Topic 2: Measures of Central Tendency

Learning Objectives

Upon the completion of this topic, you are expected to:

a. define and differentiate the measure of central tendency: mean, median and mode;
b. give the advantage of mean, median and mode; and
c. calculate mean, median and mode for a grouped and ungrouped data;
d. identify the most appropriate measure of central tendency in a certain distribution.

Presentation of Content

I. Mean
Are you familiar with the averages? One of them is the mean.
The mean is the most popular and well known measure of central tendency. It can be used with
both discrete and continuous data, although its use is most often with continuous data. The mean
is equal to the sum of all the values in the data set divided by the number of values in the data
set.
 
So, if we have n values in a data set and they have values x , x , ..., x , the sample mean, usually
1 2 n

denoted by  x  (pronounced x bar), is:

(x 1 + x 2+ …+ x n)
x=
n

This formula is usually written in a slightly different manner using the Greek capital letter ,
pronounced "sigma", which means "sum of".

x=
∑x
n

You may have noticed that the above formula refers to the sample mean.
Why have we called it a sample mean?

In statistics, samples and populations have very different meanings and these differences are very
important, even if, in the case of the mean, they are calculated in the same way.
 
To acknowledge that we are calculating the population mean and not the sample mean, we use
the Greek lower case letter "mu", denoted as µ:

μ=
∑x
N
Characteristics of the Mean
These are some of the characteristics of the mean.
1. The mean is essentially a model of your data set.
2. It includes every value in your data set as part of the calculation.
3. Mean is the only measure of central tendency where the sum of the deviations of each
value from the mean is always zero.
4. The mean is a reliable or a more stable measurement to use when sample data are being
used to make inferences about populations.
5. The mean is sensitive or is greatly affected by the values, high or low and this makes in
appropriate average to use.
6. The mean is the most commonly used, easily understood, easily calculated, and generally
recognized average.
7. It is best measure to use when the distribution is symmetrical.
8. It is useful measure for inferential statistics.
9. It is used to obtain an average value of a series of value after each item is weighted. This
is referred to as weighted mean.

Mean Computation for Ungrouped Data

For ungrouped data, the mean is computed by simply adding all the values and dividing the sum
by the total number of items. For the sample mean, the formula is:
n

∑ xi
x= i=1
n
Where:
x ̅ =sample mean
x=value of each item
n=number of items∈the sample
Σ=the summation of

In simpler form, the formula for the sample mean may be presented as:

x=
∑x
n
And for the population mean, it is:

μ=
∑x
N
Where:
µ¿ arithmetic mean of a population
N=number of x items ∈the population

Example:
Let us consider the scores of Michael in his statistics class. The scores have been arrayed in
descending order.
 76 76 62 51 45 27 12 6 2

Solution:
Since in the case of Michael’s scores, Σx = 357, Michael’s mean score is

x=
∑ x = 357 =39.67
n 9

Example:
The grade in Geometry of 10 students are 87, 84, 85, 85, 86, 90, 79, 82, 78, and 76. What is the
average grade of the 10 students?

Solution:

x=
∑ x = 832 =83.2
n 10
Hence, the average grade of the 10 students is 83.2.

Example:
The weight of four bags of wheat (in kg) are 103, 105, 102, and 104. Find the mean weight.

Solution:

x=
∑ x = 414 =103.5 kg
n 4

II. Median
The median (~ x ) of a set of data is a measure of central tendency that occupies the middle position
in an array of values.
It is the number that divides the bottom 50% of the data from the top 50%, that is, half the data
items fall below the median and half above that value. In an odd number of items the median is
simply the middle value. If n is even, the median is the average of the two middle data values in
its ordered list.
The middle value or term in a set of data arranged according to size/ magnitude (either increasing
or decreasing) is called the median.
Uses of Median
The median is used whenever an average of position is desired. It is used when open– ended
intervals are involved.

Characteristics of Median
The median is another widely used average, easy to understand, and easy to compute. It cannot
be found unless the items are arranged in an ascending or descending order. It is the point that
divides the frequency distribution into two halves.

Median Computation for Ungrouped Data

The median is computed as follows:
1. Arrange the items in an array.
2. Identify the middle value.

Example 1:
The library logbook shows that 58, 60, 54, 35, and 97 books, respectively, were borrowed from
Monday to Friday last week. Find the median.

Solution:
Arrange the (58, 60, 54, 35, and 97) data in increasing order.
35, 54, 58, 60, 97
We can see from the arranged numbers that the middle value is 58. Thus, the median is 58.

Example 2:
The amount of money a balut vendor earned on five randomly selected days are:
₱ 86, ₱ 109, ₱ 141, ₱ 74, ₱ 123

Solution:
Making an array, we have:
₱ 74, ₱ 86, ₱ 109, ₱ 123, ₱ 141
Since there are 5 (odd) items,
~
x=₱ 109
Example 3:
Andrea’s scores in 10 quizzes during the first quarter are 8, 7, 6, 10, 9, 5, 9, 6, 10, and 7. Find the
median.

Solution:
Arrange the scores in increasing order. 5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, 9, 10, 10
Since the number of measures is even, then the median is the average of the two middle scores.
~ 7+8
x= = 7.5
2
Hence, the median of the set of scores is 7.5.

III. Mode
The mode ( ^x ), by definition, is the most commonly occurring value in a series. A series may
have more than one or none at all.
For the grouped data, the class with the greatest frequency is called the modal class.
A distribution with only one mode is said to be unimodal. In case wherein there are two class
limits with the highest frequency, the distribution is referred to as bimodal. Further, the
distribution is multimodal when there are three or more modes.

Uses of Mode
It is used when a quick estimate of the average is needed. It helps us spot a trend. Being the most
frequently occurring value, if you are a shoe producer or a clothing manufacturer and you want
to know the size that will fit the greatest number of people, you would seek the modal size.
Obviously, the shoe producer or clothing manufacturer will produce more shoes or dresses in the
most commonly purchased size than in other sizes.
The mode therefore provides information to businessman and producers that would help them in
business and decision making.
The mode is the measure or value which occurs most frequently in a set of data.
It is the value with the greatest frequency.
 Characteristics of Mode
It is the simplest central tendency. It is not affected by extreme values in a distribution but
unreliable measure of central tendency.
It is not affected by extreme values in a distribution. It is not necessary to arrange the item before
the mode is known.
The mode may not exist in some set of data or there maybe more than one mode in other data set.
 Mode Computation for Ungrouped Data
For ungrouped data, the most frequent occurring score is the mode.
To find the mode for a set of data:
1. Select the measure that appear most often in the set;
2. If two or more measures appear the same number of times, then each of these values is a
mode; and
3. If every measure appears the same number of times, then the set of data has no mode.

Example 1
Find the mode of the following values.
3, 4, 7, 7, 7, 8, 11, 11, 14, 18, 19

Answer
^x = 7

Example 2
Determine the mode of the following set of data.
6, 6, 6, 9, 9, 9, 9, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 12, 15, 15, 15, 15, 15, 21, 21, 35, 35
Answer
^x = 12
 Topic 3: Measures of Dispersion

Learning Objectives

Upon the completion of this topic, you are expected to:

a. define range, standard deviation, and variance;
b. calculate range, standard deviation, and variance for ungrouped data; and
c. describe the given set of data using the computed measures of dispersion.

Presentation of Content

I. Range
The range is the simplest measure of variability. It is the difference between the largest value and
the smallest value. The formula for the range is:
R=H−L
Where:
R=Range
H=Highest value
L=Lowest value

Test scores of 10, 8, 9, 7, 5, and 3, will give us a range of 7 from 10 – 3.

 
Characteristics of Range
It is easy to compute and understand. It emphasizes the extreme values. However, it is the most
unstable measure because its values easily change or fluctuates with the change in the extreme
values.

Uses of Range
The range is used to report the movement of stock process over a period of time and the weather
reports typically state the high and low temperature readings for a 24– hour period.
 
Example 1:
The following are the daily wages of 8 factory workers of two garment factories. Factory A and
factory B. Find the range of salaries in peso (Php).  
Factory A: 400, 450, 520, 380, 482, 495, 575, 450.
Factory B: 450, 400, 450, 480, 450, 350, 400, 672
Solution:
Finding the range of wages: Range = Highest wage – Lowest wage
Range A=575−380=195
Range B=672−350=322

Comparing the two wages, you will note that wages of workers of factory B have a higher range
than wages of workers of factory A. These ranges tell us that the wages of workers of factory B
are more scattered than the wages of workers of factory A.
The range tells us that it is not a stable measure of variability because its value can fluctuate
greatly even with a change in just a single value, either the highest or lowest.

Example 2:
Find the range in the sets A, B, and C.
Set A : 81, 83, 87, 90, 94
Set B : 84, 86, 87, 88, 90
Set C : 85, 86, 87, 88, 89

Solution:
Set A : Range=HV −LV =94−81=13

Set B : Range=HV −LV =90−84=6

Set C : Range=HV −LV =89−85=4

Based on the computed range for sets A, B, C, it can be concluded that A has greater variability
as compared top B and C.
 
III. Variance
The variance of a set of data is denoted by the symbol s2. It determines how spread out the data
is. To find the variance (s2), we use the formula:

2
s=
∑ (x−x)2
n−1

Where:
n=thetotal number of data
x=is the raw score
x=the mean of the data
Variance Computation for Ungrouped Data
Calculate the variance follow these steps:
1. Work out the mean (the simple average of the numbers)
2. For each number, subtract the mean and square the result (the squared difference).
3. Work out the average of those squared differences.

Example:
You and your friends have just measured the heights of your dogs (in millimeters). The heights
(at the shoulders) are: 600mm, 470mm, 170mm, 430mm, and 300mm. Find out the value of the
variance.
 

Solution:
Step 1. Work out the mean (the simple average of the numbers)

600+470+170+ 430+300 1,970

Mean = = = 394
5 5

Step 2. For each number, subtract the mean and square the result (the squared difference)
and work out the average of those squared differences.
2 2 2
s =206 + 76 + ¿ ¿

2 42,436+ 5,776+1,296+8,836
s=
4
2 108,520
s=
4
2
s =27,130
So the value of the variance is 27,130.
III. Standard Deviation
While the range is about how much your data covers, standard deviation has to do more with
how much difference there is between the scores. It is defined as a number representing how far
from the mean each score is.
Simply, the standard deviation is the square root of the variance.

Characteristics of Standard Deviation

Standard deviation is a number used to tell how measurements for a group are spread out from
the mean or expected value.
A low standard deviation means that most of the numbers are very close to the average. A
high standard deviation means that the numbers are spread out.

Standard Deviation Computation for Ungrouped Data

To find the standard deviation, follow the steps below.
1. Calculate the mean.
2. Calculate the deviations, which are the scores minus the average.
3. Square the deviations.
4. Sum up the squared deviations.
5. Divide the sum of the squared deviations by the number of scores in your data set minus
1.
6. Take the square root of the result.

Formula:

Where:
s=
√ ∑ (x −x)2
n−1

s=the standard deviation

x=the individual score
x=the mean
n=the number of scores

Example 1
Sam has 20 rose bushes, but only counted the flowers on 6 of them! The "population" is all 20
rose bushes and the "sample" is the 6 bushes that Sam counted the flowers of. Let us say Sam's
flower counts are: 9, 2, 5, 4, 12, and 7, find the value of the standard deviation.
 
Solution
Step 1. Work out the mean.
Using sampled values 9, 2, 5, 4, 12, 7
The mean is(9+ 2+5+ 4 +12+ 7)/6=39 /6=6.5
So, x=6.5

Step 2. Then for each number, subtract the mean and square the result.
( 9−6.5 )2=(2.5)2∨6.25
( 2−6.5 )2=(−4.5)2∨20.25
( 5−6.5 )2=(−1.5) 2∨2.25
( 4−6.5 )2=(−2.5) 2∨6.25
( 12−6.5 ) 22=(5.5)2∨30.25
( 7−6.5 )2=(0.5)2∨0.25
 Step 3. Then work out the mean of those squared differences.
∑ ¿6.25+ 20.25+ 2.25+6.25+30.25+0.25=65.5
65.5 65.5
= ∨13.1
6−1 5
This value is called the sample variance.

Step 5. Take the square root of that.

Standard Deviation= √13.1=3.62