Aerodynamic CH - 1 - L1

Mosul university ‫جامعة الموصل‬
Engineering Collage ‫كلية الهندسة‬

Mechanical Engineerin Department ‫قسم الهندسة الميكانيكية‬
MSc : Advance Aerodynamic ‫ديناميك الهواء المتقدم‬
Dr. Mohammed Saleh & Dr. Taha Ahamad ‫ طه احمد‬.‫ محمد صالح و د‬.‫د‬
1. Introduction
1.1. Importance of Aerodynamics
On August 8, 1588, the great Spanish Armada was met head-on by the English
fleet under the command of Sir Francis Drake. The Spanish ships were large and
heavy, in contrast, the English ships were smaller and lighter. England won the naval
war. Naval power was going to depend greatly on the speed and maneuverability of
ships. To increase the speed of a ship, it is important to reduce the resistance created
by the water flow around the ship’s hull.Suddenly, the drag on ship hulls became an
engineering problem of great interest, thus giving impetus to the study of fluid
mechanics.
This impetus hit its stride almost a century later, when, in 1687, Isaac Newton
(1642-1727) published his famous Principia, in which the entire second book was
devoted to fluid mechanics. Newton encountered the same difficulty as others before
him, namely, that the analysis of fluid flow is conceptually more difficult than the
dynamics of solid bodies. A solid body is usually geometrically well defined, and its
motion is therefore relatively easy to describe. On the other hand, a fluid is a
"squishy" substance, and in Newton's time it was difficult to decide even how to
qualitatively model its motion, let alone obtain quantitative relationships. Newton
considered a fluid flo",.' as a uniform, rectilinear stream of particles, much like a
cloud of pellets from a shotgun blast. As sketched in Fig. 1.1, Newton assumed that
upon striking a surface inclined at an angle θ to the stream, the particles would
transfer their normal momentum to the surface but their tangential momentum would
be preserved. Hence, after collision with the surface, the particles would then move
along the surface. This led to an expression for the hydrodynamic force on the
surface which varies as sin2 θ. Although its accuracy left much to be desired, its
simplicity led to wide application in naval architecture.
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Later, in 1777, a series of experiments was carried out by Jean Le Rond d'
Alembert (1717 -1783), under the support of the French government, in order to
measure the resistance of ships in canals. The results showed that "the rule that for
oblique planes resistance varies with the sine square of the angle of incidence holds
good only for angles between 50 and 90° and must be abandoned for lesser angles."
Also, in 1781, Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) pointed out the physical inconsistency
of Newton's model (Fig. 1.1) consisting of a rectilinear stream of particles impacting
without warning on a surface. In contrast to this model, Euler noted that the fluid
moving toward a body "before reaching the latter, bends its direction and its velocity
so that when it reaches the body it flows past it along the surface, and exercises no
other force on the body except the pressure corresponding to the single points of
contact." Euler went on to present a formula for resistance which attempted to take
into account the shear stress distribution along the surface, as well as the pressure
distribution. This expression became proportional to sin2θ for large incidence
angles, whereas it was proportional to sin θ at small incidence angles. Euler noted
that such a variation was in reasonable agreement with the ship-huH experiments
carried out by d'Alembert.
Aerodynamics comes from two Greek words: aerios, concerning the air, and
dynamis, meaning powerful. Aerodynamics deals with the study of forces and, how
these forces affect the motion of objects through air.
Aerodynamics is an engineering science concerned with the interaction
between bodies and the atmosphere. Technological applications include:
 General aviation (commercial, cargo, and business aircraft).
 Vertical short takeoff and landing V/STOL vehicles (helicopters, some
military aircraft, tilt rotors).
 Lighter-than air vehicles (airships, balloons, aerostats).
 Aerodynamic decelerators (parachutes, thrust reversal devices).
 Road vehicles (passenger and racing cars, commercial vehicles, high
speed trains);
 Spacecraft, missiles and rockets, low- to high-speed flight (micro air
vehicles to hypersonic wave riders),
 High altitude flight, human powered flight, unmanned flight, gliders,
energy conversion systems (wind and gas turbines);
 Propulsion systems (propellers, jet engines, gas turbines).
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1.2. Approaches to Aerodynamic Modelling

The approach used for developing an aerodynamic model to be used in
simulation or control design, depends strongly on the phenomena of interest and the
conditions over which the model is to be applied. In some cases, no computational
model is feasible. In most cases, a combination of empirical data and computation
must be synthesized.
 In the XVII-th century, the foundations for experimental fluid mechanics were
laid down (France and England).
 In XVIII-th and XIX-th century there was gradual development of theoretical
fluid dynamics primarily in Europe.
 Through most of the XX-th century, the study and practice of aerodynamics
involved the use of pure theory on one hand and pure experiment on the other
hand.
 The advent of high-speed digital computer combined with the development of
accurate numerical algorithms for solving physical problems on those computers
has revolutionized the way of study and practice in aerodynamics today.
Now engineers have different kinds of tools available for solving fluids
engineering systems:
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Analytical Aerodynamics:
This approach is involved with the theory of mathematical physics problem
formulation together with control volume and differential analysis of mathematical
model formulated.
Good news: we have equations! However, Bad news: we do not have
solutions!
Unfortunately, exact solutions only exist for simple geometry and flow
conditions. So approximate solutions for practical applications must be used in
combination with empirical relations.
CFD (Computer Fluid Dynamics) is now used in partnership with experimental
methods. CFD can provide a very detailed view of the flow field, generating
velocities, pressures and densities at every point in the field (whether we are
interested or not)
To analyze something that would be very expensive to measure experimentally
However, calculations usually approximate the flow in some way, either by
solving a simplified equation or by introducing approximations through the
numerical method itself.
1.3. Approaches to Aerodynamic Modelling (2)
Experimental aerodynamics: The wind tunnel solves the correct equations,
but usually at not quite the right conditions (Reynolds number differences) or with
the right geometry (because of model support interference or wall effects). It often
provides good measures of integrated flow properties such as total forces and
moments acting on a body. It can be very expensive and is now used primarily to
confirm the primary design decisions rather than to experiment with design concepts.
Flight test provides the most realistic solutions, but is also very expensive, is
not well-suited to flow field property measurements (e.g. velocity fields), and is
compromised by atmospheric disturbances.
The ideal approach involves the appropriate combination of all of these tools!
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1.4. Flow classifications

The equations for a general fluid flow are extremely complex and even if the
problem could be formulated, it would be impractical to solve. Thus, from the outset,
certain simplifying approximations that are often very accurate are made. Most often
classifications in use are:
Viscid flow and Non-viscid flow
When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction force develops
between them. This internal resistance to flow is quantified by the fluid property
viscosity. There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid flows involve
viscous effects to some degree. However, in many flows of practical interest, there
are regions where viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial o pressure
forces
Non Compressible flow and Compressible flow
A flow is classified as being compressible or non-compressible depending on
the level of variation of density during flow. Non compressibility is approximation
if the density remains nearly constant throughout. Liquid flows are non compressible
to a high level of accuracy, but the level of variation in density in gas flows as non
compressible depends on the Mach number
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External flow and Internal flow

A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external, depending on whether
the fluid is forced to flow in a confined channel or over surface. Internal flows are
dominated by the influence of viscosity throughout the flow field. In external flows
the viscous effects are limited to boundary layers near solid surfaces and to wake
regions downstream of bodies.
Laminar flow and Turbulent flow
Some flows are smooth while the others are rather chaotic. The highly ordered
fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called laminar. The highly
disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities is characterized by
velocity fluctuations is called turbulent
Steady flow and Non steady flow
The term steady implies no change at a point with time. The opposite of steady
is unsteady. The term uniform implies no change with location over a specified
region. The term periodic refers to the kind of unsteady flow in which flow oscillates
about a steady mean.
Natural flow and Forced flow
A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced depending on how the fluid motion
is initiated.
One-dimensional flow or 1D Two or three dimensional flow: 2D, 3D
1.5. Basic algorithms in aerodynamic modeling

To do anything of engineering worth in aerodynamics we have to develop the
governing equations
Mathematic model General Laws Constitutive Relations
(Governing equations) = (independent of the media) + (dependent of the media)
Boundary Initial
+ Conditions + Conditions
General Laws: conservation of mass; conservation of momentum; conservation

of energy
These laws apply to a system, where a system is defined as a fixed quantity of
matter upon which attention is focused. Everything external to the system is
separated by the system boundaries. This boundaries may be fixed or mobile!
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Analogy between computational and experimental aerodynamics
Figure presents an analogy between wind tunnel testing and computational

methods. The geometry definition required for advanced analysis is equivalent to the
requirements for fabricating a wind tunnel model. This definition can be time
consuming. Thus advanced codes are normally used to assess only a few specific
features of a new vehicle concept. That feature might be a unique configuration idea,
where you need to evaluate the viability of a new concept to reduce risk, and assure
the program managers that the vehicle concept is realistic.
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Advantages of CFD over experiment Limitations of CFD over

experiment
Can be cheap and quick results depend on the choice of
governing equations
detailed information in space and time results accuracy depends on
less empirical input - discretization level
no scaling effect - boundary conditions
can simulate test that cannot be done in - numerical precision
laboratories
1.6. Fundamental Equation of Fluid Mechanic

The equations describing the motion of air were known in the nineteenth
century through the work of Navier at the beginning of the century and the work of
Stokes at the end. There were a number of other notable works published between
the papers of Navier and Stokes on the problem of flow of real fluids. However, it
was the work of Bernoulli and Euler in the eighteenth century and work of Prandtl
in the first decade of the twentieth century that led the way to the procedures
described in this text as applied to the airfoil and the wing. Prandtl’s breakthrough
led to the productive application of ideal-fluid potential-flow theory to airfoil and
wing design. Prandtl demonstrated that for air moving over airfoil shapes at speeds
of interest the viscous effects are confined to relatively thin regions adjacent to the
boundaries of the flow. Hence, for relatively thin airfoils the boundary layer can be
neglected altogether and the pressure distribution can be reasonably predicted by
applying ideal potential- flow theory. Since we cannot solve the Navier-Stokes
equations for most practical flow problems, and since there are still some open
questions about their solutions, it is quite fortunate that the aeronautical engineer can
apply potential flow theory productively in the design of aerodynamic shapes. The
foundations of this theory are described in this chapter.
The engineering science of aerodynamics is built on a foundation comprising
three sets of tools. These are the interconnected theoretical, experimental, and com-
putational tools of classical continuum mechanics of fluids. This foundation was
introduced at the beginning of Chapter 1. We pointed out there that the two fluids of
interest are the simple-compressible Newtonian viscous fluid model of “real” flows
and Euler’s inviscid perfect fluid model. The mathematical statements of the fun-
damental principles and the constitutive models of material behavior necessary to
formulate a complete set of equations are developed next. The approach will begin
with control-volume analysis. For further more detailed accounts of mathematical
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modeling of fluid dynamics the interested reader should consult Shapiro (1953),
Batchelor (1967), and Bird, Stewart, and Lightfoot (2002).
1.7.Pressure variation in a static fluid medium
If fluid particles, when viewed as a continuum, are either all at rest or all
moving with the same velocity, the fluid is said to be a static medium. Thus, the term
static fluid properties may be applied to situations in which the elements of the fluid
are moving, provided that there is no relative motion between fluid elements. Since
there is no relative motion between adjacent layers of the fluid, there are no shear
forces. Thus, with no relative motion between fluid elements, the viscosity of the
fluid is of no concern. For these inviscid flows, the only forces acting on the surface
of the fluid element are pressure forces.
Consider the small fluid element whose center is defined by the coordinates x,
y, z, as shown in figure. A first-order Taylor’s series expansion is used to evaluate
the pressure at each face. Thus, the pressure at the back face of the element is
𝜕𝑝 ∆𝑥 𝜕𝑝 ∆𝑥
𝑝− 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑝 +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2
that at the front face is p+( p/ x)( x/2).
2. Standard atmosphere
As an aircraft operates in the air the properties of air that affect aircraft control
and performance must be understood .
Air is a mixture of gases composed principally of nitrogen and oxygen. Since
air is a combination of gases, it follows the laws of gases. Air is considered a fluid
because it answers the definition of a fluid, namely, a substance that may be made
to flow or change its shape by the application of moderate pressure. Air has weight,
since something lighter than air, such as a balloon filled with helium, will rise in the
air .
Air is made up of approximately 21% oxygen (O2) and 78% nitrogen (N) by
volume, with the remaining 1% being made up from other gases. The ratios of the
gases (21%, 78% and 1%) vary little with height although the moisture content drops
with increase in altitude .
Physically atmosphere is considered as a fluid of changing density, pressure
and temperature. According to temperature changes with the height above the sea
level atmosphere is divided into troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and
thermosphere (Fig. 1-1). As altitude increases, up to 30,000 feet (about 10 000 m),
the temperature, pressure and density of the air decrease. This region is known as
the TROPOSPHERE and the upper boundary is the
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TROPOPAUSE.
Being minimal (about −60°C) at tropopause it rises up to −10°C at stratopause,
and then decreases to the altitude of about 80-85 kilometers (mesopause).
These changes in temperature are very interesting as it is known the
temperature of cosmic background is −455°𝐹− 273𝐾, but measurement show it
depends on place of measurement – being in shadow or not.
More exactly the changes in temperature from sea level up to tropopause are
presented on Fig. 1-2. Really the change in temperature from the sea level up to
tropopause is almost linear and gives the values of 6.5°𝐶 for each 1000 meters or
3.6°𝐹 per each 1000 feet. This is called the standard (or average) laps rate.
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3. AIRFOIL THEORY
The first patented airfoil shapes were developed by Horatio F. Phillips in 1884.
Phillips was an Englishman who carried out the first serious wind-tunnel
experiments on airfoils. In 1902, the Wright brothers conducted their own airfoil
tests in a wind tunnel, developing relatively efficient shapes which contributed to
their successful first flight on December 17, 1903 (see Section 1.1). Clearly, in the
early days of powered flight, airfoil design was basically customized an4) The
trailing-edge angle.d personalized. However, in the early 1930s, NACA—the
forerunner of NASA—embarked on a series of definitive airfoil experiments using
airfoil shapes that were constructed rationally and systematically. Many of these
NACA airfoils are in common use today
The airfoil shape is expressed analytically as a function of some design
parameters. The NACA four and five digits is used with design parameters that
control the camber and the thickness of the airfoil. The inviscid flow is computed
with a linear vortex panel method, which provides the lift and moment coefficients.
The boundary layer is computed using an integral formulation. In this chapter, a
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complete mathematical modeling to calculate the design parameters of the airfoil is

presented.
3.1.Airfoil Geometry Parameters
If a horizontal wing is cut by a vertical plane parallel to the centerline of the
vehicle, the resultant section is called the airfoil section. The generated lift and the
stall characteristics of the wing depend strongly on the geometry of airfoil section
that make up the wing. Geometric parameters that have an important effect on the
aerodynamic characteristic of an airfoil section include
1) The leading-edge radius.
2) The mean camber line.
3) The maximum thickness and the thickness distribution of the profile.
The effect of these parameters, which are illustrated in figure 2.1 will be
discussed after a brief introduction to airfoil-section nomenclature.
3.1.1. Airfoil-Section Nomenclature
The geometry of many airfoil sections is uniquely defined by the NACA
designation for the airfoil. There are a variety of classifications, including NACA
four digit wing sections, NACA five digit wing sections, and NACA six digit wing
sections
As an example, consider the four- digit wing section. The first integer indicates
the maximum value of the mean camber-line ordinate (see figure 2.1) in percent of
the chord. The second integer indicates the distance from the leading edge to the
maximum camber in tenth of the chord. The last two integers indicate the maximum
section thickness in percent of the chord. Thus the NACA 0012 is a symmetric airfoil
section whose maximum thickness is 12 percent of the chord. The NACA 4412
airfoil section is a 12 percent thick airfoil which has 4 percent maximum camber
located at 40 percent of the chord.
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3.1.2. Leading-Edge (LE) and Chord Line

The chord of an airfoil is an imaginary straight line drawn through the airfoil
from its leading edge to its trailing edge. We might think of this chord line as the
starting point for drawing or designing an airfoil in cross section. It is from this
baseline that we determine how much upper or lower camber there is and how wide
the wing is at any point along the wingspan. The leading edge of an airfoil is the
portion that meets the air first. The shape of the leading edge depends upon the
function of the airfoil. If the airfoil is designed to operate at high speed, its leading
edge
will be very sharp, as on most current fighter aircraft, if the airfoil is designed
to produce a greater amount of lift at a relatively low rate of speed. [3]
3.1.3. Mean Camber Line
The mean camber line of an airfoil is the line from the leading edge to the
trailing edge, of which each point lies exactly halfway between the upper and lower
surfaces. For an airfoil with zero camber (i.e., the wing is symmetric about the chord
line), the mean camber line is straight and corresponds to the chord line. In other
cases, the mean camber line is curved. [4]
3.1.4. Maximum Thickness and Thickness Distribution
The maximum thickness and thickness distribution strongly influence the
aerodynamic characteristic of the airfoil section as well. The maximum local
velocity to which a fluid particle accelerates as it flows around an airfoil section
increases as the maximum thickness increases. Thus the minimum pressure value is
smallest for the thickest airfoil section. As the result, the adverse pressure gradient
associated with the deceleration on the flow from the location of this pressure
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minimum to the trailing edge is greatest for the thickest airfoil. As the adverse
pressure gradient becomes larger, the boundary layer becomes thicker (and is more
likely to separate producing relatively large values for the form drag). Thus, the
beneficial effects of increasing the maximum thickness are limited.
For a very thin airfoil section (which has relatively small leading edge radius),
boundary layer separation occurs early, not far from the leading edge of the upper
surface. As result, the maximum section lift coefficient for a very thin airfoil
section is relatively small.
The thickness distribution for airfoil affects the pressure distribution and the
character of the boundary layer. As the location of the maximum thickness moves
aft, the velocity gradient (and hence pressure gradient) in the mid chord region
decreases.
The resultant favorable pressure gradient in the mid chord region promotes
boundary layer stability and increases the possibility that the boundary layer remains
laminar. Laminar boundary layers produce less skin friction drag than turbulent
boundary layer but are also more likely to separate under the influence of an adverse
pressure gradient
In addition, the thicker airfoils benefit more from the use of high lift devices
but have lower critical Mach number.
3.1.5. Trailing-Edge Angle (TE)
The trailing edge is the back of the airfoil, the portion at which the airflow over
the upper surface joins the airflow over the lower surface. The design of this portion
of the airfoil is just as important as the design of the leading edge. This is because
the air flowing over the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil must be directed to
meet with as little turbulence as possible, regardless of the position of the airfoil in
the air.
3.2.NACA Airfoil
The NACA airfoils are airfoil shapes for aircraft wings developed by the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The shape of the NACA
airfoils is described using a series of digits following the word "NACA." The
parameters in the numerical code can be entered into equations to precisely generate
the cross-section of the airfoil and calculate its properties as shown in figure2.2.
3.2.1. Four-digit Series
The NACA four-digit wing sections define the profile by:
1. One digit describing maximum camber as percentage of the chord.
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2. One digit describing the distance of maximum camber from the airfoil
leading edge in tens of percent of the chord.
3. Two digits describing maximum thickness of the airfoil as percent of the
chord.
The formula for the shape of a NACA 00XX foil, with "XX" being replaced by
the percentage of thickness to chord, is:
⁄
𝑧= 𝑐 𝑎 −𝑏 −𝑐 +𝑑 −𝑒 2
.
where
• a = 0.2969
• b = 0.126
• c = 0.3516
• d = 0.2843
• e = 0.1015
z is the half thickness at a given value of x, and
• tÚc is relative thickness (thickness ratio) and also the eq.2. can be in
dimensionless form
⁄
𝑧= 𝑐 𝑎√𝑋 − 𝑏(𝑋) − 𝑐(𝑋) + 𝑑(𝑋) − 𝑒(𝑋) 3
.
𝑥
𝑋=
𝑐
c is the chord length,
x is the position along the chord from 0 to c,
The expressions for camber(zc) are:
m
z = (2px − x ); 0 ≤ x ≤ p
p
m
z = [(1 − 2p) + 2px − x ]; p ≤ x ≤ 1
(1 − p)
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where
x = coordinates along the length of the airfoil, from 0 to c (which stands for
chord, or length)
z = coordinates above and below the line extending along the length of the
airfoil, these are either yt for thickness coordinates or yc for camber coordinates
t = maximum airfoil thickness in tenths of chord (i.e. a 15% thick airfoil would
be 0.15)
m = maximum camber in tenths of the chord
p =position of the maximum camber along the chord in tenths of chord
3.3.NACA Five-Digit Series
• During certain tests it was observed that Clmax of the airfoil could be
increased by shifting forward the location of the maximum camber.
• This finding led to development of five-digit series airfoils.
• The new camber lines for the five-digit series airfoils are designated by three
digits.
• The camber line shape is given as:
1
z = k [x − 3mx + m (3 − m)x] ; 0 < x ≤ m
6
1
z = k m [1 − x] ; m < x < 1
6
• The value of ‘m’ decides the location of the maximum camber and that of k1
the design lift coefficient Cli or Clopt
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• The same thickness distribution was retained as that for NACA four-digit
series airfoils.
4. Aerodynamic forces and moment

The aerodynamic forces and moments on the body are due to only two basic
sources:
1. Pressure distribution over the body surface
2. Shear stress distribution over the body surface
Both pressure p and shear stress τ have dimensions of force per unit area. As
sketched in Fig.1, p acts normal to the surface, and τ acts tangential to the surface.
Figure 1
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Figure 2
The net effect of the p and τ distributions integrated over the complete body
surface is a resultant aerodynamic force R and moment M on the body, as sketched
in Fig.2. In turn, the resultant R can be split into components, two sets of which are
shown in Fig.3. In Fig.3, V∞ is the relative wind, defined as the flow velocity far
ahead of the body. The flow far away from the body is called the freestream, and
hence V∞ is also called the freestream velocity. In Fig.3, by definition,
Fig.3
L ≡ lift ≡ component of R perpendicular to V∞

D ≡ drag ≡ component of R parallel to V∞
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The chord c is the linear distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge of
the body. Sometimes, R is split into components perpendicular and parallel to the
chord, as also shown in Fig.3. By definition,
N ≡ normal force ≡ component of R perpendicular to c
A ≡ axial force ≡ component of R parallel to c
The angle of attack α is defined as the angle between c and V∞. Hence, α is
also the angle between L and N and between D and A. The geometrical relation
between these two sets of components is, from Fig.3,
Let us examine in more detail the integration of the pressure and shear stress
distributions to obtain the aerodynamic forces and moments. Consider the two-
dimensional body sketched in Fig.4.
Fig.4 Nomenclature for the integration of pressure and shear stress

distributions over a two-dimensional body surface.
The chord line is drawn horizontally, and hence the relative wind is inclined
relative to the horizontal by the angle of attack α. An xy coordinate system is oriented
parallel and perpendicular, respectively, to the chord. The distance from the leading
edge measured along the body surface to an arbitrary point A on the upper surface
is Su; similarly, the distance to an arbitrary point B on the lower surface is Sl. The
pressure and shear stress on the upper surface are denoted by pu and τu, both pu and
τu are functions of su. Similarly, pl and τl are the corresponding quantities on the
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lower surface and are functions of sl. At a given point, the pressure is normal to the
surface and is oriented at an angle θ relative to the perpendicular; shear stress is
tangential to the surface and is oriented at the same angle θ relative to the horizontal.
In Fig.4, the sign convention for θ is positive when measured clockwise from the
vertical line to the direction of p and from the horizontal line to the direction of τ. In
Fig.4, all thetas are shown in their positive direction. Now consider the two-
dimensional shape in Fig.4 as a cross section of an infinitely long cylinder of uniform
section. A unit span of such a cylinder is shown in Fig.5. Consider an elemental
surface area dS of this cylinder, where dS = (ds) (1) as shown by the shaded area in
Fig.5. We are interested in the contribution to the total normal force N′ and the total
axial force A′ due to the pressure and shear stress on the elemental area dS. The
primes on N′ and A′ denote force per unit span. Examining both Figures 5 and 5, we
see that the elemental normal and axial forces acting on the elemental surface dS on
the upper body surface are:
p
ds
Fig.5 Aerodynamic force on an element of the body surface.
𝑑𝑁 ′ = −𝑝 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝜏 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (1.3)

𝑑𝐴′ = −𝑝 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (1.4)
On the lower body surface, we have .
𝑑𝑁 ′ = 𝑝 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝜏 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (1.5)
𝑑𝐴′ = 𝑝 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (1.6)
In Equations (1.3) to (1.6), the positive directions of N′ and A′ are those shown
in Figure 3. In these equations, the positive clockwise convention for θ must be
followed. For example, consider again Figure 4. Near the leading edge of the body,
where the slope of the upper body surface is positive, τ is inclined upward, and hence
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it gives a positive contribution to N′. For an upward inclined τ, θ would be

counterclockwise, hence negative. Therefore, in Equation (1.3), sin θ would be
negative, making the shear stress term (the last term) a positive value, as it should
be in this instance. Hence, Equations (1.3) to (1.6) hold in general (for both the
forward and rearward portions of the body) as long as the above sign convention for
θ is consistently applied.
The total normal and axial forces per unit span are obtained by integrating
Equations (1.3) to (1.6) from the leading edge (LE) to the trailing edge (TE):
𝑁 =− (𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑑𝑠 + (𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑑𝑠 1.7
𝐴 = (−𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑑𝑠 + (𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑑𝑠 1.8
In turn, the total lift and drag per unit span can be obtained by inserting
Equations (1.7) and (1.8) into (1.1) and (1.2); note that Equations (1.1) and (1.2)
hold for forces on an arbitrarily shaped body (unprimed) and for the forces per unit
span (primed).
The aerodynamic moment exerted on the body depends on the point about
which moments are taken. Consider moments taken about the leading edge. By
convention, moments that tend to increase α (pitch up) are positive, and moments
that tend to decrease α (pitch down) are negative. This convention is illustrated in
Figure 6.
Fig.6 Sign convention for aerodynamic moments.
Returning again to Figures 5 and 4, the moment per unit span about the leading
edge due to p and τ on the elemental area dS on the upper surface is
21
𝑑𝑀 = (𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑥𝑑𝑠 + (−𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑦𝑑𝑠 1.9

On the bottom surface,
𝑑𝑀 = (−𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑥𝑑𝑠 + (𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑦𝑑𝑠 1.10

In Equations (1.9) and (1.10), note that the same sign convention for θ applies
as before and that y is a positive number above the chord and a negative number
below the chord. Integrating Equations (1.9) and (1.10) from the leading to the
trailing edges, we obtain for the moment about the leading edge per unit span
𝑀 = [(𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑥 − (𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑦]𝑑𝑠
+ [(−𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑥 + (𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑦]𝑑𝑠 1.11
In Equations (1.7), (1.8), and (1.11), θ, x, and y are known functions of s for a
given body shape. Hence, if pu, pl, τu, and τl are known as functions of s (from theory
or experiment), the integrals in these equations can be evaluated. Clearly, Equations
(1.7), (1.8), and (1.11) demonstrate the principle stated earlier, namely, the sources
of the aerodynamic lift, drag, and moments on a body are the pressure and shear
stress distributions integrated over the body. A major goal of theoretical
aerodynamics is to calculate p(s) and τ(s) for a given body shape and freestream
conditions, thus yielding the aerodynamic forces and moments via Equations (1.7),
(1.8), and (1.11).
As our discussions of aerodynamics progress, it will become clear that there are
quantities of an even more fundamental nature than the aerodynamic forces and
moments themselves. These are
dimensionless force and moment coefficients, defined as follows. Let ρ∞ and
V∞ the density and velocity, respectively, in the freestream, far ahead of the body.
be
We define a dimensional quantity called the freestream dynamic pressure as
Dynamic pressure:
1
𝑞 ≡ 𝜌 𝑣
2
The dynamic pressure has the units of pressure (i.e., pounds per square foot or
newtons per square meter). In addition, let S be a reference area and l be a reference
length. The dimensionless force and moment coefficients are defined as follows:
22
𝐿
𝐶 ≡ 𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑞 𝑆
𝐷
𝐶 ≡ 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑞 𝑆
𝑁
𝐶 ≡ 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑞 𝑆
𝐴
𝐶 ≡ 𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑞 𝑆
𝑀
𝐶 ≡ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑞 𝑆
In the above coefficients, the reference area S and reference length l are chosen
to pertain to the given geometric body shape; for different shapes, S and l may be
different things. For example, for an airplane wing, S is the planform area, and l is
the mean chord length, as illustrated in Figure 7 a. However, for a sphere, S is the
cross-sectional area, and l is the diameter, as shown in Figure 7 b.
Fig 7 Some reference areas and lengths

The particular choice of reference area and length is not critical; however, when
using force and moment coefficient data, you must always know what reference
quantities the particular data are based upon.
23
The symbols in capital letters listed above (i.e., CL, CD, CM , and CA) denote
the force and moment coefficients for a complete three-dimensional body such as an
airplane or a finite wing. In contrast, for a two-dimensional body, such as given in
Figures 4 and 5, the forces and moments are per unit span. For these two-dimensional
bodies, it is conventional to denote the aerodynamic coefficients by lowercase
letters; for example,
𝐿 𝐷 𝑀
𝐶 ≡ 𝐶 ≡ 𝐶 ≡
𝑞 𝑐 𝑞 𝑐 𝑞 𝑐
where the reference area S = c (1) = c.
Two additional dimensionless quantities of immediate use are
𝑝−𝑝
𝑐 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑞
𝜏
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑞
The most useful forms of Equations (1.7), (1.8), and (1.11) are in terms of the
dimensionless coefficients introduced above. From the geometry shown in Figure 8,
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (1.12)
𝑑𝑦 = −(𝑑𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) (1.13)
𝑆 = 𝑐(1) (1.14)
Fig.8 Geometrical relationship of differential lengths.

24
Substituting Equations (1.12) and (1.13) into Equations (1.7), (1.8), and (1.11),
dividing by q∞, and further dividing by S in the form of Equation (1.14), we obtain
the following integral forms for the force and moment coefficients:
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐶 = 𝐶 , −𝐶 , 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶 , +𝐶 , 𝑑𝑥 1.15
𝐶 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐶 = 𝐶 , −𝐶 , 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶 , +𝐶 , 𝑑𝑥 1.16
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐶 , = 𝐶 , −𝐶 , 𝑥𝑑𝑥 − 𝐶 , +𝐶 , 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ 𝐶 , +𝐶 , 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + −𝐶 , +𝐶 , 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 1.17
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
The simple algebraic steps are left as an exercise for the reader. When
evaluating these integrals, keep in mind that yu is directed above the x axis, and
hence is positive, whereas yl is directed below the x axis, and hence is negative.
Also, dy/dx on both the upper and lower surfaces follow the usual rule from calculus
(i.e., positive for those portions of the body with a positive slope and negative for
those portions with a negative slope).
The lift and drag coefficients can be obtained from Equations (1.1) and (1.2)
cast in coefficient form:
𝑐 𝑙 = 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 − 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 (1.18)
𝑐 = 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 + 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 (1.19)
Integral forms for cl and cd are obtained by substituting Equations (1.15) and
(1.16) into (1.18) and (1.19).
It is important to note from Equations (1.15) through (1.19) that the
aerodynamic force and moment coefficients can be obtained by integrating the
pressure and skin friction coefficients over the body. This is a common procedure in
both theoretical and experimental aerodynamics. In addition, although our
derivations have used a two-dimensional body, an analogous development can be
25
presented for three-dimensional bodies—the geometry and equations only get more
complex and involved—the principle is the same.
EXAMPLE:
Consider the supersonic flow over a 5◦ half-angle wedge at zero angle of attack,
as sketched in Figure1.23a.The freestream Mach number ahead of the wedge is
2.0,and the freestream pressure and density are 1.01×105 N/m2 and 1.23 kg/m3,
respectively (this corresponds to standard sea level conditions). The pressures on the
upper and lower surfaces of the wedge are constant with distance s and equal to each
other, namely, pu = pl = 1.31×105 N/m2, as shown in Figure 1.23b. The pressure
exerted on the base of the wedge is equal to p∞. As seen in Figure 1.23c, the shear
stress varies over both the upper and lower surfaces as τw = 431s−0.2. The chord
length, c, of the wedge is 2 m. Calculate the drag coefficient for the wedge.
26
27

Aerodynamic CH - 1 - L1

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Mosul university ‫جامعة الموصل‬

Engineering Collage ‫كلية الهندسة‬

1.2. Approaches to Aerodynamic Modelling

1.4. Flow classifications

External flow and Internal flow

1.5. Basic algorithms in aerodynamic modeling

General Laws: conservation of mass; conservation of momentum; conservation

Analogy between computational and experimental aerodynamics

Figure presents an analogy between wind tunnel testing and computational

Advantages of CFD over experiment Limitations of CFD over

1.6. Fundamental Equation of Fluid Mechanic

complete mathematical modeling to calculate the design parameters of the airfoil is

3.1.2. Leading-Edge (LE) and Chord Line

4. Aerodynamic forces and moment

L ≡ lift ≡ component of R perpendicular to V∞

Fig.4 Nomenclature for the integration of pressure and shear stress

Fig.5 Aerodynamic force on an element of the body surface.

𝑑𝑁 ′ = −𝑝 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝜏 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (1.3)

it gives a positive contribution to N′. For an upward inclined τ, θ would be

𝑁 =− (𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑑𝑠 + (𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑑𝑠 1.7

𝐴 = (−𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑑𝑠 + (𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑑𝑠 1.8

Fig.6 Sign convention for aerodynamic moments.

𝑑𝑀 = (𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑥𝑑𝑠 + (−𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑦𝑑𝑠 1.9

𝑑𝑀 = (−𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑥𝑑𝑠 + (𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑦𝑑𝑠 1.10

𝑀 = [(𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑥 − (𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑦]𝑑𝑠

+ [(−𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑥 + (𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑦]𝑑𝑠 1.11

Fig 7 Some reference areas and lengths

Fig.8 Geometrical relationship of differential lengths.

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