed heavy fines and taxes, thereby amassing substantial wealth for the
crown, albeit at the cost of his popularity.
His successor, Henry VIII, was a Renaissance prince - a polymath and
sportsman. Alongside Cardinal Wolsey, Henry VIII sought a balance of power
between France and Spain, Europe's two greatest powers at the time. When Pope
denied his request for a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII broke away
from Rome and seized the Church's vast wealth. Over seven years (1529-1536), with
various acts passed by the Reformation Parliament, he established the Church of
England, with himself as the Head, replacing the Pope's authority.
Henry VIII's six marriages, and his desperation for a male heir, is one of the
most notable aspects of his reign. His third wife, Jane Seymour, finally gave him a
son, Edward VI. Henry's reign ended with him becoming obese and irritable.
Edward VI, a fervent Protestant, implemented radical reforms in the Church.
His untimely death led to the succession of his half-sister, Mary I, a devoted
Catholic. Her reign marked a return to Catholicism, with Protestants persecuted and
burned at the stake.
Elizabeth I, the last Tudor monarch, pursued a middle path in religious
matters, ushering in a period of relative peace and stability. Although she faced
pressures to marry and secure a Protestant succession, she remained unwed. Her
rule was marked by the constant challenge of balancing the emerging Puritan
movement with the Catholic faction, who plotted to install Mary Stuart, the Scottish
Queen, on the throne.
The religious strife had international repercussions, pitting England against
Spain, the Catholicism's protector. Even as Elizabeth I refrained from declaring an
open war, English seamen like Francis Drake and John Hawkins, effectively waged
one by attacking Spanish ships. This culminated in the defeat of the Spanish Armada
in 1588, under Drake's leadership.
Under Elizabeth I, England emerged as a dominant sea power, challenging
Spain in the New World. Explorer Sir Walter Raleigh established the first English
settlement in America, named Virginia in honor of the "Virgin Queen."
In conclusion, the Tudor Dynasty played a crucial role in shaping England's
religious, political, and international identity. Its impacts extended from the
establishment of the Church of England to asserting maritime dominance and
setting the stage for overseas colonialism.
9. БРИТАНІЯ ЗА ЧАСІВ ПРАВЛІННЯ ДИНАСТІЇ СТЮАРТІВ

The Stuart Dynasty began ruling England following Elizabeth I's death in 1603,
with the reign extending until 1714. This era was one of significant change, with
England emerging as a leading trading and colonizing nation globally, and the
unification of England and Scotland under a single crown.
James I was the first Stuart king. Unlike the Tudors, the Stuarts had a
profound consciousness of their hereditary right to rule, leading to clashes with the
increasingly politically important Parliament. A significant challenge for James I was
the two-front religious conflict led by the Church of England, with the Puritans and
Catholics. His harsh treatment led to the establishment of Puritan colonies in New
England, while Catholics were oppressed with heavy fines and restrictions. This
oppression culminated in the infamous Gunpowder Plot of 1605. James also
endorsed Protestant Scots' plantation in Ulster, Northern Ireland, leading to
centuries-long conflict.
Charles I, James' son, perpetuated tensions with Parliament, even closing it
for 11 years. When he required funds for war with Scotland, he had to summon
Parliament. This convened the Long Parliament, which enacted measures against
the monarchy and paved the way for civil war. Both the king and Parliament sought
military support from Scotland, which sided with Parliament, enhancing its forces.
From 1642 to 1649, the parliamentary Roundheads, led by Oliver Cromwell,
gradually overcame the Royalist Cavaliers. The execution of Charles I in 1649 marked
the establishment of a Republic, with Cromwell declared as Lord Protector.
Following Cromwell's death, Charles II was restored to the throne, marking a
shift from Cromwell's oppressive Puritanism. It was during his reign that political
parties started to emerge from the former Civil War factions, with Cavaliers evolving
into Tories and Roundheads into Whigs. The years 1665 and 1666 were marked by
the Great Plague and the Great Fire of London.
James II, Charles' successor, attempted to establish Catholicism as the state
religion, leading to his dethronement in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Parliament
offered the throne to his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband, William of
Orange. This was a critical juncture in reinforcing Parliament's position, asserting
that no English king could be a Catholic, or marry one, and maintain an army during
peacetime.
Queen Anne, succeeding her childless sister and brother-in-law, also failed to
produce an heir, leading to a Protestant relative assuming the throne and initiating a
new dynasty. Her reign was marked by the significant event of England and Scotland
unifying into Great Britain in 1707.
Life during the Stuart era was dominated by Protestant ideology, leading to
notable advancements in the study of the natural world and scientific development.
Great figures such as John Milton, Francis Bacon, William Harvey, Edmund Halley, Sir
Isaac Newton, and Christopher Wren were instrumental in shaping British and global
culture.
In conclusion, the Stuart Dynasty played a vital role in shaping Britain's
religious, political, and cultural identity. Its impacts extended from changing
religious affiliations to the country's unification and the establishment of significant
overseas colonies.

10. ПРОМИСЛОВА РЕВОЛЮЦІЯ ТА ЗМІНИ У ПОЛІТИЧНОМУ ЖИТТІ ВЕЛИКОЇ

БРИТАНІЇ

The eighteenth century marked a period of significant transformation in

England's governance, influenced by the arrival of a foreign dynasty. Decision-
making and policy-setting were now predominantly in the hands of the king’s
ministers and their Parliament supporters, shifting the power towards these groups.
With the ascension of George I to the throne, many hoped for a restoration of
the Stuart monarchy, culminating in the 1715 invasion attempt by James II's son,
James Edward Stuart, known as the Old Pretender. The rebellion, however, failed
miserably. The frequent absences of the king necessitated the creation of the Prime
Minister's post. Robert Walpole, the first Prime Minister, established the notion of
ministers working together in a "Cabinet".
The Whig party dominated the reign of George II, despite an attempted
Jacobite rebellion in 1745 led by Prince Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender.
The uprising was quashed at Culloden Moor, paving the way for Scotland's
prominent role in the British Empire's expansion. The Seven Years War (1756-63),
fought over colonial possessions, was Britain's most successful military campaign.
The late eighteenth century saw the Industrial Revolution, made possible by
an agricultural revolution that provided sufficient food for the growing urban
population. Changes in land ownership and farming methods, alongside factors like
capital availability, labour, increasing demand for goods, industrial innovation, new
power sources, and improved transport revolutionized British industry. The social
consequences were vast, leading to riots and the rise of the Luddites, who
sabotaged machinery displacing them from work.
George III's reign was marked by international conflicts and domestic social
struggle. A notable event was the revolt of Britain's American colonies due to
"taxation without representation". The war erupted in 1775, leading to the
Declaration of Independence's publication in 1776. The Patriots' ultimate victory,
largely due to France's support, led to the Treaty of Paris in 1783, recognizing the
American Colonies' independence.
Britain also participated in the anti-Napoleonic coalition, marked by the
crucial sea victory at Trafalgar in 1805. The eventual defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo
in 1815 signified the end of the Napoleonic era. In domestic affairs, the 1801 Act of
Union brought Ireland under Great Britain's influence.
The post-war economic crisis resulted in significant social and political
challenges during the reign of George III's sons. A key issue was the disparity
between the electoral system and the country's actual state. The 1832 Reform Bill
rectified this, increasing the number of voters and enabling the representation of 45
English towns in Parliament for the first time. This legislation symbolized the political
acknowledgment of Britain as an urban society.
In conclusion, the Industrial Revolution and subsequent political shifts in the
eighteenth century transformed Great Britain. This period underscored the
profound interplay between social change, economic forces, and political reform in
shaping the nation's trajectory.

11. ВІКТОРІАНСЬКА ЕПОХА ТА СТАНОВЛЕННЯ БРИТАНСЬКОЇ ІМПЕРІЇ

The Victorian era marked a significant period in British history, characterized

by immense growth and societal transformations. This era, which spanned from
1837 to 1901, was named after Queen Victoria, who was the longest-serving
monarch in British history until Queen Elizabeth II surpassed her tenure in 2015.
During Victoria's reign, significant social, political, and economic changes took
place, helping shape modern Britain. A key legislative milestone in this era was the
passage of the Reform Bill in 1832. It increased the number of voters and allowed
for representation of many towns in Parliament, thereby aligning the electoral
system more closely with societal realities.
Despite these advancements, the early years of Victoria's reign were marked
by social unrest primarily due to high unemployment and dissatisfaction among the
working class. Pressure groups like the Anti-Corn Law League, founded in 1838,
advocated for political reforms and the abolition of laws inhibiting the import of
cheap foreign corn. Such reforms became particularly urgent in the wake of the Irish
potato famine of 1846, which led to devastating loss of life.
A significant shift towards free trade took place under the leadership of Tory
Prime Minister Robert Peel, a move that split the Tories into two factions: the
Peelites and the Protectionists. This split eventually led to the formation of the
Liberal and Conservative parties.
The British Empire also grew extensively during this time, primarily in Africa
and India. It's important to note that Britain's initial interest in India was not
imperialistic but commercial, with control exerted by the East India Company rather
than the British government. However, the Indian Mutiny of 1857 marked a turning
point, after which the Crown took direct control of India.
The expansion of the British Empire also led to the Crimean War, during which
Florence Nightingale established a volunteer nursing corps. In Africa, Britain
occupied the Cape of Good Hope for its strategic location en route to India, and later
Egypt for control of the Suez Canal. Conflicts in these regions led to warfare and
political strife, particularly in the Boer territories in South Africa.
Queen Victoria's reign was not without personal hardships. After the loss of
her mother and husband in 1861, she withdrew from public life, leading to a decline
in the monarchy's popularity. Despite this, significant governmental reforms were
implemented during her reign, primarily under the leadership of Benjamin Disraeli
and Ewart Gladstone. These included improvements in education, labour conditions,
housing, and the electoral system.
The increased political activity of the working class during this period
eventually led to the creation of the Labour Party in 1900. However, self-
government was only granted to colonies dominated by white settlers, such as
Canada and Australia.
In conclusion, the Victorian era was a time of profound change in Britain. It
was marked by societal upheaval, political reform, and the expansion of the British
Empire. Despite the challenges faced during this period, it laid the groundwork for
many aspects of contemporary British society. Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee in
1897 was a testament to the enduring impact of her reign, both in Britain and its
colonies.
12. ВЕЛИКА БРИТАНІЯ У 20 СТОРІЧЧІ

The 20th century was a transformative period in British history, marked by

two world wars, significant social reforms, decolonization, and shifts in domestic
politics.
The century began with the Liberal Party's landslide victory in the 1906 elections,
leading to a wave of social reforms. However, Britain soon found itself embroiled in
the First World War as part of the Allied Powers, facing the Central Powers including
Germany and Austria-Hungary. The war was marked by trench warfare and heavy
casualties, and forced Britain to introduce conscription in 1916. The war concluded
on November 11, 1918, marking the end of one of the deadliest conflicts in human
history.
Post-war Britain faced numerous challenges, including the Irish Question
which led to the partition of Ireland into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland via
the Government of Ireland Act in 1920. Additionally, economic downturns and the
global depression significantly affected Britain's economy, leading to the formation
of the Labour Party's first government in 1924.
In the late 1930s, Britain largely overlooked the aggressive actions of
Germany, Italy, and Japan. The miscalculated appeasement of Hitler by British Prime
Minister Chamberlain led to Britain declaring war on Germany in 1939. Despite early
setbacks, Britain resisted German aerial attacks in the Battle of Britain, and received
crucial support from the Soviet Union and the United States.
Following the end of World War II, Britain underwent significant
transformations. The Labour government instituted the welfare state, establishing
the National Health Service and nationalizing key industries. However, the Suez
Crisis in 1956 exposed Britain's diminished role as a global power.
The subsequent decolonization process in the 1960s saw Britain granting
independence to many of its former colonies, which then joined the British
Commonwealth. Despite economic challenges in the 1970s, Britain's fortunes saw a
turnaround with the election of the Conservative Party under Margaret Thatcher in
1979, who introduced stringent economic control and privatization policies.
In 1997, Labour Party returned to power under Tony Blair. His administration
faced challenges like European Union integration and domestic power devolution,
resulting in the establishment of the Scottish Parliament, Northern Ireland
Assembly, and Welsh Assembly.
In conclusion, the 20th century was a time of profound changes for Britain. It
navigated through two global wars, experienced significant political and social shifts,
and redefined its role on the global stage. This period laid the groundwork for the
Britain of the 21st century, shaping its economic, political, and societal structures.

13. ВЕЛИКА БРИТАНІЯ НА ПОЧАТКУ 21 СТ.

The early 21st century saw Great Britain navigating an era of increasing
globalisation, changing social norms, and significant political shifts. This period was
marked by ongoing political, social, and economic transformations, all of which have
played pivotal roles in shaping modern Britain.
The Labour government under Tony Blair continued from the late 20th
century into the new millennium. Key issues faced by his government included
further integration with the European Union and the devolution of power within the
country. This led to the establishment of regional assemblies in Scotland, Northern
Ireland, and Wales, decentralising power and granting these regions more control
over their internal affairs. This period also witnessed the implementation of
numerous social policies, many of which aimed at reducing social inequality and
improving public services.
However, Britain's early 21st-century history was also marked by significant
challenges and controversies. The country was deeply affected by the global
financial crisis of 2008, which led to a severe economic recession. The government's
austerity measures in response to the crisis were a subject of widespread debate
and protest.
In foreign policy, Britain's participation in the Iraq War alongside the United
States sparked considerable controversy both domestically and internationally.
Subsequent investigations into the reasons for Britain's involvement in the war led
to questions about the country's foreign policy decision-making process.
One of the most significant political events of this period was the Brexit
referendum in 2016, where the majority of British voters elected to leave the
European Union. The result led to years of political negotiations and economic
uncertainty, as Britain sought to redefine its relationship with the EU and the rest of
the world. The Brexit process also highlighted deep-seated divisions within the
country, both between different regions and among the populace.
The early 21st century also saw a renewed focus on environmental issues. The
British government has made commitments to reduce carbon emissions and
transition to renewable energy sources, although the pace and effectiveness of
these efforts remain subjects of ongoing debate.
 In conclusion, the early 21st century was a period of profound change for
Great Britain. From political transformations and economic crises to societal debates
and environmental challenges, these years have been instrumental in shaping the
trajectory of the country into the rest of the century. The decisions and actions
taken during this period will undoubtedly have long-term impacts on the future of
Britain and its role in the world.

14. ВІДКРИТТЯ ТА КОЛОНІЗАЦІЯ АМЕРИКИ ЄВРОПЕЙЦЯМИ

The first people to live in North America came from Asia by a land bridge in
the Bering Strait in several waves between 10,000 and 30,000 years ago. These
people may have been following herds of buffalo or mammoths. They hunted,
fished, and where soil permitted they planted crops and farmed the land. They are
known as American Indians or Native Americans. While many of these peoples
retained a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle until modern times, others lived in
permanent villages and were primarily farmers, and in some regions they created
advanced state level societies with monumental architecture and large-scale,
organized cities (mostly in Southern America).
The initial contact between Europe and America was made by Viking explorers
around the year 1000, as evidenced by the remains of Viking settlements discovered
in Newfoundland. However, the large-scale exploration and colonization of the
American continents were launched in the Renaissance period due to advances in
navigation and the pressing need for new lands for overpopulated European
powers.
Christopher Columbus, a notable figure in this era, made transatlantic voyages that
opened the Americas to European exploration and colonization. His first voyage in
1492 is of historical significance, although he only reached the mainland during his
third voyage in 1498. Columbus mistook the lands for Asia, not realizing he had
discovered a new continent.
The European powers of Spain and Portugal swiftly initiated colonization and
conquest endeavors. They divided the profitable regions of South America, Central
America, and the Caribbean amongst themselves. In the 16th and 17th centuries,
England, France, and the Netherlands emerged as new colonial powers. The lands
that now form the eastern United States became attractive locations for these
powers to establish colonies.
 The English colonization of North America started in earnest in the late 16th
century when Queen Elizabeth I of England granted Sir Walter Raleigh permission to
establish colonies. The land was named Virginia, after the queen. King James I set up
the Virginia Company of London in 1606 with a directive to find gold in Virginia.
Ultimately, the colony's income came from tobacco farming, an endeavor which
heavily relied on slave labor.
In 1620, the Pilgrims, departing from Plymouth, England, landed in what is
now Massachusetts, establishing a settlement they named Plymouth. Despite initial
hardships, the settlement survived with assistance from Native Americans.
By the 18th century, the British colonies were grouped according to their
territories' natural and climatic conditions into the New England group, the Middle
Colonies, and the Southern Colonies. Each of these groups had its distinct economic
activities, creating diverse histories and economies. However, they were gradually
unified by shared events and trends, even as they started drifting from Great Britain.
Discontentment with British rule culminated in the American Revolution following
events like the Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party. The Revolutionary War,
which lasted from 1775 to 1783, resulted in America's independence from British
rule. The new country was established with a Constitution, a Bill of Rights, and
George Washington as the first President.
The following years saw the US expand its territory and experience significant
population movements. The Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the ideology of "Manifest
Destiny," and the acquisition of lands from Mexico greatly increased the country's
size. The Westward movement of settlers and completion of the First
Transcontinental Railroad further solidified America's presence in these new
territories.
In conclusion, the European discovery and colonization of America brought
about profound transformations. The collision of cultures, resources, and ambitions
resulted in a continent reshaped and a new nation born. This period will forever be a
cornerstone in the historical narrative of the Americas.

15. ВІЙНА ЗА НЕЗАЛЕЖНІСТЬ ТА СТАНОВЛЕННЯ США

The American War of Independence, also known as the Revolutionary War,

was a critical juncture in the establishment of the United States. It was a conflict
between Great Britain and thirteen of its North American colonies, which declared
themselves the independent United States of America.
The war started in 1775, due to growing political unrest in the colonies
because of the policies enforced by the British government, particularly taxation
without representation. This situation escalated with the Boston Tea Party in 1773
when colonists protested the British-imposed Tea Act by destroying a shipment of
tea. The event led the British Parliament to enact punitive laws referred to as the
"Intolerable Acts," further fueling the dissent.
In 1774, the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia, composed of
representatives from the colonies, to orchestrate a unified response to the British
actions. Following the Battles of Lexington and Concord in 1775, where the first
shots of the war were fired, the Second Continental Congress took on the roles of a
de facto national government. It appointed George Washington as commander-in-
chief of the newly formed Continental Army.
On July 4, 1776, the Congress approved the Declaration of Independence,
drafted mainly by Thomas Jefferson. The document declared that the thirteen
American colonies were "free and independent states," marking a formal assertion
of independence from British rule.
The Revolutionary War saw significant battles including Saratoga (1777),
which was a major victory for the Americans and played a key role in convincing
France to enter the war in alliance with the United States. This marked a turning
point in the war.
The war formally concluded with the Treaty of Paris in 1783, which
acknowledged the sovereignty of the United States over the territory bounded
roughly by present-day Canada to the north, Florida to the south, and the
Mississippi River to the west.
Post-war, the United States faced the significant challenge of creating a new
nation. In 1787, the Constitution was adopted, establishing a government with three
separate branches (legislative, executive, and judicial) to ensure a system of checks
and balances. The first ten amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, were added in
1791 to protect citizens' rights and freedoms.
Thus, the War for Independence and the subsequent formation of the
Constitution and Bill of Rights were crucial in shaping the United States. It laid the
foundations for a nation based on democratic principles, civil liberties, and a system
of government designed to prevent the concentration of power.

16. ГРОМАДЯНСЬКА ВІЙНА У США

 The American Civil War (1861-1865) was a critical turning point in the history
of the United States, causing a rift within the nation that fundamentally shaped its
trajectory. The clash between the North and the South arose from significant
differences in economic and social structures. The South was predominantly
agrarian, relying heavily on a slave labor force for the production of cotton. In
contrast, the North was largely industrial, with factories and manufacturing playing
a crucial role in its economy.
The election of Abraham Lincoln as the 16th President in 1860 resulted in the
secession of seven Southern states - South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama,
Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. These states went on to form the Confederate States
of America, a separate nation. The war began in earnest in 1861 when Confederate
guns opened fire on Fort Sumter, South Carolina.
The Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 marked a significant shift in the
ideological basis of the war by freeing all slaves in Confederate States. The surrender
of Confederate General Robert E. Lee at Appomattox Court House in 1865 signaled
the end of the war, leading to a return of peace, albeit brief, as President Lincoln
was assassinated shortly afterward.
Post-war, the Reconstruction period saw the defeated Southern states
reintegrated into the Union under a series of laws establishing the conditions and
procedures for this process. All Southern states were readmitted by 1870, but
Reconstruction continued until 1877. However, this period ended with a decline in
civil liberties for African Americans in the South, leading to the institution of
segregated society under the "Jim Crow Laws".
The late 19th century and early 20th century marked the era of the Second
Industrial Revolution in the US, leading to its emergence as the world's leading
industrial nation. Advances in technology, transportation, and corporate
organization fundamentally changed the nature of industry, resulting in the rise of
monopolies and trusts.
The Spanish-American War in 1898 marked a turning point, with the US
gaining control over islands in the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific. In 1903, President
Theodore Roosevelt supported Panama's independence from Colombia, leading to
the construction of the Panama Canal.
World War I saw the US enter the conflict against Germany after the sinking of
the Lusitania by a German submarine. The contribution of the US, including
President Wilson's Fourteen Points, was instrumental in the end of the war.
 The Roaring Twenties was a time of prosperity but ended with the stock
market crash of 1929, leading to a worldwide depression. The New Deal program of
President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 revived the economy.
World War II saw the US enter the conflict following the attack on Pearl
Harbor by Japan. The subsequent victories in Europe and the Pacific, culminating in
the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ended the war.
The post-war era was marked by social issues, notably the civil rights
movement led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and the Cold War with the USSR. The US
also turned its attention to international terrorism in the late 20th and early 21st
century.

17. ПРОМИСЛОВА РЕВОЛЮЦІЯ У США

The Industrial Revolution was a transformative period in the United States,

propelling the nation into its position as a leading industrial power. Spanning from
the mid-19th to the early 20th century, this period marked significant advances in
technology, industry, transportation, and communication that drastically altered the
American way of life.
The first Industrial Revolution primarily shifted production from artisans to
factories, fueled by advancements such as the cotton gin and the steam engine.
However, the second Industrial Revolution, taking place between 1865 and 1900,
was particularly influential for the United States.
Key to this era was the extensive growth in the organization, coordination,
and scale of industry. New technologies and transportation advancements
significantly augmented production and distribution capabilities. For instance, the
telegraph and telephone emerged as pivotal tools for communication, enabling
corporate managers to coordinate activities across vast distances.
Transportation innovations like the railway system facilitated the efficient
movement of goods and materials across the country. Moreover, the development
of the moving assembly line by Henry Ford revolutionized work organization and
greatly increased production speed and efficiency.
The second Industrial Revolution also witnessed the rise of corporations,
which expanded their influence by combining into trusts and creating monopolies.
This period saw the emergence of powerful business magnates, often termed
"captains of industry" or pejoratively as "Robber Barons." These included figures like
Andrew Carnegie, who dominated the steel industry, and John D. Rockefeller, who
led the oil industry.
Despite these industrial advancements, the period was not without
challenges. The laissez-faire government policies and monopolistic practices often
led to wealth disparities and labor exploitation. However, a steady stream of
immigrants, primarily from Europe, provided a vast pool of cheap labor, especially
beneficial for mining and manufacturing sectors.
The era is often referred to as the "Gilded Age," characterized by the
unprecedented creation of wealth and the emergence of the super-rich class. This
age also saw the rise of a national press, significantly led by William Randolph Hearst
and Joseph Pulitzer.
In conclusion, the Industrial Revolution was an epoch of immense change for
the United States. It established the country as a global industrial leader and
initiated an era of technological and industrial advancements that continue to shape
the American economy and society. However, it also posed significant social and
economic challenges that needed to be addressed as the nation evolved.

18. ОСНОВНІ ПОДІЇ ІСТРОІЇ США У 20-21 СТ.ЦЦ

The Twentieth Century for the United States began with rapid economic
growth, with the country developing into a leading industrial power. This period was
also marked by the U.S.'s emergence onto the international stage, beginning with
the Spanish-American War in 1898 and continuing with the creation of the Panama
Canal in 1903.
In 1914, World War I began, a conflict that the U.S. initially watched from the
sidelines. However, in 1917, they entered the war against Germany, and their
involvement proved crucial for the Allies. Post-war, the U.S. attempted to dictate
peace terms, but their proposal to establish the League of Nations was rejected by
the U.S. Senate.
The transition from wartime to peacetime was tumultuous, but by 1923
prosperity was restored. The Jazz Age, marked by significant cultural shifts, unfolded
against the backdrop of Prohibition. However, this prosperity ended with the Stock
Market Crash of 1929, marking the beginning of the Great Depression.
 In 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt introduced the New Deal, aiming to
restore the country's economy. World War II, which began in Europe in 1939, had a
significant impact on the U.S. even before they officially entered in 1941 following
the attack on Pearl Harbor. The U.S.'s contributions on both the European and
Pacific fronts were significant, culminating in the use of atomic bombs on Hiroshima
and Nagasaki in 1945.
The post-war period domestically was marked by social issues, notably the
Civil Rights Movement led by figures like Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. On the
international stage, U.S. politics were dominated by the Cold War with the USSR, as
manifested in events like the Cuban Missile Crisis, and wars in Korea and Vietnam.
This period was also marked by the Space Race.
As the Twentieth Century ended and the Twenty-First began, the U.S.'s focus
shifted towards combating global terrorism, initiating wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.
As of my knowledge cut-off in September 2021, these conflicts and their aftermaths
continue to shape U.S. domestic and international policies.

19. ДЕРЖАВНІ СИМВОЛИ ВЕЛИКОЇ БРИТАНІЇ: ПРАПОР, ГЕРБ ТА ГІМН

2. State symbols of the UK

2.1. The flag of the UK

The flag of the United

Kingdom, known as the Union
Jack is made up of three crosses. The flag is normally
called the Union Jack because it represents a union of
countries – England, Scotland, Wales and Northern
Ireland.
 The upright red cross is the cross of St George, the patron
saint of England.

The white diagonal cross

(with the arms going into the
corners) is the cross of St Andrew, the patron saint of
Scotland.

The red diagonal cross is

the cross of St Patrick, the
patron saint of Ireland.

The national flag of

Wales is a red dragon on a
background of white and
green. Wales is not
represented in the Union Jack because when the first
version of the flag appeared Wales was already united
with England, but the Welsh flag is in widespread usage
throughout that country.
2.2. The Royal Coat of Arms is the official coat of arms of the British monarch.
 The Coat of Arms depicts the shield supported by a
crowned lion (on the left) and a unicorn (on the right).
The shield is quartered: the top left and the bottom
right quarters depict the three lions passant guardant
which is the symbol for England; the top right quarter –
the rampant lion and double tressure fleury-counter-
fleury for Scotland; the bottom left quarter – a harp for
Ireland. Above the shield there is the crown – the
symbol of the monarch. The crest above the crown is a
lion statant guardant wearing the imperial crown.
The supporters of the shield – the crowned lion and the
unicorn symbolize England and Scotland respectively.
According to legend a free unicorn was considered a
very dangerous beast; therefore the heraldic unicorn is chained
The coat features both the motto of English monarchs, Dieu et mon droit (God and my right),
and the motto of the Order of the Garter, Honi soit qui mal y pense (Shamed be he who thinks ill
of it) on a representation of the Garter behind the shield. The mottoes are old French and date
back to the days when French was the court language.

The Queen has a separate version of her arms for use in Scotland, giving the Scottish
elements pride of place.
The Coat of Arms depicts the shield supported by a
crowned lion (on the right) symbolizing England and a
crowned and chained unicorn (on the left) symbolizing
Scotland. Between each supporter and the shield is a
lance displaying the flag of their respective kingdom.
The shield is quartered: the top left and the bottom right
quarters depict the lion rampant of Scotland; the top
right – the three lions passant guardant of England; the
bottom left – the harp of Ireland.
The crest atop the Crown of Scotland is a red lion, seated
and forward facing, itself wearing the Crown of Scotland
and holding the two remaining elements of the Honours
of Scotland – namely the Sword of State and the Sceptre
of Scotland. Above the crest appears the motto, which is
an abbreviated form of the full motto: In My Defens God Me Defend.
The coat also features both the motto Nemo me impune lacessit (No-one wounds (touches)
me with impunity) and, surrounding the shield, the collar of the Order of the Thistle.
2.3. The National Anthem of the United Kingdom is “God Save The King”. It was a patriotic
song that dates back to the 18th century. The words and tunes are anonymous.
In September 1745 the “Young Pretender” to the British Throne, Prince Charles Edward
Stuart, defeated the army of King George II at Prestonpans, near Edinburgh. When the news
reached London the leader of the band at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, arranged “God Save the
King” for performance after a play. It was a tremendous success and was repeated nightly. Other
theatres later started to practice singing the song after a play.
Thus the custom of greeting monarchs with “God Save The King” as he or she entered a
place of public entertainment was established. The words used today are those sung in 1745,
substituting “Queen” for “King” where appropriate.
The words of the National Anthem are as follows:
 God save our gracious Queen!
Long live our noble Queen!
God save the Queen!
Send her victorious,
Happy and glorious,
Long to reign over us,
God save the Queen.
Thy choicest gifts in store
On her be pleased to pour,
Long may she reign.
May she defend our laws,
And ever give us cause,
To sing with heart and voice,
God save the Queen.
On official occasions, only the first verse is usually sung.

20. СИМВОЛИ КРАЇН, ЩО ВХОДЯТЬ ДО СКЛАД ВЕЛИКОЇ БРИТАНІЇ

3. The symbols of the UK’s four constituent parts

England

Flag: the St George’s cross

A red cross acted as a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12 th and 13th centuries.
It became associated with St George who’s claimed to be the patron saint of
England (the saint’s day – 23 April). The red cross remained in national use until
1707, when the Union Flag was adopted for all purposes to unite the whole of Great
Britain under a common flag.
 Plant: rose

The rose as the national flower of England is used in a variety of contexts.

Predominantly, this is a red rose (which also symbolises Lancashire), such as the
badge of the English Rugby Union team. However, a white rose (which also
symbolises Yorkshire) or a “tudor rose” (symbolising the end of the Wars of the
Roses1*) may also be used on different occasions.

Scotland

Flag: St Andrew’s cross, also known as the Saltire

(St Andrew is the patron saint of Scotland, the saint’s day – 30 November)

Plant: thistle

The national flower of Scotland features in many Scottish symbols and logos,
and UK currency. It is also used as the emblem of the Scottish Rugby team.

Wales

Flag: the Red Dragon

Plant: leek and daffodil (they share the Welsh name Ceninen)
It is believed that the leek, if eaten, encourages good health and happiness. This plant, which
was worn by the Welsh in the Battle of Crecy (The battle of Crecy (1346) was fought during the

1
Hundred Years War between the English and the French. The English won a decisive victory in this
battle thanks to the value of Welsh longbows used) and, by 1536, when Henry VIII gave a leek to
his daughter on 1 March, was already associated with St David’s Day. It is possible that the green
and white family colours adopted by the Tudors were taken from their liking for the leek.
The daffodil has only recently assumed a position of national importance. An increasingly
popular flower during the 19th century, especially among women, its status was elevated by the
Welsh-born prime minister David Lloyd George, who wore it on St David’s Day and used it in
ceremonies in 1911 to mark the investiture of the Prince of Wales at Caernarfon.
Patron saint: St David (the saint’s day – 1 March; it has been celebrated as
such since the 12th century)

Northern Ireland

Flag: St Patrick’s cross, also known as the Red Hand Flag

(St Patrick is the patron saint of Northern Ireland, the saint’s day – 17
March)

Plant: shamrock (a three-leafed clover)

The shamrock is often confused with the four-leaf clover. While the four-leaf
clover is a symbol of good luck, the three-leafed shamrock is mainly an Irish
Christian symbol of the Holy Trinity and has a different significance.

21. Climate and natural resources of the British Isles

The UK climate. The UK’s climate varies greatly according to season and
location but on the whole can be described as temperate, though significantly
warmer than some other locations at similar latitude due to the warming of the
waters of the Gulf Stream.
The prevailing winds are southwesterly, from the North Atlantic Current. More
than 50% of the days are overcast. There are few natural hazards, although there
can be strong winds and floods, especially in winter.
 Average annual rainfall varies from over 3,000 mm in the Scottish Highlands
down to 553 mm in Cambridge. The driest period in the UK is late winter/spring, the
wettest periods are autumn and winter. The county of Essex is one of the driest in
the UK, the Lake District is the wettest region.
July and August are normally the warmest month in throughout the UK. Around
the coasts, February is normally the coldest month; but inland January and February
as the coldest months.
4.2. The UK natural resources. The UK has a variety of natural resources
including:
● Geological: coal, petroleum, natural gas (the major ones), limestone, chalk,
gypsum, silica, rock salt, china clay, iron ore, tin, silver, gold, lead (produced in small
quantities). Coal mining is concentrated in Yorkshire, Northumberland-Darem and
Southern-Welsh basins. Oil and gas was discovered under the North Sea during the
1960s and new supplies are still being found today.
● Agricultural: arable land, wheat, barley, hill farms, sheep.

22. Demographics of Great Britain. The economy of Great Britain

The UK demographics. The UK has a population of about 59 million people
(according to the 2001 census). It is the third-largest country in the European Union
(behind Germany and metropolitan France) and the 21st-largest in the world. Its
overall population density is one of the highest in the world, due to the particularly
high population density in England. Almost one-third of the population lives in
England’s southeast and is predominantly urban and suburban, with about 8,2
million in the capital of London.
The UK’s population is predominantly white (92%). Other ethnic groups in the
UK include: mixed – 1 %; Asian or British Asian – 4 %; Black or Black British – 2 %;
Chinese – 0,5 %; other – 0,5 %*.
English is the main language spoken in UK, although with many regional
variations in terms of accents and phraseology. About one fifth of the population of
Wales speak the Welsh language. Gaelic is spoken by some 70 000 people in
Scotland. People in the central lowland of Scotland have for centuries spoken Scots.
Many other languages are spoken by the minority ethnic communities of the UK.
The UK economic geography
The economic geography of the UK reflects not only its current position in the
global economy, but its long history both as a trading nation and an imperial power.
The UK led the industrial revolution and its highly urban character is a legacy of
this, with all its major cities being current or former centers of all forms of
manufacturing. However, this in turn was built on its exploitation of natural
resources, especially coal and iron ore.
 23. General characteristics of the political system of Great Britain
United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy. This means that it has a
hereditary monarch (a king/queen) as its Head of State, but essentially the powers
of the monarch are ceremonial and he/she can only reign with the support of
Parliament. Among the official functions of the King/Queen are the following:
- to appoint the Prime Minister at the end of the election (normally the leader
of the party that has the majority in the House of Commons);
- to summon, prorogue and dissolve the Parliament;
- to enact legislation; to give his/her Royal Assent to bills when they’ve been
passed by both Houses;
- to declare war/make peace;
- to recognize foreign states and governments;
- to conclude treaties;
- to annex/cede territories;
- to be the head of judiciary (all the courts of the land are the King’s/Queen’s
courts; all the trials are carried out in the King’s/Queen’s name);
- to be the Commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces;
- to be the “supreme governor” of the established Church of England;
- to make formal appointments to the most important offices of the state in the
Armed Forces and churches;
- to confer peerages, knighthoods and other honours;
- to make formal approvals to decisions of the Government at the meetings of
the Privy Council;
- to be the King/Queen of 16 former colonies, including Australia, Canada, New
Zealand, represented by the governor; to be the Head of the Commonwealth.
Important symbolic roles of the King/Queen are to preserve the unity of the
nation, historical traditions and continuity; to be the Defender of the Faith (only
Anglicans can succeed to the throne); to be the Spiritual head of state.
UK Constitution is uncodified (unwritten) consisting of historic documents such
as the Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, and the Bill of Rights (1689); statutes,
judicial precedents (common law), and custom. The constitution is flexible and may
be changed by an act of Parliament.
There are three branches of power in UK:
- the executive power (exercised by the government);
- the legislative power (vested in both the government and the parliament);
- the judicial power (exercised by the system of courts).
There is no strict separation of powers of these three arms of government (in
contrast to the United States). So, for example:
1) all Ministers in the government are members of the legislature;
2) some very senior judges sit in the upper house of the parliament.
 24. Functions of the monarch in the political life of Great Britain
In the political life of Great Britain, the monarch plays a constitutional role with
limited powers. Here are the key functions of the monarch:
Head of State: The monarch serves as the ceremonial head of state,
representing the unity and continuity of the nation. They fulfill various ceremonial
and symbolic duties, such as opening and closing sessions of Parliament, granting
honors and awards, and receiving foreign dignitaries.
Royal Assent: The monarch has the power to grant or withhold royal assent,
which is the formal approval required for a bill to become law. However, in modern
practice, the monarch's refusal to grant assent is extremely rare and hasn't occurred
since the early 18th century. The role is largely ceremonial, and the monarch acts on
the advice of the government.
Role in Government Formation: After a general election, the monarch has a
constitutional role in appointing the Prime Minister. The leader of the political party
with the majority of seats in the House of Commons is invited by the monarch to
form a government.
Weekly Meetings with Prime Minister: The monarch holds weekly private
meetings with the Prime Minister known as "audiences." During these meetings, the
Prime Minister informs the monarch about the government's activities and seeks
royal support on certain matters. These meetings serve as an opportunity for the
monarch to be informed and to offer counsel.
Dissolving Parliament: The monarch has the power to dissolve Parliament,
marking the end of a parliamentary term and triggering a general election. However,
in practice, the decision to dissolve Parliament is made on the advice of the Prime
Minister.
Constitutional Safeguard: The monarch acts as a constitutional safeguard,
providing stability and continuity in the political system. They serve as a neutral
figure who remains above party politics, ensuring that the government functions
within the boundaries of the constitution.
It's important to note that while the monarch has these functions, they do not
have an active role in making or shaping legislation or directly participating in day-
to-day governance. The political power in Great Britain primarily rests with elected
officials, with the monarch's role being largely symbolic and representative of the
nation.

25. The Parliament of Great Britain, its composition and work process
The Parliament of the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland is the supreme
legislative body in the UK and British overseas territories. It alone has parliamentary
sovereignty, conferring its ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK
and its territories. At its head is the Sovereign.
 The British Parliament is often called Westminster because it is housed in a
distinguished building in central London called the Palace of Westminster.
The functions of Parliament are:
1. to pass laws;
2. to provide, by voting for taxation, the means of carrying on the work of
government;
3. to scrutinize government policy and administration, including proposals for
expenditure;
4. to debate the major issues of the day.
The British Parliament like most in the world is bicameral, that is there are two
houses or chambers – the House of Commons (HC) and the House of Lords (HL). The
Sovereign is the third component of Parliament. In theory, supreme legislative
power is vested in the King/Queen-in-Parliament; in practice in modern times, real
power is vested in the HC; the Sovereign generally acts on the advice of the Prime
Minister and the powers of the HL are limited.
The two Houses meet in separate chambers in the Palace of Westminster.
The House of Commons is the lower chamber and has 646 seats representing
geographical constituencies.
The Speaker, elected by MPs, chairs the House of Commons and maintains
order.
Elections to the House of Commons are held at least every 5 years, with a
General Election called by the Prime Minister.
The Chamber of the House of Commons was rebuilt after World War II and has
a layout with two sets of green benches facing each other.
Government ministers sit on the front bench, known as Government
frontbenchers, while members of the same party but without a government post
are called Government backbenchers.
The Official Opposition is divided in the same way as the government.
The Public Gallery is open to the public when the House of Commons is in
session, and MPs can obtain tickets for their constituents to visit. Non-ticket holders
can queue but may experience long waits.
The House of Lords is the upper chamber of Parliament.
The House of Lords is presided over by the Lord Speaker, who is politically
impartial.
The Lord Speaker position became separate from the Lord Chancellor under
the Constitutional Reform Act 2005.
The current Lord Speaker of the House of Lords (as of 2009) is Baroness
Hayman.
The House of Lords has no fixed number of members, but there were 740
members in July 2009.
Historically, most members of the House of Lords were hereditary peers, but
the right of all but 92 hereditary peers to sit in the House has been abolished.
 Most members of the House of Lords today are life peers, chosen by the Queen
on the advice of the government, and their membership is not hereditary.
There are currently 608 life peers in the House of Lords (as of July 2009).
The House of Lords also includes 26 Lords Spiritual, who are Archbishops and
Bishops of the Church of England.
The House of Lords Chamber has a throne with a canopy and a woolsack where
the Lord Speaker sits.
The Chamber is divided into two sides: the right side for the government and
the left side for the opposition.
The Chamber also has cross benches, and the benches themselves are red
leather.
The Lord Speaker may leave the woolsack to address the Chamber as an
ordinary member.

26. Government and opposition in Britain and the United States

Great Britain:
In Britain, the government is formed by the political party or coalition of
parties that holds the majority of seats in the House of Commons. The leader of the
majority party becomes the Prime Minister, who is the head of government. The
government is responsible for proposing and implementing policies, making
decisions, and governing the country.
The opposition in Britain consists of political parties that hold seats in the
House of Commons but are not part of the government. The largest opposition party
is typically referred to as the Official Opposition. The leader of the Official
Opposition is an important political figure and serves as a critic of the government's
policies and actions. The opposition's role is to hold the government accountable,
propose alternative policies, and challenge the government's decisions and
legislation.
The opposition in Britain has various opportunities to scrutinize the
government's actions and policies. This includes debates in the House of Commons,
questioning government ministers, proposing amendments to legislation, and
conducting inquiries through parliamentary committees.
United States:
In the United States, the government is formed by the President, who is
elected separately from the legislative branch. The President is the head of
government and state and is responsible for executing laws, making executive
decisions, and representing the country. The President appoints Cabinet members
and other executive officials to assist in governing.
The opposition in the United States is primarily represented by the political
party or parties that are not in power. The largest opposition party is often referred
to as the "majority party in opposition." Unlike in Britain, there is no official "Official
Opposition" role or designated leader of the opposition in the U.S. system.
The opposition in the United States primarily operates within the legislative
branch, which consists of the Congress, comprising the Senate and the House of
Representatives. Members of the opposition party in Congress play a crucial role in
proposing legislation, offering amendments, and providing checks and balances on
the government's actions. They participate in debates, committees, and hearings to
shape policies and challenge the decisions of the government.
It's important to note that the political systems and dynamics in Britain and the
United States have unique characteristics, and the roles of government and
opposition can evolve based on the specific context and political landscape in each
country.

27. The Cabinet of Ministers, the role of the Prime Minister in British political
life
2.1. The Prime Minister
Constitutionally the Head of State is the monarch who is a hereditary member
of the Royal Family. However, the monarch has very few formal powers and stays
above party politics.
So, in practice, the most important person in the British political system is the
Prime Minister. The Prime Minister chooses the ministers who run Government
departments and chairs the Cabinet – the collection of the most senior of those
Ministers. The Prime Minister is, by tradition, First Lord of the Treasury and Minister
for the Civil Service. The PM’s unique position of authority derives from majority
support in the HC and from the power to appoint and dismiss ministers. By modern
convention, the Prime Minister always sits in the House of Commons.
The PM presides over the Cabinet, is responsible for the allocation of functions
among ministers and informs the Queen at regular meetings of the general business
of the Government.
The Prime Minister’s other responsibilities include recommending a number of
appointments to the Queen. These include:
1) Church of England archbishops, bishops and deans and other Church
appointments;
2) senior judges, such as the Lord Chief Justice;
3) Privy Counselors;
4) Lord-Lieutenants.

28. Elections to the UK Parliament

General elections in the UK
 When Parliament is dissolved every seat in the House of Commons becomes
vacant and a general election is held. Each constituency in the UK elects one MP to a
seat in the House of Commons. The political party that wins a majority of seats in
the House of Commons usually forms the Government.
General elections are held at least every five years although not all Parliaments
run for the whole five year period.
MPs are elected from a choice of candidates by a simple majority system in
which each person casts one vote. The candidate with the most votes then becomes
the MP for that constituency.
Candidates may be from a political party registered with the Electoral
Commission (an independent body, accountable directly to the UK Parliament, that
regulates elections in the UK, promotes voter awareness and works to build
confidence in the electoral process) or they may stand as an “Independent” rather
than represent a registered party.
Any eligible person can become a candidate in a British general election
whether they are a member of a political party or not. Although any eligible person
can stand, in order to have a realistic chance of success a candidate needs to
represent one of the 3 main British political parties or a nationalist or unionist party
in Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland.
The elections are preceded by election campaigning which lasts for about 3
weeks with large-scale press, radio and TV coverage.
Most voting takes place in polling stations (usually on a Thursday). Each person
over 18 has the right to vote, except prisoners, lords and the mentally ill. Anyone
eligible to vote can apply for a postal vote. British citizens living abroad are also
entitled to a postal vote as long as they have been living abroad for less than 15
years.
Candidates eligibility: people wishing to stand as an MP must be over 18 years
of age, and a British citizen, or citizen of a Commonwealth country or the Republic of
Ireland.

29. Political parties and their ideology in the UK

The party system is an essential element of the constitution. The present
system depends upon the existence of organized political parties, each of which
presents its policies to the electorate for approval. The parties are not registered or
recognized in law, but in practice most candidates in elections belong to one of the
major parties.

Labour Party:
Centre-Left party led by Gordon Brown.
Traditionally favored socialist policies, but moved towards a "Third way"
approach with elements of Thatcherite and free-market policies.
 Won a landslide majority in the 1997 general election under Tony Blair's
leadership.
Supported the US in conflicts like the war in Iraq, but faced criticism for it.
Introduced market-based reforms in education and health sectors, student
tuition fees, welfare payment reductions, and anti-terrorism legislation.
Advocated green policies and reducing carbon emissions.

Conservative Party:
Centre-Right party led by David Cameron.
Focused on social and quality of life issues, including the environment,
government service improvement, and schools.
Opposed devolution to Wales and Scotland initially, but pledged not to reverse
these reforms.
Eurosceptic and favors close ties with the US, Canada, Australia, and Japan.
Opposed to the European single currency.
Supports expanding the British Army.

Liberal Democratic Party (Lib Dems):

Centrist, libertarian party led by Menzies Campbell.
Formed in 1988 through the merger of the Liberal Party and Social Democratic
Party.
Promotes social liberalism and minimizing state intervention in personal affairs.
Supports the welfare state and advocates electoral reform, proportional
representation, and replacing the House of Lords.
Strongly pro-EU and opposed British participation in the Iraq War.
Strong environmentalist values and commitment to renewable energy and
greenhouse gas emission cuts.

Other smaller UK parties mentioned:

Democratic Unionist, Respect - The Unity Coalition, Social Democratic & Labour
Party, Health Concern.
Scottish National Party (operates in Scotland), Plaid Cymru (operates in Wales).
Ulster Unionist Party, Democratic Unionist Party, Social Democratic and Labour
Party, Sinn Fein (operate in Northern Ireland).
The Prime Minister is chosen by the party with the largest number of members
in the House of Commons, formally at the invitation of the monarch.
Each political party chooses its leader in a different way, but all involve all the
Members of Parliament of the party and all the individual members of that party.
The leader of the political party with the largest number of members in the House of
Commons becomes the Prime Minster (formally at the invitation of the monarch).
In the British political system, there is a broad consensus between the major
parties on:
 ● the rule of law;
● the free market economy;
● the national health service;
● UK membership of European Union and NATO.
The main differences between the political parties concern:
● how to tackle poverty and inequality;
● the levels and forms of taxation;
● the extent of state intervention in the economy;
● the balance between collective rights and individual rights.
● devolution of power

30. Judicial system of Great Britain

The British judicial branch is extremely complex. Unlike most countries which
operate a single system of law, the UK operates three separate legal systems: one
for England and Wales, one for Scotland, and one for Northern Ireland. Although
bound by similar principles, these systems differ in form and the manner of
operation.
The Court System of England and Wales
Her Majesty’s Courts of Justice of England and Wales are responsible for the
administration of justice and are subordinate to the Parliament of the United
Kingdom.
Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, established in 2009, replaced the
judicial functions of the House of Lords. It is the highest appellate court in England,
Wales, and Northern Ireland for matters under English, Welsh, and Northern Irish
law. It focuses on cases of general public importance and covers various areas of
law.
Senior Courts of England and Wales
● Court of Appeal
● High Court of Justice
● Crown Court
Court of Appeal
The Court of Appeal is the second most senior court in the English legal system.
It is divided into the Civil Division and the Criminal Division. The Civil Division hears
appeals from the High Court and County Court, while the Criminal Division hears
appeals from the Crown Court related to trial on indictment.
High Court
The High Court of Justice serves as a civil court of first instance and has
supervisory jurisdiction over subordinate courts and tribunals. It consists of three
main divisions: Queen's Bench Division, Chancery Division, and Family Division. Each
division handles specific types of cases related to contract law, personal injury,
general negligence, business law, trusts law, probate law, land law, and family
matters.
Crown Court
The Crown Court has both original and appellate jurisdiction in criminal cases. It
handles cases on indictment (trial by judge and jury) and also deals with appeals
from magistrates' courts and cases sent from magistrates' courts for sentencing.
Subordinate courts
County Courts
County Courts are local statutory courts with a civil jurisdiction, presided over
by a District or Circuit Judge. They handle civil cases, including actions concerning
land, with a financial value of £50,000 or under.
Magistrates’ Courts
Magistrates' Courts are the lowest level of court in England and Wales. They
are presided over by lay magistrates or Justices of the Peace, or a legally-trained
District Judge. They dispense summary justice and handle the majority of criminal
cases as well as some civil cases, family matters, and licensing issues.
The Court System of Scotland and Northern Ireland
In Northern Ireland and Scotland there are autonomous judiciary systems. In
Northern Ireland the judiciary comprises courts analogous to England and Wales’s
ones (Court of Appeal, High Court, Crown Court, County Courts and Magistrates’
Courts). The system of courts in Scotland is rather different (the superior courts are
High Court of Justiciary and Court of Session; the lower courts are Sheriff Courts and
District Courts).

31. Holidays and traditions of Great Britain and the USA.

HOLIDAYS IN THE UK
Many festivals and holidays in Britain are centuries old. Every town, village in Britain
has its own traditions.
Holidays in the UK can be divided into four groups:

1) Bank holidays in the UK are public holidays when most businesses and
banks are closed. These holidays are set by the government and are
observed across the country. The following are the bank holidays in the UK:
1. New Year's Day - January 1st
2. May Day - first Monday in May
3. Boxing Day - December 26th
2) Religious holidays;( are days specified for religious observance)
 1. Easter - This is the most significant Christian holiday in the UK,
celebrating the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Easter Sunday is a public
holiday, and the preceding Friday, Good Friday, is also a public holiday.
2. Christmas - This is another important Christian holiday celebrated in the
UK, commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ.
3. Epiphany is a Christian feast day which celebrates the revelation of God
in human form in the person of Jesus Christ. Epiphany falls on January 6.
4. Shrove Tuesday
5. Holy Thursday is the feast or holy day on the Thursday before Easter.
6. Good Friday is the Friday before Easter Sunday. On this day Christians
remember the day when Jesus was crucified on a cross.
3) National holidays (in four constituencies of the UK);
1. St George’s Day is on 23 April. It is England’s national day.
2. St Andrew’s Day- On 30 November, Scottish people celebrate St
Andrew’s Day
3. Burns Night
4. St. Patrick’s Day 17 March,, is the national day of Northern Ireland and
Republic of Ireland.
4) Special observances with historical background.( are held on particular days
annually and are dedicated to certain events (such as the queen’s birthday,
state opening of the Parliament) or people (Mother, Father, etc.).)
1. St Valentine’s Day
2. Mothering Sunday (Mother’s Day)
3. April Fools’ day
4. Halloween
5. Remembrance Day

HOLIDAYS IN THE USA

The United States has several holidays, both federal and state-specific,
throughout the year. Here are some of the most widely recognized
holidays in the USA:

New Year's Day - January 1st

Martin Luther King Jr. Day - third Monday in January
Presidents' Day - third Monday in February
Memorial Day - last Monday in May
Independence Day - July 4th
Labor Day - first Monday in September
Columbus Day - second Monday in October
Veterans Day - November 11th
Thanksgiving Day - fourth Thursday in November
Christmas Day - December 25th
 In addition to these federal holidays, each state in the US may have its
own holidays that are observed. For example, some states observe
holidays such as Confederate Memorial Day, Emancipation Day, and
Patriot Day.

It's worth noting that some holidays in the US are not federal holidays
but are still widely celebrated. These include Valentine's Day, St. Patrick's
Day, Halloween, and Christmas Eve.

32. The system of secondary and higher education in the UK

Education system in the UK is divided into four main parts:
compulsory education:
 primary education (Years 1-6);
 secondary education (Years 7-11);
elective education
 further education (Sixth Form College);
 higher education (college or university).
Secondary education
According to the National Curriculum, the statutory subjects that all pupils must
study at this stage are art and design, citizenship, design and technology, English,
geography, history, information and communication technology, mathematics,
modern foreign languages, music, physical education and science. The teaching of
careers education, sex education and religious education is also statutory.
Types of secondary schools
In UK two types of secondary education can be distinguished – selective and non-
selective (comprehensive).
Within the non-selective (comprehensive) system, at the age of 11 children may go
directly to a secondary comprehensive school.
Secondary comprehensive schools are state schools for children from the age of 11
to at least 16 that do not select children on the basis of academic achievement or
aptitude. In the United Kingdom comprehensive schools were introduced in the late
1940s to the early 1970s. Some 90% of British pupils are educated at comprehensive
schools.
Within the selective system pupils may choose between grammar schools, technical
schools and secondary modern schools.
Grammar schools are secondary schools attended by pupils aged 11 to 18 to which
entry is controlled by means of an academically selective process which sometimes
consists of a written examination (the eleven plus). Grammar schools give pupils a
very high level of academic instruction. After leaving a grammar school, as with any
other secondary school, a student may go into further education.
Secondary technical schools. These were a type of secondary schools in the United
Kingdom that existed in the mid-20th century. Their aim was to teach mechanical,
scientific and engineering skills to serve industry and science. For various reasons
few were ever built, and their main interest is on a theoretical level.
Secondary modern schools were formed in the UK after World War II and are
intended for children who would be going into a trade and thus concentrate on the
basics plus practical skills (cooking, woodwork, metalwork)

The main school examination

At the end of Year 11, pupils aged 16 (in England, Wales and Northern Ireland) take
a public examination called the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE)
(at Ordinary level (“O” level)) in a number of subjects, usually between 8 and 10.
These consist of a mixture of internally assessed coursework and end-of-year
examinations set and marked by independent examination boards. The results
appear as grades A-G, where A is the top grade. A, B or C grades are normally
regarded as equivalent to the “pass” grades.
After sitting the exams, secondary students may leave school to enter the
workforce, pursue training programmes at technical or vocational schools, or
continue studying for two more years at Sixth Form Colleges.
Further education (Sixth Form)
After GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education (“O” level), more able pupils
(usually university-bound ones) enter the “Sixth Form” (Years 12, 13). The
curriculum of the sixth form is narrowed to about 5 subjects, of which the pupils will
specialize in 2 or 3. The two-year course at Sixth Form College leads to the Advanced
Level (“A” level) GCSE examination. The examination is usually taken after Year 13
(at the age of 17-18). Candidates may take as many subjects as they like. Three “A”
levels are usually enough to gain entry to most universities
Higher education
The UK has a vast variety of higher education opportunities to offer students with
over 100 universities providing various degree programs for students from the UK
and around the world. In the UK about one-third of all students go on to some form
of higher education and this number is well over 50% for students from Scotland.
This makes competition for places very fierce and so it is advised to apply early for
courses.
All UK universities enjoy academic freedom.
Types of universities in the UK
Most universities in the United Kingdom can be classified into 6 main categories:
1. Ancient universities.
2. London universities.
3. Red Brick universities.
4. Plate Glass Universities.
5. The Open University.
 6. New Universities.
7. Private University (University of Buckingham)
Ancient universities
The ancient universities in the United Kingdom are, in order of formation:
● University of Oxford – founded before 1167.
● University of Cambridge – founded in 1209.
● University of St Andrews – founded in 1413 (incorporating the University
of Dundee from 1897 to 1967).
● University of Glasgow – founded in 1451.
● University of Aberdeen – founded in 1495 (as King’s College, Aberdeen).
● University of Edinburgh – founded in 1582.

33. RELIGION IN THE UK AND USA

RELIGION IN THE UK
The Treaty of Union (1707) that led to the formation of the United Kingdom ensured
that there would be a protestant succession as well as a link between church and
state that still remains. Christianity is the major religion, followed by Islam,
Hinduism, Sikhism and then Judaism in terms of number of adherents . Though each
country that makes up the UK has a long tradition of Christianity that pre-dates the
UK itself, in practice all have relatively low levels of religious observance and today
are secular societies.
Religion in England. The Church of England
The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, the
Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the oldest among the
communion’s thirty-eight independent national churches.
The British Monarch is “Supreme Governor of the Church of England”.
The church has its own judicial branch, known as the Ecclesiastical courts, which
likewise form a part of the UK court system, and have powers especially in relation
to the care of churches and churchyards and the discipline of the clergy.
The Church of England, although an established church, does not receive any direct
government support. Donations comprise its largest source of income, though it also
relies heavily on the income from its various historic endowments.

Thus, Britain does not follow the rule of "separation of church and state" as many
modern states do and the Church of England plays a role in governing the country.
Firstly, the British monarch is the Supreme Governor of the Church of England and
no adherent of other religions can become the monarch or the consort. Secondly,
the Measures of the General Synod become part of English law. Thirdly, the two
archbishops and 24 senior bishops sit in the House of Lords, making a major
contribution to Parliament's work.
RELIGION IN THE USA
America is a highly religious country, and has been since its earliest days. Nearly
every religion in the world has adherents or organized institutions in the United
States. American religious institutions are large, powerful and influential in social
and political life. Even Americans who are members of no established religion are
likely to believe in God. About 60% of Americans are members of a church,
synagogue or other religious group, though many more identify with various
religions because of their birth or upbringing. About 40% of Americans attend
religious services regularly, compared to only 20% in UK.
Although the first English settlers came to America in search for religious freedom,
they turned out to be as intolerable to other religions as the English government
was to theirs, so the newcomers who belonged to a different denomination had to
establish new colonies.
The dominant religion in the USA
The largest religion in the US is Christianity, practiced by the majority of the
population (nearly 76.5% in 2001). Roughly 51,3% of Americans are Protestants,
23,9% are Catholics, and 1,7% are Mormons (the name commonly used to refer to
members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), and 1,6% to various
other Christian denominations. Christianity was introduced during the period of
European colonization.
Religious education in the USA
In the United States, religious education is often provided through supplementary
“Sunday school”, “Hebrew school”, catechism classes, etc. taught to children at their
family’s place of worship, either in conjunction with worship services or some other
time during the week, after weekday school classes. Some parents send their
children to private religious schools, called parochial schools.
Many faiths also offer private college and graduate-level religious schools, which
may be accredited as colleges.
Under US law, religious education is forbidden in public schools, except from a
neutral, academic perspective. However, on February 7, 2003, the Secretary of
Education issued guidance on constitutionally protected prayer in public elementary
and secondary schools. This guidance explains the responsibilities of state
educational agencies and local educational agencies with respect to this aspect of
the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB).

34. MASS MEDIA IN THE UK

The mass media in the UK are represented mainly by the press (newspapers and
magazines), TV and radio.
The UK newspapers
In the UK there are no official government newspapers. The government does not
exercise any official control over the newspaper industry and most of the English
newspapers are very proud of their individual styles.
UK newspapers are generally grouped into three groups – mass market tabloids, or
red-tops, middle-market tabloids, and quality broadsheets.
Quality newspapers are serious, national, daily newspapers, appealing mainly to the
upper and middle classes. They are usually published in a broadsheet format. They
are “Financial Times”, “The Times”, “The Guardian”, “The Daily Telegraph”. “The
Daily Telegraph” contains reports on national and international news, gives a full
covering of sports and other topics. “Financial Times” is read mainly by professional
and business people as it contains a comprehensive coverage of industry, commerce
and public affairs. “The Guardian” gives a wide coverage of news events and reports
on social issues, the arts, education, etc. “The Times” is the most famous
newspaper. It represents the views of the establishment and is well-known for its
correspondence column.
The mass-market tabloids. Unlike quality newspapers popular newspapers are not
so serious and their stories tend to be sensational. The two most-popular
newspapers are “The Sun” and “The Daily Mirror”.
The middle-market tabloids, “The Daily Mail”( one of the most popular newspapers in
the UK.) and “The Daily Express” are concerned with a very different readership – that
of affluent women.
The broadsheets are probably the most famous to readers overseas. “The
Times”, the UK’s oldest national newspaper, is not the most popular – that
accolade falls to “The Daily Telegraph”. It’s important to notice, though, that the
mass-market tabloids sell up to four times as many copies as the broadsheets.
The UK magazines
The UK has a large magazine industry with hundreds of magazines serving
almost every interest – from accountancy, agriculture and technology to sports and
lifestyle.
Some examples of UK magazines:
Cosmopolitan Magazine (UK) is a lifestyle magazine managed by The National
Magazine Co.
New Statesman is a UK political, cultural and current affairs magazine
Poultry World is the market leading specialist poultry magazine, aimed
primarily at commercial egg and poultry meat producers.
The UK television
 Broadcasting in the United Kingdom is controlled by the British Broadcasting
Corporation (BBC) and the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA).
The BBC receives its income from the government. The BBC channels in the UK
are BBC 1, BBC 2, BBC 3, BBC 4, CBBC, CBeebies, BBC News 24 and BBC Parliament.
35. The USA physical and economical geography
The USA physical geography
The contiguous United States may be divided into seven broad physiographic
divisions: from east to west, the Atlantic–Gulf Coastal Plain; the Appalachian
Highlands; the Interior Plains; the Interior Highlands; the Rocky Mountain System;
the Intermontane Region; and the Pacific Mountain System. An eighth division, the
Laurentian Uplands, a part of the Canadian Shield, dips into the United States from
Canada in the Great Lakes region. It is an area of little local relief, with an irregular
drainage system and many lakes, as well as some of the oldest exposed rocks in the
United States.
The Atlantic–Gulf Coastal Plain begins at Cape Cod and Long Island (moraines
and outwash plains) and contains southeastern Atlantic and Gulf continental shelf –
includes all of Florida and Louisiana. It is low and flat.
The Appalachian Highlands sweeping from Newfoundland to Alabama
dominate the landscape of the Eastern seaboard. Their peaks, ridges, hills, and
valleys form a belt almost 3,200 kilometers long and up to 580 kilometers wide.
The Interior Plains may be divided into two sections: the fertile central
lowlands, the agricultural heartland of the United States; and the Great Plains, a
treeless plateau that gently rises from the central lowlands to the foothills of the
Rocky Mountains.
The Interior Highlands are located just West of the Mississippi River between
the Interior Plains and the Gulf Coastal Plain. This region consists of the rolling Ozark
Plateau to the north and the Ouachita Mountains, which are similar in structure to
the ridge and valley section of the Appalachians, to the east.
The Rocky Mountain System is a geologically young and complex system that
extends into northwest United States from Canada and runs south into New Mexico.
There are numerous high peaks in the Rockies; the highest is Mountain Elbert (4,399
m). The Rocky Mountains are divided into four sections – the Northern Rockies, the
Middle Rockies, the Wyoming (Great Divide) Basin, and the Southern Rockies. Along
the crest of the Rockies is the Continental Divide, separating Atlantic-bound
drainage from that heading for the Pacific Ocean.
 The Intermontane Region is between the Rocky Mountains and the ranges to
the west. It is an arid expanse of plateaus, basins, and ranges. The Columbia Plateau,
in the north of the region, was formed by volcanic lava and is drained by the
Columbia River and its tributary the Snake River, both of which have cut deep
canyons into the plateau. The enormous Colorado Plateau, an area of sedimentary
rock, is drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries; there the Colorado River
has entrenched itself to form the Grand Canyon, one of the world’s most impressive
scenic wonders. West of the plateaus is the Basin and Range province, an area of
extensive semidesert.
4. The USA economic geography
The United States has a capitalist mixed economy, which is fueled by abundant
natural resources, a well-developed infrastructure, and high productivity.
Mining. The United States is a major contributor to the global mining industry –
petroleum, natural gas and coal.
Agriculture – is a major industry in the United States and the country is a net
exporter of food. The country is a top producer of corn, soy beans, rice, and wheat.
Beef cattle rank as most valuable product of American farms. Other leading farm
products, in order of value, include milk, chickens and eggs, cotton. US farms also
produce large amounts of hay, tobacco, turkeys, potatoes, tomatoes, apples and
peanuts.
Fishing. The greatest quantities of fish are taken from the Gulf of Mexico
(shrimp, oysters). The Pacific Ocean supplies Alaska Pollock, cod, crabs, herring,
salmon, tuna. The Atlantic yields cod, flounder, herring and other fish.
Manufacturing. The value of American manufactured goods is greater than
that of any other country. The leading categories of US products are, in order of
importance, transportation equipment, food products, chemicals, nonelectrical
machinery, electrical machinery and equipment, fabricated metal products, printed
materials, primary metals, paper products, scientific and medical instruments.
Services: finance, insurance, real estate, commodity and security exchanges.
Creative industries: include more than 12,000 stations, about 1,550 television
stations, and more than 1,400 cable TV systems. Hollywood film industry and
popular music also make a great contribution to the country’s economy.
IT. The major centres for technology in the USA are the San Francisco Bay and
the Pacific Northwest.
36. State symbols of the USA
 The flag of the USA
The flag of the US (also known as Old Glory, Stars and Stripes or Star-Spangled
Banner) consists of 13 horizontal stripes, 7 red alternating with 6 white. The stripes
represent the original 13 colonies, the stars represent the 50 states of the Union.
The colors of the flag are symbolic as well: Red symbolizes Hardiness and Valor,
White symbolizes Purity and Innocence and Blue represents Vigilance, Perseverance
and Justice
The US national arms
The United States has several national symbols, but it does not have an official
national arms or coat of arms. Instead, the Great Seal of the United States is often
used as a national emblem and can be seen on official documents, currency, and
other government materials.
The Great Seal of the United States features several elements that represent
important values and ideas of the country. The central design of the seal features an
eagle holding an olive branch and a bundle of arrows in its talons, which symbolize
the country's commitment to peace and readiness for war.
Above the eagle's head is a constellation of 13 stars, which represent the
original 13 states that formed the union. The eagle holds a banner in its beak that
reads "E Pluribus Unum," which means "Out of many, one" and represents the idea
of unity and the creation of a single nation from diverse origins.
The reverse side of the seal features a pyramid with the Eye of Providence at
the top, surrounded by the Latin phrase "Annuit Coeptis," which means "He [God]
has favored our undertakings." Below the pyramid is the Latin phrase "Novus Ordo
Seclorum," which means "A new order of the ages," and represents the idea of a
new beginning and the establishment of a new government.
While the Great Seal of the United States is not technically a coat of arms or
national arms, it is an important symbol of the country and its values, and it is often
used to represent the United States in official contexts.
The USA bird symbol
The American bald eagle was adopted as the official bird symbol of the United
States of America in 1782. The bald eagle was chosen because of it’s majestic
beauty, great strength, long life, and because it’s native to North America
The USA national anthem
 “The Star-Spangled Banner” is the national anthem of the United States of
America. The lyrics come from a poem written in 1814 by Francis Scott Key, a then
35-year-old amateur poet. The poem was set to the tune of a popular British
drinking song “To Anacrean in Heaven”, written by John Stafford Smith.

37. Climate and mineral resources of in the USA

Weather and climate in the USA
Due to the immense size and spread of topology in the US the climate is
incredibly varied. If there is a “general” climate then it is temperate, but it is also
tropical in Florida and Hawaii, arctic in Alaska, arid in the Great Basin of the
southwest and semi-arid in the Great Plains to the west of the Mississippi River.
The temperature range runs between the extremes of 57 degrees C during the
summer months in California’s Death Valley to -62 degrees C in Alaska, with every
other shade in between.
The northern states are the coldest, with bitter, freezing winters – especially in
the plains, Midwest and Northeast. Low temperatures in January and February in
the Northwest are occasionally tempered by warm chinook winds from the eastern
slopes of the Rocky Mountains.
In contrast, the southern states are known as the Sunbelt, where it rarely drops
below freezing.
Hot summers are the norm throughout the US, except in New England, Oregon
and Washington state, all of which are rainier and less predictable than the rest of
the country.
Temperate states are concentrated in the Pacific Northwest, while humidity is
characteristic of the south, east coast and Midwest (smog levels rise accordingly and
can make visiting some cities uncomfortable for those with respiratory problems),
and heatwaves common in the Southwest.
Spring and autumn conditions are generally mild, warm and sunny – but also
wet in some areas, particularly the Pacific Northwest.
Tornado season arrives in the Midwest between April and June, and hurricanes
are common in early summer along the southern East Coast and Gulf of Mexico
coast – TV and radio will broadcast warnings for both, but the chances of
encountering one on a short visit are remote.
Mineral resources of the USA
 The chief mineral products of the USA are, in order of value, petroleum (US
ranks second, after Saudi Arabia, in the production of petroleum), natural gas (USA
is second after Russia in natural gas production), and coal (USA ranks second in coal
after China). Major deposits of petroleum and natural gas occur in Alaska, California,
Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas. Most coal deposits lie in the Interior Plains and the
Appalachian Highlands.
Other important minerals include clay, copper, gold, granite, iron ore,
limestone, salt, sand, zinc, timber.
Land use: arable land: 19% permanent crops; 25% forests and woodland; 30%
other.
Sources to generate energy are petroleum (40%) – for powering motor
vehicles, heating houses and factories; natural gas (25%) – industrial use; household
use; coal (25%); electric power.
38. Demographics of the United States. The USA major cities
The United States is a diverse country with a wide range of demographics.
According to the latest estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau, as of 2020, the
population of the United States is approximately 332.9 million people.
● Age: The median age of the U.S. population is 38.5 years. The largest age
group is people between the ages of 25 and 54, who make up approximately
39% of the population.
● Race and ethnicity: The United States is a diverse country with a wide range
of racial and ethnic groups. According to the latest Census data, the largest
racial group is White, which makes up approximately 76% of the population.
The next largest group is Hispanic or Latino, which makes up approximately
18% of the population. Other significant racial groups include Black or African
American (13%), Asian (6%), and American Indian or Alaska Native (2%).
● Gender: The U.S. population is almost evenly split between males and
females, with females comprising slightly more of the population at
approximately 51%.
● Language: English is the most commonly spoken language in the United
States, but there are many other languages spoken throughout the country.
Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language, followed by Chinese,
Tagalog, and Vietnamese.
● Religion: The United States is a predominantly Christian country, with
approximately 65% of the population identifying as Christian. Other significant
 religious groups include those who identify as unaffiliated with any particular
religion (26%), Jewish (2%), Muslim (1%), Buddhist (1%), and Hindu (1%).
The USA major cities
The biggest city in the USA is New York City, New York, which has over 8 million
people. The second-biggest city in the USA is Los Angeles, California, which has
almost 4 million people.
Here is the list of some other big cities.
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Minneapolis, in conjunction with its neighboring city, St Paul, has a population
of more than two million. Known as the Twin Cities, Minneapolis and St Paul serve
as the financial and cultural center of Minnesota.
St. Louis, Missouri
Located on the Mississippi River, which separates Missouri from Illinois, St Louis
is known as the Gateway to the West. This heritage is symbolized by the city’s
famous Gateway Arch, which was built in 1965 and is 192 m high. With a population
of approximately 2,6 million, St Louis offers a vibrant waterfront area, a zoo, and art
and history museums.
Boston, Massachusetts
Boston is the capital of Massachusetts and the largest city in New England.
Known for its charming neighborhoods and historic landmarks, Boston’s greater
metropolitan area is home to more than five million people.
Miami, Florida
This city of two million is located on the southernmost tip of Florida and
encompasses more than 80 miles of Atlantic coastline. The city is known for its
Cuban flavor, beautiful beaches, and plentiful nightlife.
Las Vegas, Nevada
The “Entertainment Capital of the World” is home to more than 1,5 million
people in the metropolitan area. Las Vegas is a culturally and ethnically diverse city
with a history steeped in African-American, Hispanic, European, Native American,
and Asian heritage. Located in southeastern Nevada, Las Vegas has a dry desert
climate. Las Vegas is a popular tourist destination that features resorts and outdoor
recreational areas.
Seattle, Washington
 Seattle is located on Puget Sound approximately 100 miles south of the U.S.-
Canadian border. The city is home to more than three million people, and is a
commercial, cultural, and technological hub of the Pacific Northwest. Surrounded by
mountains and water, Seattle features picture-perfect views and abundant
recreational opportunities year-round.
39. POLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE USA
The United States has a federal presidential representative democratic republic
political system, which means that the country is governed by elected officials who
represent the people, and power is divided between the federal government and
the individual states.
Here are some key features of the political system of the United States:
● Executive Branch: The President of the United States is the head of the
executive branch and is elected for a four-year term. The President is
responsible for enforcing federal laws, appointing judges and other officials,
and directing the country's foreign and domestic policy.
● Legislative Branch: The United States Congress is the legislative branch of
government and is made up of two houses: the House of Representatives and
the Senate. The House of Representatives has 435 members, with the number
of representatives from each state based on population. The Senate has 100
members, with each state having two senators. Congress is responsible for
making federal laws, declaring war, and overseeing the budget and finances
of the government.
● Judicial Branch: The United States Supreme Court is the highest court in the
land and is responsible for interpreting the Constitution and ensuring that
federal laws are constitutional. The court is made up of nine justices who are
appointed by the President and approved by the Senate.
● Federalism: The United States is a federal system, which means that power is
shared between the federal government and the individual states. The
Constitution grants certain powers to the federal government, such as
regulating commerce and conducting foreign policy, while reserving other
powers to the states, such as regulating education and marriage.
● Checks and balances: The U.S. political system is designed to ensure that no
one branch of government has too much power. The Constitution establishes
a system of checks and balances, with each branch of government having the
ability to check the power of the other two branches.
 The U.S. political system is complex and involves many different institutions and
processes, but it is designed to promote democracy, protect individual rights and
freedoms, and ensure that power is distributed among different levels and branches
of government.
40. Principle “checks and balances”, 3 branches
Separation of powers”, a term coined by the French political, enlightenment thinker
Montesquieu. This means that power is spread between three institutions of the
state (branches of power) – the executive, the legislature and the judiciary – and no
one institution has too much power and no individual can be a member of more
than one institution.
This principle is also known as “checks and balances”, since each of the three
branches of the state has some authority to act on its own, some authority to
regulate the other two branches, and has some of its own authority, in turn,
regulated by the other branches.
Not only is power spread between the different branches; the members of those
branches are deliberately granted by the Constitution different terms of office which
is a further brake on rapid political change. So the President has a term of four
years, while members of the Senate serve for six years and members of the House
of Representatives serve for two years. Members of the Supreme Court effectively
serve for life.
The great benefit of this system is that power is spread and counter-balanced and
the “founding fathers” who drafted the Constitution clearly wished to create a
political system which was in sharp contrast to, and much more democratic than,
the monarchical system of absolute power then in force in Britain. The great
weakness of the system is that it makes government slow, complicated and legalistic
which is a particular disadvantage in a world – unlike that of 1776 – in which political
and economic developments are fast-moving.
Under the system of checks and balances each branch of power acts within its
constitutional limits and has the following powers:
The legislative (Congress) has the power to:
● propose new laws;
● decide upon taxes and how money is spent;
● overrule presidential veto by two-thirds majority;
● bring impeachment to the President.
The executive (the President) has the power to:
● veto laws;
● appoint Supreme Court Justices;
● grant pardons to federal offenders.
The Judiciary (the Supreme Court) has the power to:
• determine which laws apply to any given case;
• determine whether a law is unconstitutional.

41. Congress, its composition and functioning

1. The USA legislature. The parliament of the Unites States – the Congress
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal
government of the US, consisting of two houses – the Senate and the House of
Representatives.
1.1. The House of Representatives is the lower chamber in the bicameral
legislature.
The House consists of 435 members, each of whom represents a congressional
district and serves for a two-year term.
Members of the House are elected by first-past-the-post voting in every state
except Louisiana and Washington, which have run-offs. Elections are always held on
the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even numbered years.
In the event that a member of the House of Representatives dies or resigns
before the end of the two-year term, a special election is held to fill the vacancy.
The House is presided over by the Speaker.
1.2. The Senate of the USA is the upper chamber in the bicameral legislature.
The Senate consists of 100 members, each of which represents a state and
serves for a six-year term (one third of the Senate stands for election every two
years).
Each state has two Senators, regardless of population, and, since there are 50
states, then there are 100 senators.
Members of the Senate are elected by first-past-the-post voting in every state
except Louisiana and Washington, which have run-offs. Elections are always held on
the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even numbered years.
In the event that a member of the Senate dies or resigns before the end of the
six-year term, no special election is held to fill the vacancy. Instead the Governor of
the state that the Senator represented nominates someone to serve until the next
set of Congressional elections when a normal election is held to fill the vacancy.
The Senate is presided over by the Vice-president of the United States.
 Legislative functions of the US Congress. Congress creates, abolishes and
changes federal laws, which govern the nation. It plays an important role in
establishing public policy – what the government does or does not say in response
to political issues. Congress investigates the actions of the executive as well.
Though the main function of the House and Representatives and the Senate a
re alike there are some independent duties. Thus, the Senate approves or rejects
the people that the president appoints to certain high-level federal positions. It also
approves or rejects treaties that the President makes. The House’s unique right is to
deal with taxes and spending: the Constitution provides that “All bills for raising
Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives”.

42. US presidential election

3. Presidential elections in the United States
Start with the Constitution. The basic process of selecting the President of the
United States is spelled out in the U.S. Constitution, and it has been modified by the
12th, 22nd, and 23rd amendments. Many additional steps have been added over the years, by
custom and by state law – the process has changed quite a bit over time.
Eligibility. The eligibility of an individual for voting is set out in the constitution
and also regulated at state level.
Who can run? The President and Vice-President are elected every four years.
They must be at least 35 years of age, they must be native-born citizens of the
United States, and they must have been residents of the U.S. for at least 14 years.
(Also, a person cannot be elected to a third term as President).
How do the political parties choose their candidates? That’s up to the political
parties. Most political parties hold conventions, which are large meetings attended
by “delegates”. Some delegates are selected by state “primary” elections, some are
selected by state caucuses (very much like primaries, except with public voting
instead of secret ballots), and some are chosen for their prominence in the party. A
majority of delegate votes is needed to win the party’s nomination. In most cases,
the delegates let their chosen presidential candidate select a vice-presidential
candidate.
Candidates for president and vice-president run together. In the general
election, each candidate for President runs together with a candidate for Vice-
President on a “ticket”. Voters select one ticket to vote for; they can’t choose a
presidential candidate from one ticket and a vice-presidential candidate from
another ticket.
The Electoral College. The national presidential election actually consists of a
separate election in each of the 50 states and the District of Columbia; in these 51
elections, the voters are really voting for “electors” pledged to one of the tickets.
These electors make up the “Electoral College”.
 Each state has the same number of electors as it has senators and
representatives (there are two senators from each state, but the number of
representatives depends on the state population in the most recent census). The
District of Columbia, although it isn’t a state, also participates in presidential
elections – It currently has three electors. All in all there are 538 Electors.
The people in each state vote for electors in the Electoral College. In most of
the states, and also in the District of Columbia, the election is winner-take-all;
whichever ticket receives the most votes in that state (or in D.C.) gets all the
electors. (The only exceptions are Maine and Nebraska. In these states, just two of the electors are
chosen in a winner-take-all fashion from the entire state. The remaining electors are determined by the
winner in each congressional district, with each district voting for one elector).
The Electoral College votes for the president. The Electoral College then votes
for President and for Vice-President, with each elector casting one vote; these votes
are called electoral votes. Each elector is pledged to vote for particular candidates
for President and Vice-President. In most elections, all the electors vote in
accordance with the pledge they made; it is not clear what would happen in the
unlikely event that a large number of electors violated their pledge and voted
differently.
Normally, one of the candidates for President receives a majority (more than
half) of the electoral votes; that person is elected President. That candidate’s vice-
presidential running mate will then also receive a majority of electoral votes (for
Vice-President), and that person is elected Vice-President.
If there’s no electoral college winner, the House of Representatives chooses
the President. In the rare event that no presidential candidate receives a majority of
the electoral votes, then the President is chosen instead by the House of
Representatives, from the top three presidential vote-getters in the Electoral
College; each state delegation in Congress casts one vote. (The Vice-President would
be chosen from the top two vice-presidential vote-getters by the Senate).
This system of election is called representative democracy. There are many
arguments pro and con the Electoral College, but this system does guarantee that
the person elected President has substantial support distributed throughout the U.S.
The Electoral College has also been a major factor in the United States’ long-term
political stability.
Inauguration. Finally, the elected President and the Vice-President take the
oath of office. They take over their respective office on January 20 which is the
Inauguration Day.
The inauguration of the President of the United States occurs upon the
commencement of a new term of a President of the United States.
The only inauguration element mandated by the United States Constitution is that the President
makes the following oath or affirmation before he or she can “enter on the Execution” of the office of the
presidency.
The swearing-in traditionally takes place at 12 noon local time at the United States Capitol in
Washington, D.C., with the Chief Justice of the United States administering the oath.
 43. Political parties in the USA
To an extent quite extraordinary in democratic countries, the American political
system is dominated by two political parties: the Democratic Party and the
Republican Party. These are very old and very stable parties – the Democrats go back to the 1824 and
the Republicans were founded in 1854. The Democratic Party is sometimes represented as a donkey, while
the Republican Party is sometimes featured as an elephant.
The Democrats have favored “liberal” positions. Historically, the party has
favored farmers, laborers, labor unions, and religious and ethnic minorities; it has
opposed unregulated business and finance, and favored progressive income taxes.
In foreign policy, internationalism (including interventionism) was a dominant
theme from 1913 to the mid-1960s. In the 1930s, the party began advocating
welfare spending programs targeted at the poor.
Today, Democrats advocate more social freedoms, affirmative action, balanced
budget, and a free enterprise system tempered by government intervention (mixed
economy). The economic policy adopted by the modern Democratic Party, including
the former Clinton administration, may also be referred to as the “Third Way”. The
party believes that government should play a role in alleviating poverty and social
injustice, even if such requires a larger role for government and progressive
taxation.
The Democratic Party, once dominant in the Southeastern United States, is
now strongest in the Northeast (Mid-Atlantic and New England), Great Lakes region,
and the Pacific Coast (including Hawaii). The Democrats are also strongest in major
cities.
The Republicans emphasize the role of free market decision making in fostering
economic prosperity. They support the idea of individuals being economically
responsible for their own actions and decisions. Most Republicans agree there
should be a “safety net” to assist the less fortunate; however, they tend to believe
the private sector is more effective in helping the poor than government is; as a
result, Republicans support giving government grants to faith-based and other
private charitable organizations to supplant welfare spending.
The Republican Party has always advocated a strong national defense;
however, up until recently they tended to disapprove of interventionist foreign
policy actions. Today, the Republican Party supports unilateralism in issues of
national security, believing in the ability and right of the United States to act without
external or international support in its own self-interest.

44. The USA judiciary

The judicial branch is headed by the U.S. Supreme Court, which is the only
court specifically created by the Constitution.  In addition, Congress has established
13 federal courts of appeals and 95 federal district courts. Separate from, but not
entirely independent of, this federal court system are the individual court systems of
each state, each dealing with its own laws and having its own judicial rules and
procedures.
5.1. The System of State and Federal courts in the USA
The United States operates under a system of federalism, where powers are
shared between the federal government and state governments.
The Constitution grants specific powers to the federal government and reserves
the remaining powers for the states.
Both the federal and state governments have their own court systems to apply
and interpret laws.
The jurisdiction of each court system is defined by the Constitution, ensuring
that federal courts handle matters within federal authority, while state courts
handle issues not explicitly granted to the federal government.
This division allows for a separation of powers and ensures that each
government is sovereign in its own sphere.
State Court System:
The state court system in the United States is diverse, with each state having its
own judiciary structure.
It consists of general courts and special courts, with the lowest level known as
inferior courts, handling minor civil and criminal cases.
More serious offenses are heard in superior courts, which have original
jurisdiction over major civil suits and serious crimes.
The highest state court, usually called the appellate court or state supreme
court, hears appeals from the state superior courts and may have original
jurisdiction in important cases.
There are also various special tribunals at the inferior court level, such as
juvenile court, divorce court, and small-claims court.
Over 1,000 state courts of various types exist, and judges can be either
appointed or elected.
Federal Court System:
The federal court system is less complicated compared to the state court
system.
It is composed of three main levels: federal district courts, United States courts
of appeals, and the Supreme Court of the United States.
Federal district courts have original jurisdiction over most cases of federal law,
with at least one bench in each state.
United States courts of appeals are superior to district courts and have original
jurisdiction in cases involving challenges to federal regulatory agency orders.
The Supreme Court is the highest federal court, mandated by the Constitution,
and has final jurisdiction over all cases it hears.
The Supreme Court may review decisions from courts of appeals and may hear
appeals from state appellate courts if a constitutional or federal issue is involved.
 The federal judiciary also includes special courts for specific types of disputes,
such as the Court of Federal Claims and the Tax Court.
Special court judges in these courts do not serve for life.
The U.S. armed forces have courts-martial for military personnel cases.

45. The Supreme Court of the USA

The Supreme Court consists of nine Justices: the Chief Justice of the United
States and eight Associate Justices. They have equal weight when voting on a case
and the Chief Justice has no casting vote or power to instruct colleagues.
The Justices are nominated by the President and confirmed with the ‘advice
and consent’ of the Senate. As federal judges, the Justices serve during “good
behavior”, meaning essentially that they serve for life and can be removed only by
resignation or by impeachment and subsequent conviction.
The Supreme Court is the highest court in the United States. The court deals
with matters pertaining to the federal government, disputes between states, and
interpretation of the Constitution. It can declare legislation or executive action made
at any level of the government as unconstitutional, nullifying the law and creating
precedent for future law and decisions.
The Supreme Court in practice has a much more ‘political’ role than the highest
courts of European democracies. For example, the scope of abortion in the USA is
effectively set by the Supreme Court whereas, in other countries, it would be set by
legislation. This is why the appointment of Justices is often a very charged and
controversial matter.
Given how difficult it is to change the US Constitution through the formal
method, one has seen informal changes to the Constitution through various
decisions of the Supreme Court which have given specific meanings to some of the
general phases in the Constitution.
It is one of the many ironies of the American political system that an unelected
and unaccountable body like the Supreme Court can in practice exercise so much
political power in a system which proclaims itself as so democratic.

46. The system of secondary and higher education in the United States
Compulsory schooling in the USA
The ages for compulsory education vary by state, beginning at ages five to eight
and ending at the ages of fourteen to eighteen. A growing number of states are now
requiring school attendance until the age of 18.
Compulsory education requirements can generally be satisfied by attending
public schools, state-certified private schools, or an approved home school program.
In most public and private schools, education is divided into three levels:
elementary school, junior high school (also often called middle school), and senior
high school.
 In the U.S. the first year of compulsory schooling usually begins with children at
the age of five or six. Children are then placed in year groups known as grades,
beginning with first grade and culminating in twelfth grade. The U.S. uses ordinal
numbers for naming grades, unlike Canada and Australia where cardinal numbers
are preferred. Thus, Americans are more likely to say “First Grade” rather than
“Grade One”.
The school year usually runs from early September until May or June (nine
months) and is divided into “quarters” or terms (semesters). Some schools use the
quarter system, which comprises three sessions: fall (September to December),
winter (January to March) and spring (March to May or June). Others use a semester
system made up of two sessions: fall (September to December) and spring (January
to May).
School vacation dates are published by schools well in advance, thus allowing
parents plenty of time to schedule family holidays during official school holiday
periods. Normally parents aren’t permitted to withdraw children from classes,
except for visits to a doctor or dentist, when the teacher should be informed in
advance whenever possible. If one wishes to take a child out of school during
classes, one must obtain permission from the principal. This is rarely given. It’s
particularly unwise to take a child out of school when he/she should be taking
examinations or during important course work assignments.
Higher Education:
Higher education in the United States is optional and typically follows
completion of secondary education.
Higher education institutions include universities, colleges, community
colleges, and vocational schools.
Universities and colleges offer undergraduate (bachelor's) and graduate
(master's and doctoral) degree programs in various fields of study.
Community colleges provide two-year associate degree programs and
vocational training programs that prepare students for specific careers.
Admissions to higher education institutions usually involve a competitive
selection process based on academic performance, standardized test scores (such as
the SAT or ACT), extracurricular activities, and personal essays.
Tuition fees vary widely depending on the institution and program, and
financial aid options are available for eligible students.
The United States is home to many prestigious universities known for their
research and academic excellence, both public and private.
3.1. Types of USA colleges and universities
- The “Ivy League” universities
- Public universities
- Small Liberal Arts Colleges
- Technical institutes
- Denominatinal or religiously-affiliated schools
 - Community colleges

Degree Types:
Bachelor's Degree: A four-year undergraduate degree awarded by colleges and
universities upon completion of a specified program of study.
Master's Degree: An advanced degree requiring 1-2 years of additional study
beyond the bachelor's degree, often specializing in a specific field.
Doctoral Degree: The highest level of academic degree, typically obtained
through several years of original research and the completion of a doctoral
dissertation. It includes degrees such as Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Doctor of
Medicine (M.D.), and Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D.).

47. Media in the United States

The media of the United States consist of several different types of
communications media: television, radio, newspapers, magazines, and Internet-
based Web sites. The U.S. also has a strong music industry.
Television:
Television is a major media outlet in the United States, with nearly all
households having at least one TV.
There are three types of television: broadcast (over-the-air), cable, and
satellite.
Major commercial networks include NBC, CBS, and ABC, offering a variety of
programming throughout the day.
Cable networks, such as USA Network, ESPN, and MTV, have gained significant
viewership and offer specialized content.
Public television, like PBS, provides educational and cultural programming and
relies on government subsidies, corporate sponsorships, and viewer contributions.
Radio:
The radio landscape in the U.S. includes both commercial and public stations.
National Public Radio (NPR) is the primary public radio network, while most
radio stations operate on a commercial basis.
AM radio stations typically focus on all-news formats and talk shows, while FM
radio dominates the music programming.
Satellite radio services like Sirius XM Radio offer commercial-free music
channels and other programming options.
Newspapers:
Newspapers in the U.S. are predominantly privately owned, either by large
chains or individuals/families.
Objective reporting and presenting multiple perspectives became an important
feature of American journalism.
 General-purpose newspapers are published either daily or weekly, with some
prominent examples like The Wall Street Journal, USA Today, and The New York
Times.
Weekly newspapers are more common in rural areas, while the International
Herald Tribune serves as a global newspaper.
Magazines:
The U.S. has a vibrant magazine industry with numerous publications catering
to various interests.
Major weekly newsmagazines include TIME, Newsweek, and U.S. News and
World Report.
Political magazines span the spectrum of ideologies, from left to right.
Specialized magazines cover a wide range of topics, and professional
organizations often publish magazines for their members.
Internet:
The Internet has revolutionized the media landscape, providing access to news
and archives.
Some organizations offer limited free content and charge for access to the rest,
while others provide free access to their archives.
The Internet plays a crucial role in shaping American history by recording
events in real-time and offering extensive historical information.
It's important to note that the media landscape in the U.S. is influenced by for-
profit corporations, and there have been concerns about media concentration and
its impact on localism, news coverage, and diversity of ownership and views.

48. Holidays in the UK

Many festivals and holidays in Britain are centuries old. Every town, village in
Britain has its own traditions.
Holidays in the UK can be divided into four groups:
1) Bank holidays in the UK are public holidays when most businesses and banks
are closed. These holidays are set by the government and are observed across the
country. The following are the bank holidays in the UK:
- New Year's Day - January 1st
- May Day - first Monday in May
- Boxing Day - December 26th
2) Religious holidays;( are days specified for religious observance)
- Easter - This is the most significant Christian holiday in the UK, celebrating the
resurrection of Jesus Christ. Easter Sunday is a public holiday, and the
preceding Friday, Good Friday, is also a public holiday.
- Christmas - This is another important Christian holiday celebrated in the UK,
commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ.
 - Epiphany is a Christian feast day which celebrates the revelation of God in
human form in the person of Jesus Christ. Epiphany falls on January 6.
- Shrove Tuesday
- Holy Thursday is the feast or holy day on the Thursday before Easter.
- Good Friday is the Friday before Easter Sunday. On this day Christians
remember the day when Jesus was crucified on a cross.
3) National holidays (in four constituencies of the UK);
- St George’s Day is on 23 April. It is England’s national day.
- St Andrew’s Day- On 30 November, Scottish people celebrate St
Andrew’s Day
- Burns Night
- St. Patrick’s Day 17 March,, is the national day of Northern Ireland and
Republic of Ireland.
4) Special observances with historical background.( are held on particular
days annually and are dedicated to certain events (such as the queen’s birthday,
state opening of the Parliament) or people (Mother, Father, etc.).)
1. St Valentine’s Day
2. Mothering Sunday (Mother’s Day)
3. April Fools’ day
4. Halloween
5. Remembrance Day

49. Holidays in USA

The United States has several holidays, both federal and state-specific,
throughout the year. Here are some of the most widely recognized holidays in the
USA:

New Year's Day - January 1st

Martin Luther King Jr. Day - third Monday in January
Presidents' Day - third Monday in February
Memorial Day - last Monday in May
Independence Day - July 4th
Labor Day - first Monday in September
Columbus Day - second Monday in October
Veterans Day - November 11th
Thanksgiving Day - fourth Thursday in November
Christmas Day - December 25th
In addition to these federal holidays, each state in the US may have its own
holidays that are observed. For example, some states observe holidays such as
Confederate Memorial Day, Emancipation Day, and Patriot Day.
 It's worth noting that some holidays in the US are not federal holidays but are
still widely celebrated. These include Valentine's Day, St. Patrick's Day, Halloween,
and Christmas Eve.

50. Preschool education system in the UK and the USA

Primary education in UK
Primary schools consist mainly of infant schools for children aged 5 to 7, junior
schools for those aged 7 to 11, and sometimes combined junior and infant schools
for both age groups.
Primary students pass from years one to six without examinations, though their
abilities are tested at age seven. The emphasis is on learning by discovery rather
than memorisation. Students learn core subjects such as English, math and science,
as well as foundation subjects such as history, geography, music, art and physical
education. Infant schools are largely informal; there is an emphasis on children
sharing and enjoying stories, communication through role play and other games and
activities, and emergent writing e.g. making shopping lists, writing prescriptions etc.
In junior schools, teaching is often more formal; children there usually have set
periods of statutory subjects.
In their last year of primary education, till recently, most schoolchildren had to
sit for the eleven-plus examination. Today it is generally used as an entrance test to
a specific group of secondary schools, rather than a blanket exam for all pupils, and
is taken voluntarily.

Preschool in the USA

Preschool is a place where children begin their learning process by way of play
and fun. Kindergarten is the place where tender minds open up to absorb what ever
is fed to them, which in turn makes the teachers play a vital role in shaping and
molding these young minds.
Preschools, kindergarten and elementary school teachers have a knack of
introducing children to various subjects like mathematics, language, science, and
social studies through use of games, music, artwork. What a child learns during their
early years is going to remain with him throughout and also becomes a deciding
factor in their outlook towards life.